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REFERENCES 1. The Letters of Private Wheeler 1809-1828 ed. B. II. Liddell Hart (London 1951), pp. 168-72. 2, Bertolt Brecht, Poems, ed. John Willett and Ralph Manaheim (London, 1976), pp. 252-3. 3. E. P. Thompson, 'History from Below' The Times Literary Supplement, 7 April 1966, pp. 279-80. For a discussion of the background to Thompson's thought see Harvey J. Kaye, The British Marxist Historians: an Introductory Analysis (Cambridge, 1984). 4. History from Below: Studies in Popular Protest and Popular Ideology, ed. Frederick Krantz (Oxford, 1988). This was the Enghlish edition of a collection first published in Montreal in 1985.. 5. R. C. Richardson, The Debate on the English Revolution Revisited (Loadon, 1988), chapter 10. The Twentieth Century: "History from Below" . 6. Theompson,' History from Below' p. 279. 7. E. P. Thompson, The Making of the Enghlsih Working Class (London, 1965), pp. 12-13. 8. See, for example, the discussions in: Peter Burke, Popular Culture in Early Modem Europe (London, 1978). pp. 23-64; and Barry Reay, Intorduction: Popular Culture in Early Modem England, in Popular Cutluter in Seventeenth Centary England, ed. B. Reay (London, 1985). 9. A way round this problem is to examine the experience of different sections of the lower orders, sometimes trough the medium of the isolated case study. For two works using this approach,both of them constituting important contributions to hsitory from below, see: Natalie Zemon Davis, Society and Culutre in Early Modem Famce (London, 1975) and David Sabean, Pwoer in the Blood: Popular Culture and Village Discourse in Early Modem Germany (Cambridge, 1984). 10. Alex Callinicos, The Revolutionary Ideas of Karl Marx (London, 1983), p. 89. Conversely, it should be noted that there is no reason why the Marxist approach should not

25 produce very effective 'history from above: see the comments of Perry Anderson, Lineages of the Absolutist State (London, 1979), p. 11. 11. E. J. Hobsbawm, History from Below -Some Reflections in History from Below, ed. Krantz. p. 15. 12. Richard Hoggart, The Uses of Literacy: Aspects of Working-Class Life with Special Reference to Publications and Entertainments (Harmondsworth, 1958), p. 15 13. Thompson, 'History from Below' p. 280: 14. Hobsbawm, 'Some Reflections', p. 15. 15. Ibid., p. 16. Despite the sceptieism 'Which might be felt about the uniqueness of the contribution of historians of the French Revolution, it remains clear that works based on that period have made a substantial contribution to the canon of history from below, ranging from such pioneering studies as Georges Lefebvre. Les Paysans du Nord (Paris, 1924) and The Great Fear of 1789 (Paris, 1932; English trans., New York, 1973), to the more recent work of Richard Cobb. 16. Published in English as Montaillou: Cathars and Catholics in a French Village 1294-1324 (London, 1978). 17. See, for example: L. E. Boyle, "Montaillou Revisited: Mentalite and Methodology' , in Pathways to Medieval Peasartts, ed. J. A. Raftis (Toronto, 1981) and R. Rosaldo, 'From theDoor of his Tent: Âˇthe. Fieldworker . and the Inquisitor', in Writing -Culture: the Poetics and Politics of Ethnography, ed. J. Clifford and G. Marcus (Berkeley, 1986). 18. Le Roy Ladurie, Montaillou, p. vi. 19. E. P. Thompson, The Poverty of Theory and Other Essays (London, 1978), pp. 219~20. For a broader discussion of the types of record upon which historians of England might base history from below, see Alan Macfarlane, Sarah Harrison and Charles,-~,. .: Jardine, Reconstructing Historical Communities (Cambridge, 977). 20. Some impressions of the type of subject areas covered by oral historians can be gained from reading the regular reports of work in progress contained in Oral History: the Journal of the Oral History Society, which has appeared since 1972.

26 21. Published in English, translated by Anne and John Tedeschi, as The Cheese and the Wornts: the Cosmos of a Sixteenth-Century Miller (London, 1980). Another work by Ginzburg, The Night Battles: Witcheraft and Agrarian Cults in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (London., 1983: Italian edition, 1966), also demonstrates how inquisitorial records can be used to throw light on popular beliefs. 22. Ginzburg, The Cheese and the Worms. p. xvii. 23. Barbara A. Hanawalt, The Ties that Bound: ,peasant Families in Medieval England (New York and Oxford, 1986). For a briefer statement of Hanawalt's objectives see her article 'Seeking the Flesh and Blood of Manorial Families', Journal of Medieval History 14 (1988), pp. 33-45. 24. The best intorduction to the work of this school is Traian Stoianavitch, French Historical Method: the Annales Paradigm (Ithaca and London, 1976). 25. For general discussions of the relationship between the two disciplines see: Peter Burke, Sociology and History (London, 1980) and Philip Abrams, Hisotircal Sociology' (Shepton Mallet, 1982). 26. Two classic statements of the importance of the possible links between history and anthropology are E. E. EvansPritchard, Anthropology and History (Manchester, 1961) and Keith Thomas, 'History and Anthropology', Past and Present 24 (1963), pp. 3-24. For a more secptical view see E. P. Thompson, 'Anthropology and the Discipline of Historical Context', Midland History 3 no. I (Spring 1972), pp. 41-56. ' / 27. Alan Macfarlane, Witcheraft in Tudor and Stuart England: a Regional and Comparative Study (London, 1970). Macfarlane's work should be read in conjunction with Keith Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic: Studies in Popular Beliefs in Sixteenth and Seventeenth-Centary England (London, 1971), a wider- ranging work which aslo derives considerable insights from anthropolgy. 28. H. R. Trevor-Roper, The European Witch-Craze of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (Harmondswonh, 1967). p.3. 29. Thompson. 'History from Below', p. 280.

27 30.. 'Editorial', History Workshop 1 (1971). p. 3. 31. Tony Judt. 'Aclown in Regal Purple: Social History and the Historian', History Workshop 7 (1979). p. 87. 32. Thompson, 'History from Below', p. 279. 33. David Cannadine, 'British History : Past, Present - and Future', Past and Present 116 (1987), p. 177. Cannadine's piece prompted' Comments' by P. R. Coss, William Lamont, and Neil Evans, Past and Present 119 (1988), pp. 171-203. Lamont's views, notably those expressed on pages 186-93, Imply a history from below approach to a new national history, while Evans, p. 197. states explicitly that British history needs to be fashioned hom below and to work up to an understanding of the state. 34.. Hobsbawm, some Pellections' p. 13. 35. Roderick Floud, 'Quantitative History and People's ( History', History Workshop 17 (1984). p. 116. .t. t 36. See Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures (Ne , York, 1973), chapter 1, 'Thick Description: Toward / Interpretative Theory of Culture' . / 37. Eugene D. Genovese. Roll. Jordan. Roll: the W~dd the Staves ade (London, 1975), p. xv. â&#x20AC;˘ 1_ 38. E. H. Carr, What is History? (Harmondsworth,l~l), pp. 11, 12. i / {

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Bibliography Ahmad, D. N. (1994). Majmooa: Dipty Nazeer Ahmad (Collected Works). Lahore: Sang-e-Meel. Allahabadi, A. Kuliyaat-e-Akbar Allahabadi (Complete Works of Akbar Allahabadi), Lahore: Maktaba-e-Shair-oAdab. Chatterjee, P. (1986). Nationalist Thought and the Colonial World: A Derivative Discourse. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. Grewal, I. (1996). Home and Harem: Nation, Gender, Empire_ and the Cultures of Travel. Berkeley: Duke University Press. Jaywardena, K. (1994). Feminism and Nationalism in the Thiri World. Lahore: ASR Publications. Lateef, S. (1990). Muslim Women in India: Political and Private Realities, 1890s-1980s. New Delhi: Kali for Women. Mitchell, T. (1988). Colonising Egypt. Berkeley: University (If California Press. . Panipati, S. M. I. (1973). Khutbaat-e-Sir Syed. Lahore: Majlise-Taraqqi-e-Adab. Parker, A., Russo, M., Sommer, D. & Yaeger, P. (1992). Nationalisms and Sexualities. New York: Routledge. Sangari, K. and Vaid, S. (1989). Recasting Women: Essays in Colonial History. New Delhi: Kali for Women.

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REFERENCES Alavi, Harnza, 1975, "India and the Colonial Mode of Production", in Socialist Register 1975, R. Miliband and J. Saville (eds), also in Economic and Political Weekly Special Number, August 1975. Alavi, Harnza, '1979, "The Structure of Colonial Social Formations" . Baines, Edward, 1966, History of the Cotton Manufacture in Great Britain (1835). Banajee, Jairus, 1975, "India and the Colonial Mode of Production", Economic and Political Weekly, December, 6. 1975. Birdwood, C.M., 1880, The Industrial Arts of India. Chandra, Bipan, 1965, "Indian Nationalists and the Drain 1880-1905" in Indian Economic and Social History Review 11 (2), April 1965. Chandra, Bipan, 1966, The Rise and Growth of Economic Nationalism in India. Chandra, Bipan, 1968 "Reinterpretation of the Nineteenth Century Indian Economic History", Indian Economic and Social History Review v (1) March 1968. Cleaver, Harry, 1976, "Internationalisation of Capital and Mode of Production in Agriculture", Economic and Political Weekly. Review of Agriculture March, 1976. Crouzet, F.,1972, Capital Formation in the Industiral Revolution. Deane, Phyllis, 1%5, The First Industrial Revolution. Deane, P. and G0~. 1967, British Economic Growth-- 16881959. ' ~f"'''''1,... â&#x20AC;˘ Dobb. Maurice." .$~lUdies in the Development of Capitalism (1946). . Dutt, Romesh, C., 1956. The Economic History of India-Under Early British Rule (1901). Dutt, Romesh, C., 1950. The Economic History of India -- in the Victorian Age (1903). 4

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Dutt, R. Palme, 1970, India Today (Revised and Enlarged Edition) -- 1st ed., 1940. Embree, Ainslie, 1969, "Landholding in India and British Institutions in R.E. Frykenberg (ed.) Land Control and Social Structure in Indian History. Frank, A. Gunder, 1978, World Accumulation: 1492-1789. Gadgil, D.R., 1973, The Industrial Evloution of India in Recent Times -- 1860-1939. Guha, Ranajit, 1963, A Rule of Property for Bengal. Habib,Irfan, 1963. The Agrarian System of Mughal India. Habib, Irfan, 1969. "Potentialities of Capitalist Development in Mughal India", Journal of Economic History XXIX, 1969. Hasan, S. Nurul, 1964, "The Position of the Zamindars in the Mughal Empure" in Indian Economic and Social History Review 1 (4) reprinted in R.E. Frykenberg (ed.) Land Control and Social Sturcture in Indian History. Hilton, Rodney, 1976. The Transition from Feudalism to Capitalism. Hindess, Barry and Hirst, Paul, 1975, Pre-Capitalist Modes of Production. " Knowles, L.C.A., Economic Development of the Overseas Empire. Krishna, Bal, 1924, Commercial Relations Between India and England. Marshall. P.J., 1976, East Indian Fortunes. Marx, Karl. 1960. On Colonialism. Marx, Karl. 1976, Capital Vol 1. Marx, Karl. 1955. On Britain. Mukerjee, R., 1958, The Risa â&#x20AC;˘ and Fall of the East India Company.

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