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Table _ Private and Public Sector Industrial Investments in Pakistan (Rupees million) Private Sector

Public Sector

At current ..at constant, at current at constant Prices 1959-60, prices. prices 1959-60, prices 1959-60 1969-70 1970-71 . 1971-72 1972-73 1973-74 1974-75

1,020.0 1,225.5 1,224.0 1,016.0 ... 708.0 645.3 982.0

1,020.0 839.38 806.32 634.6 391.37 283.02 373.66

200.0 187.7 68.2 78.5 249.5 624.0 1,658.0

200.0 128.56 44.92 49.03 137.92 273.68 630.89

Source: Government of Pakistan, Pakistan Economic Survey 1975-76. Investment at (1959-60) constant prices has been calculated on the basis of the 'Investment Deflator Price Index' as given in the survey. Private sector figures cover large and medium scale industries. In Table 3.2 we show the relative proportions of private and public sector investments for later years at current pr!ces-we do not have indices to convert them into constant pnces. Table 3.2 Industrial Investment at current prices Private Sector (Rs. Million) % of total 1969-70 1974-75 1975-76 1976-77 1977-78 1978-79

1,208.2 990.4 1,309.0 1,526.3 1,539.1 1,637.8

.

87.1 48:2 29.2 25.3 20.0 19.8

Public Sector (Rs. Million) % of total 179.2 1.064.6 3,181.6 4,514.0 6,143.0 6,646.6

12.9 51.8 70.8 74.4 80.0" 80.2

Source: Government of Pakistan - Pakistan Basice Facts 1979-80

28

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Reference 1. E. I. J. Rosenthal, Political Thoughts in Medieval Islam, O.U.P., 1962, pp. 68-9. l-A.Introduction to History of India told by its own Historians, 8 Vol., London, 1867 etc. 2. See Perry Anderson, Lineages of the Absolulist State, London, 1984; M. N. Pearson, Merchants and Rulers in Gujarat; C.H. Bayley, Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire; Hun Islamoghlu (ed.) The Ottoman Empire and the World Economy, ·O.U.P. & M.S.H. 1987; Edward W. Said, Orientalism, New York, 1978; Burton Stein, Peasant state and society in Medieval South India, O.D.P., Delhi 1980; F. Perlin, 'State

175

formation reconsidered, "MAS XIX, 2, 1985; Andre Wink, Land and Soverignty in India: Agrarian Society and Politics under the eighteenth century Maratha Swarajya, Cambridge, 1986; David Washbrok: Recent Trends in the Historiography of Mughal India, (paper read at Conference on Political Economics of Ottoman, Safvid & Mughal Empires", Harvard. 3. Ziauddin Barani: Fatwa-I-lahandari, Eng tr. by Dr. Afsar Begam as Political Theory of the Delhi Sultanat; Kitab Mahal, Allahabad, n.d (originally printed in Medieval India Quarterly, AMU, Vol. III, Nos. 1 & 2, 1957 (refs. are to the latter), p. 30. 4. Femand Braudel, Grammaire des Civilisation reprint, Paris, 1987,pp- 96-7, 100. 5. Fakhr-I-Mudabbir, Adab-ul-Harb-was-Shujaat, Ethe. - 2767, f. 49a. 6. Ibid, ff. 49a.-b. 7. See Savitri Chandra Shobha, Social Life and Concepts in Medieval Hindi Bhakti Poetry, Delhi, 1983, pp. 86100. 8. Barani, Fatawa, p. 177. 9. Ibid. p. 175. 10. Tulsi, Dohavali 348, quoted by Dr. Savitri Chandra supra. 11. Barani, Fatawa, p. 32. 12. Irfan Habib, Technological Changes and Society, 13th and l4th Centuries, Presidential Address, Sec II Proes, Indian History Congress 1969. 13. Barani, Fatawa, pp. 69, 54. 14. Ibid, p. 84. 15. Adabul Harb f. 47b. 16. Ibid. 17. Barani, Tarikh-I-Firuz Shahi, Bib. Ind., p. 438. 18. Barani, T.F.S., p. 39. 19. Barani, T.F.S., p. 505-6. 20. Ibn Battutah, Rehla, H.A.R. Gibb, iii 672-74. Fe did not prosper there. According to Battutah "This is what

176

happens to wealth generated in India. Few can take money from them and everr the few who do so are overtaken by some calamity". 21. A division arose among the Mongols. While in Singh, Navaz Qurgun, son-in-law of Tarma-shirin, who had received favours for years from Muhammad Tuglaq, rebelled, and many Mongols joined him. But some of Mongol nobles remained loyal and were admitted to the special counselling groups of Firuz. (Barani, T.F.S. 553,584-85, AfifTarikh-I-Firuz-_Shahi,49-51. 22. Barani, T.F.S. 554. 23. Introduction to Fatawa, p. 6. 24. Nizamuddin Ahmad, Tabaqat-I-Akbari, Bib. Ind. Calcutta, p. 336. 25. This point has been made by S, Nurul Hasan in his unpublished Oxford thesis, "Chishti & Surhrawardi Silsilahs in N. India during the 13thand 14thCenturies". (Seen with the permission of the author). 26. See S.A.A. Rizvi, A History of Sufism in India: Vol. II, Delhi, 1983, which gives a list of such works in Hindi, Punjabi Bengali. 27. Jalaluddin Dawwani, Akhlaq-I-Jalali. 28. Ain: Bib. Ind., i. 291. 29. Ain: i. 291, ii. 237, 241. 30. Ain: i. 291, ii. 251. 31. Ain, Blochman, I p. 4. 32. Ain, iii 451. On the other hand, for absence of a sense of caste prejudice' in Akbar, as exemplified by the case of Khidmat Rai Mukandi, a chandal, see A.N. iii p. 604; I. Habib Akbar and Social Inequities', Procs I.H.C. L iii, 1993, pp. 300-10. 33. Akbar Nama, Bib. Ind. P. 274. 34. Ain, Blochman, I 264. 35. A.N., iii p. 722. 36. Zakhirat-ul-Khawanin, Karachi, I pp. 218, 222, 246. 37. Akhbarat d. 18 Muh. 49 R.Y. Aurangzeb/23 May 1704 (Reference kindly provided by Dr. I. Habib).

177

38. Haft Anjuman. Sarkar's collection, f. 139a. 39. Savitri Chandra, Social Life and Concepts, supra pp. 41-3. 40. S.A.A. Rizvi, Alakhbani. Aligarh, 1971. 41. Athar Ali, The Mughal Nobility under Aurangzeb, Asia, 1966, p. 200; S. Chandra 'Religious Policy of Aurangzeb during the Later Part of his Reign; I.HR. XIII Nos. 1-2, 1986-87; also in Mughal Religious Policies, the Rajputs and the Deccan, Vikas, New Delhi, 1995, pp. 194-215. 42. Satish Chandra, Parties and Politics as the Mughal Court, 1707-40,P.P.H, 2nd ed., pp. 74-75. 43. Kautilya's Arthasastra tr. R. Shamasastry, 8th ed. 1967, 131, 161-63. 44. Ain-Jarrett ii, p. 46. 45. Farman to Rasikh Das Karori, Eng. Tr. Shireen Moosvi, 'Aurangzeb's Farman to Rasikdas on Problems of Revenue Administration', 1665, in Medieval India I, Researches in the History of India, ed. I Habib O.C.P. 1992, pp. 197-206. 46. F. Bernier, Travels in Mughal India, p. 227. 47. I. Habib, Te Agrarian System of Mughal India (15561707), Asia, 1963,pp. 317-351. 48. S.N. Hasan, K.N. Hasan, & S.P. Gupta, 'The Pattern of Agriculure Production in the Territories of Amber, c. 1650-1750' Procs. I.H.c. 1966, pp. 249-63. 49. Bhimsen, Nuskha-I-Dilkasha if. 139a-140b; Khafi Khan Muntakab-ul-Lubab, ii 396-97, 411-12. 50. Thus, Jan Sipar Khan, and his son Rustam Dil Khan hadjagiris in Hyderabad subah for long. (J.F. Richards, Mughal Administration in Golconda, Oxford, 1975, pp. 80-81). 50a. Ibid. pp. 191-204. These are based largely on papers from the Inayat Jung Collection. . 51. S. Chandra, Role of the Local Community, the Zamindars and the State in providing inputs for the Growth and Exansion of Cultivation, I.H.R. III No.1, 1976 (reprinted in Medieval India: Society, the Jazirdari Crisis and the Village, M:W .....,mafl New Delhi,

178

1982, pp. 166-183). 52. Irfan Habib, Agrarian System, pp. 334-35. 53. I. Habib, Agrarian System, pp. 144-46. For the rights and perequisties of zamindars (deshmukhs and patels) in Mahrashtra see V.T. Gune, Judicial System of the Marathas; A.R Kulkarni, Mahrashtra in the Age of Shivaji, 1969, pp. 31-43. 54. See Andre Wink, Land and Soverignty, lococit. 55. Chetan Singh, 'Conformity and Conflicts' Tributes and he Agrarian System of Mughal India, 'IESHR, XXV (3) 1988, pp. 319, 340; Sunita Zaidi, 'The Mughal State and Tribes in seventeenth 'CenturySind, 'IESHR XXVI (3), 1989, pp. 343-62. See also A.R Khan, Chieftains in the Mughal Empire during the Reign of Akbar, Simla, 1979. 56. Ibid. 57. K.S. Singh "A Study in State Formation among Tribal Communities" in RS. Sharma and V.Jha (eds.), Indian Society, Historical Probings, Delhi, 1974. 58. J.B. Bhattacharya,' The Economic Content of the Medieval State Formation Process among the masses of North East India, 'Procs. I.H.C. ii L (1987), pp. 222-23. 59. Irfan Habib, 'Potentialities of Capitalist Development the Economy of the Mughal India', Enquiry III No. 35 reprinted in Essays in Indian History, Tulika, New Delhi, 1995,pp. 180-232. 60. Ibid. p. 227. 61. Gopal, "Indian Merchants in Central Asia, 16th and 17th __ Centuries". presidential Address, Sec._II Procs I.H.C., 1992 pp. 1-21; Stephen F. Dale, Indian Merchants, and Eurasian Trade 1600-1750, O.U.P. 1994. 62. Stephen Dale, ibid, p. 134. 63. Satish Chandra, 'Some Aspects of the growth of a Money Economy in India, during the Seventeenth Century,' IESHR Vol. III, No.4, 1966, pp. 321-31. 64. Letters Received, ed., W. Foster, Vol. II, .1613-15, p. 246. Tavernier says (at Surat) "... it is the principal trade of the nobles of India to place their money on the vessels on sneculation for r-~rmut 13z-Q.(lva,8J1ti

179

Mucha, and even for Bantaw, Achin and Philippines." (Tavernier I p. 31) 65. I. Habib, Potentialities of Capitalist Development loco cit., p. 226. 66. S. Arasaratnam, Maritime Indian in the Seventeenth Century, O.U.P., 1994. 67. To quote only two examples, Ali Mardan Khan (1645) left one crore in cash and goods (Aine-I-Salik, iii 2468) and Hafiz M. Amin K. of Ahmadabad (1683), 61) lacs rupees and 1,35,000 ashrafis (Maasir-l-Alamgiri, 226). 68. Ain Bib. Ind. 1291 (Jarrette, ii 57-58). 69. Rajjabavani (Karipan ka Anga), quoted by Mrs. Savit.i Chandra, 'The Nirguna Bhakti Tradition in Rajasthan and Rajjab' (paper to the 'Second International Conference on Rajasthan Studies, Udaipur, 199l, memeo.), printed in Medieval India and Hindu Bhakti Policy, A Socio Culture study, New Delhi, 1996, :). 150. 70. V. Pavolv in his Historical Premises for Indian Translation to Capitalism (Eng. tr. Moscow, 1979) considerably underestimates the level of commodity production and scale of merchant-capital in pre-colonial India, dubbing it as one of the "stagnant (rather, slowly evolving) societies", a "patriarchal subsistence economy" with "pockets of capitalism". For recent discussion, see Satish Chandra, The 18th Century in India: Its Economy and the Role of the Marathas, the Jats, the Sikhs and the Afghans, and Supplement, KP. Bagchi, Calcutta, rev. ed. 1991; Barun De, ProAddress, Procs. I.H.C. Darwar, 1989; idem Problems of the Study of Indian History: With special reference to Interpretation of the 18th Century, Centre for Socialist Studies, Calcutta, No. 116 (mimeo); C.A. Bayley, Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire, Orient Longman; I. Wallerstein, The Modem Wo rid System I, Academic Press, 1974; Burton Stein, Eighteenth Centurv in India: Another View, Studies in F' r'" 1 n, 1 )e "'; '( \

180

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Reference 1. The confusing story of a recent statement by a Director of the Indian Council of Historical Research (lCHR) announcing exact knowledge where Rama, the avatar, was born (not surprisingly precisely where the Babri Masjid stood-from which the property rights for building a temple exactly there is meant to follow!), combined with the assertion that the Masjid itself had no religious significance (followed by an embarrassed dissociation of the ICHR itself from these remarkable pronouncements), illustrates the confounding of myth and history. 2. Rabindranath Tagor, A Vision of India's History (Calcutta: Visva-Bharati, 1951), p.10; this essay was first published in Visva-Bharati Quarterly, 1923. 3. See "Positional Objectivity," Philosophy and Public Affairs, 1993. I have also illustrated the methodological issues involved in the context of Indian history in On Interpreting India's Past (Calcutta: Asiatic Society, 1996), also included in Sugata Bose and Ayesha Jalal, eds., Nationalism, Democracy and Development: Reappraising South Asian State and Politics (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996).

285

4. I have discussed the detnands of descriptive discipline in "Accounts, Actions and Values: Objectivity of Social," in C. Lloyed, ed., Social Theory and Political Practice (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983). 5. I have tried to argue elsewhere that the history of Indian calendars also provides some insights on the lives of tne people and particularly on the state of science and mathematics at different times, and can even illuminate the political ideals that may be indirectly reflected in devising new calendars. The last is well illustrated, :ur example, in the form of Emperor Akbar's initiation of a synthetic solar calendar in the form of Tarikh-ilahi, in 1584, and its continuing influence on the Bengali era (on these issues, see my "India through Its Calendars," The Little Magazine, 1, 1, May 2000). 6. A good example of an interesting but rather bold speculation is Rabindranath Tagore's conjecture about a story in the epics that "the mythical version of King Janamejaya's ruthless serpent sacrifice" may quite possibly stand for an actual historical event involving an "attempted extermination of the entire Naga race" by the dominant powers in ancient India (Tagore, A Vis.ion oflndia's History, p. 9). 7. Amartya Sen, "Reach of Reason: East and West", The New York Review of Books, July 20,2000. 8. See Michael Sandel, Liberalism and the Limits of Justice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2nd edition, 1998), for a fine presentation of the "discovery" view of identity, and in particular of the thesis (arr.ong others) that "community describes not just what they have as fellow citizens but also what they are, not a relationship they choose (as in a voluntary association) but an attachment they discover, not merely an attribute but a constituent of their identity" (pp. 150-2). 9. I have discussed the role of choice in the selection of identities and in the determination of priorities in my

286

Romanes Lecture at Oxford, Reason before Identity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), and in my Annual British Academy Lecture (to be published by the British Academy): for a shorter version, see "Other People," The New Republic, September 25,2000. 10. See Rabindranath Tagore, The Religion of Man (London: Unwin, 1931, 2nd edition, 1961),p. 105. 11. See particularly Bimal Matilal, Perceptions (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986). 12. Even though I shall not discuss in this paper the role and reach of Arjuna's disagreements with Krishna's high deontology in the Mahabharata, and in particular in the Bhagavad-Geeta, that too is philosophically an important departure; on this see my "Consequentional Evaluation and Practical Reason," The Journal of Philosophy, 97 (September 2000). 13. Tagore, A Vision of India's History, p. 22. 14. The translation is taken from Makhanlal Sen, Valmiki Ramayana (Calcutta: Rupa, 1989),pp. 174-5. 15. On this general subject, see my "Positional Objectivity" (1993), and also "Accounts, Actions and Values: Objectivity of Social Science" (1983). 16. James Mill, The History of British India (London, 1817; republished, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975),pp. 225-6.

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