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REFERENCES 1.

See, for example, M. Morner and T. Sevnsson (eds), The History of the Third World in Nordic (Goteborg, 1986). 2. See C, Fasseur, 'Leiden and Empire: University and Colonial Office, 1825-1925 in W. Otterspeer (ed.), Leiden Oriental Connections, 1850-1940 (Leiden, 1989),pp. 187-203. 3. J. Romein, Aera Van Europa (Leiden, 1954) and De eeuw van Azie (Leiden, 1956). 4. L. Blusse, 'Japanese Historiography and European Sources' in P. C. Emmer and H. L. Wesseling (eds), Reappraisals in Overseas History (Lei!;ien,1979), pp. 193-222. 5. See T. O. Ranger, 'Towards a Usable African Past' in C. Fyfe (ed.), African Studies Since 1945: a Tribute to Basil Davidson (London, 1976), pp. 17-29. 6. See A. G. Hopkins, '~~ropean Expansion into West Africa: a Histo:i!iographical Survey of English Language Pubii~ations since 1945' in Emmer and Wesseling, Reappraials, p. 56. 7. F. Braudel, La Mediterranee et le monde' mediterraneen a I epoque de Philippe II (2 vols, Paris, 1976) 3rd edn, vol. I, p. 17. 8. For both practical and theoretical reasons we will leave aside the history of the Americas and the Caribbean. As far as Asia is concerned we will restrict ourselves to the two former European colonies where the emancipation of a national historiography has been the most impressive, that is, India and Indonesia. 9. J. Nehru, The Discovery of India (London, 1956), p. 28. 10. See S. Ray, 'India: After Independence 'Journal of Conteporary History 2 (1967)pp. 125-42. .

11. H. A. J. Klooster, Indonesters schrijven hun geschiedenis. De ontwikkeling van de Indonesiche geschiebeoefenning in theorie en praktijk, 1900-1980 (Leiden, 1985). 12. J. Bastin, The Study of Modern Southeast Asian History (Kuala Lumpur, 1959). See also his The Western Element in Modern Southeast Asian History (Kuala Lumpur. 1963). 13. J. C. Van Leur, Eenige beschouwingen betreffende den ouden Aziatischen handel (Middelburg, 1934). A translation of this as well as of his other writings can be found in J. C. Van Leur, Indonesian Trade and Society: Essays in Asian Social and Economic History (The HaguelBandung, 1955). 14. Van Leur, Trade and Society, p. 162. "15. Ibid., pp. 268-89. 16. K. M. Panikkar, A Survey of Indian History (London, 1947): W. F. Wertheim, 'Asian History and the Western Historian. Rejoinder to Professor Bastin' Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Landen Volkenkunde 119 (1963), pp. 149-60. 17. G. W. F. Hegel, The Philosophy of History (New York, 1944), p. 99. 18. E. Sik, the History of Black Africa (2 vols, Budapest, 1966), vol. I, p. 17. 19. H. Trevor-Roper, The Rise of-Christian Europe (London, 1965), p. 9. ~. 20. H. Brunschwig, 'Un faux probleme: I'ethnohistoire' Annales E. S. C. 20 (1965), pp. 291-300. 21. J. Vansina, De la tradition orale, Essai de methode historique (Tervueren, 1961). English translation: Oral Tradition. A Study in Historical Methodology (London, 1965). 22. In some of his later work Vansina himself seems to be more sceptical than before. See P. Salmon,

Intrbductioii. a I'histoire de I'Afrique (Brussels, 1986), 126ff. , 23. See H. Brunschwig 'Une histoire de I'Afrique' noire est-elle possible?" in Melanges en I'honneur de Fernand Brandel (2 vols, Toulouse, 1973),vol. I, pp. 75-87. 24. See T. Ranger, 'Usable Past', p. 17. 25. The Blackwell Dictionary of Historians (Oxford, "1988),p. 308 s. v. Oliver, R. 26. C. Coquery-Vidro\ritch, Le Congo au temps des grandes compagnies concessionnaries (Paris, 1972); Y. Person, Samori: une Revolution dyula (3 vols, Dakar, 1968, 1970, 1976). See on this also: H. Brunschwig. 'French Historiography Since 1945 Concerning Black Africa' in Emmer and Wesseling, Reappraisals, pp. 84-97. 27. A useful report on this subject is T. Linblad, 'Computer APplica~.ns in Expansion History: A Survey', Second ~ulletin of the ESF-Network on the History' 'of'. European Expansion. Supplement to Itinerario 12 (1988),pp. 2-61. 28. C. R. Boxer, The portuguese Seaborne Empire, 1600-1800 (London, 1965); J. H. Parry, The Spanish Seaborne Empire (New York, 1966). 29. K. Glamann, Dutch-Asiatic Trade 1620-1740 2d edn (The Hague, 1980); N. Steensgaard, The Asian Trade Revolution of the 17th Century. The East India Companies and the Decline of the Caravan Trade (Chicago/London, 1974); K. N. Chaudhuri, The Trading World of Asia and the English East India Company, 1660-1760 (Cambridge, 1978); P. Curtin, The Atlantic Slave trade: a Census (Madison, Wis., 1969); P. and H. Chaunu, Seville et l' Atlantique, 15041650 (12 vols, Paris, 1956-60); B. Bailyn, Voyagers to the West; Emigration from Britain to America on the Eve of the Revolution (London, 1987). A recent synthesis is G. V ..

30. 31.

32. 33. 34.

35. 36. 37. ~

38. 39. 40.

41.

Seammell, The First Imperial Age: European Overseas ExpaIlsion, c. 1400-1715 (London, 1989). F. Braudel, Civilisation materelle, economic et capitalisme, XVe-XVIDe stecle (Paris, 1979). I. Wallerstein, The Modern World System: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World-Economy, in the Sixteenth Century (New York, 1974);See J. de Vries, The Economy of Europe in an Age of Crisis, 1600-1750 (Cambridge, 1976), pp. 192-3. . See R. Floud and D. MeCloskey (eds), The Economic History of Britain since 1700 (2 vols, Cambridge, 1981), vol. I, pp, 87-92. See P.Âˇ O'Brien, 'European Economic Development: The Contribution of the Periphery', Economic History Review, 35 (1982). p.9. J. A. Hobson, Imperialism: a Study (London, 1902). Ibid,.,p. 85. It Robinson, J. 'Gallagher (with A. Denny), Africa and the Victorians: the Official Mind of Imperialism (London, 1961). H. Brunschwig, Mythes et realites de I'imperialisme colonial francatis, 1871-1914 (Paris, 1960). It. Robinson and J. Gallagher, 'The Imperialism of Free Trade', Economic History Review 6 (1953), pp. 1-15. . L. A. Davis and R. A. Huttenback, Mammon and the Pursuit of Empire: the Political Economy of British Imperialism, 1860-1912 (Cambridge, 1986). See also the articles by P. J. Cain and A. G. Hopkins on this subject in Economic History

Review 33 (1980), pp. 463 90:30 (1986). pp. 501525 and 40 (1987)pp. 1-26. 42. See J. Bouvier and R. Girault (eds), L Imperialisme francais davant 1914 (ParisIThe Hague, 1976). 43. J. Masrseille, Empire colonial et capitalisme francais: histoire'd'un divorce (Paris, 1984). 44. Robinson and Gallagher, 'Imperialism of Free Trade' (see note 39). 45. R. Robinson, 'Non-European Foundations of European Imperialism: Sketch for a Theory of Collaboration in R. Owen and B. Sutelife (eds), Studies in the Theory of Imperialism (London, 1972), pp. 117-40. 46. See W. J. Mommsen and J. Osterhammel (eds), Imperialism and After: Continuities and Discontinuities (London, 1986). 47. See H. L. Wesseling, 'Towards a History of Decolonization', ltinerario 11 (1987), pp. 94-106. 48. A. G. Frank, 'The Development of Underdevelopment' in R. I. Rhodes (ed), Imperialism and Underdevelopment: a Reader (New York and London, 1960), pp. 5-16. See on this L. Blusse. II. I. Wesseling and G. D. Winius (eds), History and Underdevelopment (Leiden and Paris, 19S0). 49. W. Rodney, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa (London,1972). . 50. There is a vast literature on this subject. For a brief introduction see A. G. Hopkins, 'ClioAntics: A Horoscope for African Economic History' in Fyfe, African Studies, pp. 31-48. 51. P. M. Kennedy, 'Why Did the British Empire Last So Long?' in P. M. Kennedy, Strategy and Diplomacy, 1870-1945.:= Eight studies (London, , 1983),pp. 197-218:- -_ _ 52. R. Robinson.>::""The Excentric Idea of Imperialism, With or Without Empire', In I

Mommsen and Osterhammel, Imperialism and After, pp. 267-89. 53. P. C. Emmer and H. L. Wesseling, 'What is Overseas History?' in Emmer and Wesseling, Reappraisals, p. 3. 54. See t. Skocpol and M. Somer, 'The Uses of Comparative History in Marcro social Inquiry', Comparative Studies in Society and History, 22 (1980), pp. 174-97. ' 55. Next to Wallerstein Eric R. Wolfs Europe and the People Without History (Berkeley, .1982) and P. "Curtin, Cross Cultural Trade in World History (Cambridge, 1985) as well as W. Mcneill's The Rise of the West: a History of the Human Community (Chicago, 1963) are relevant for this. 56. J. Huizinga, 'A Definition of the Concept of History' in R. Klibansky and H. J. Paton (eds), Philosophy and History (Oxford, 1936), p. 8.

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REFERENCE 1. 2.

3. 4. 5.

6. 7. 8.

9. 10. 11.

12. 13. 14. 15.

Frantz Fanon, The Damned (Paris, 1963), p. 48. V. I. Lenin, Selected Works, vol. II (Moscow, 1947), ~ 457. ibid., p. 647. Government of India, Planning Commission, Report of the Indian Delegation to China on Agrarian Co-operatives (New Delhi, 1957). G. Adhikari, "The Probblem of the NonCapitalist Path of Development of India and the . State of Natinal Democracy," World Marxist Review, vol. VII, no. 11, November 1964, George Lichtheim, Marxism, a Historial and Critical Study (London, 1961), p.33 Lenin, op.cit., pp. 456-7. For a fuller picture, readers should consult the following work: Lenin, The Development of Capitalism in Russia (Moscow, 1956); G. T. Robinson, Rural Russia Under the Old Regime (New York, 1949); Sir John Maynard, The Russian Peasant (New York, 1962). Cf. J. Stalin, Problems of Leninism (Moscow, 1953), pp. 213-36. Marx and Engels, Preface to the Russian Edition of the Communist Manifesto, Selected Works (London, 1950), vol. I, p. 24. Lenin, Collected Works (Moscow, 1961), vol. IV, p.24. ibid., vol. VI, p. 444. Robinson, op cit., pp. 206-7. Lenin, CollectedWorks, vol. IV, p. 427. Cf. "The Agrarian Programme of Russian Social Democracy" and "Reply to Criticism of Our Draft Programme," ibid. vol. VI, pp. 109-50 and 438-53

211

16. ibid., vol. vm, p. 231. 17. Robinson, op cit., p. 161. 18. Lenin, Selected Works, vol. II (Moscow, 1947), p.37. 19. Sir John Maynard, Russian -in Flux (New York, 1962),p. 332. 20. Lenin, Selected Works, vol. II, pp. 414-17. 21. ibid., p. 647. 22. Jane Degras, The Communist International_ Documents (London, 1960),vol. II, p. 336. 23. Edgar Snow, Red Star Over China (London, 1963),p. 157.. 24. Ho Kan Chih, A History of the Modern Chinse Revolution (Peking, 1959),p. 100. 25. The article included in the Selected Works of Mao Tee-tung (London, 1955) under the title "Analysis of Classes in Chinese Society," and dated March 1926, is a revised and abridged version of two articles which appeared in Chung-kuo Nung-min in January and February 1926. Much of value in the original article has been lost in the revised version. Our references are to the translation of the original article as given by Stuart. Schram in The Political Thought of Mao tee-tung (New York, 1963), pp.172-7. 26. I. Deutscher, "Maoism--Its Origins, Background and Outlook" in R. Miliband and J. Saville (eds.) Socialist Register 1964 (London, 1964), p.19. 27. Schram, op cit., pp. 28 and 33. 28. Ho Kan Chih, op cit., p. 139. 29. The percentage figures of the various classes of the Chinese peasantry are derived from the data given by Mao Tse-tung in the original article referred to in note 25. 30. Mao Tse-tung Selected Works (London, 1955), p.23.

218

31. Schram, op cit., p. 173. 32. ibid., p. 88. 33. Martin C. Yang, A chinese Village (London, 1947), p. 143. . 34. See Chao Kuo-chun, Agrarian Policy of the Chinese Communist Party (London, 1960). 35. The Agrarian Reform Law of the People's Republic of China (Peking, 1950). 36. Eighth National Cangress of the CCP, vol. III (Peking, 1956), pp. 182-3. 37. David and Isabel Crook, Revolution in a Chinese Village (London, 1959), and C. K. Yang, A

chinese Village in Early Communist Transition (Cambridge, Mass., 1959). 38. C. K. Yang, op cit., pp. 143-5. 39. Jawaharlal Nehru, The Discovery of India (London, 1956), p. 365. 40. N. G. Ranga, Revolutionary Peasants (New Delhi, 1949), p. 89. 41. Acharya Narendra Deva, Socialism and the National Revolution (Bombay, 1946). pp. 46-7. 42. Asoka Mehta, Studies in Asian Socialism (Bombay, 1959), pp. 213-15. 43. Bhowani Sen, "The Tebhaga Movement in Bengal," Communist, vol. I, no. 3,Âˇ September 1947, p. 121. 44. Cf. ibid., pp. 124 f., also All India Kisan Sabha, Draft Report for J944-45 (Bombay, 1945), pp.913. 45. Bhowani Sen, op cit., p. 130. . 46. G. Adhikari, "The Problem. of .fhe NonCapitalist Path of Development of India and the State of National Democracy," World Marxist Review, vol. VII, no. 11, November 1964. 46a. The Communist Party of India has since split into two rival C.ommunist Parties. 47. More on the Philosophy of Pandit Nehru, People's Daily (27 October 1962).

219

48. Sulekh Gupta, "New Trends of GttfWth in Indian Agriculture," Seminar, no. 38 (New Delhi, October 1962). 49. Bhowani Sen, Evolution of Agrarian Relations in India (New Delhi, 1962). 50. G. Kotovsky, Agrarian Reforms in India (New Delhi, 1964); Daniel Thorner, The Agrarian Prospect in India (Delhi, 1956), and Land and Labour in India (Lodnon, 1962). 51. Government of India, Planning Commission, The Third Plan, Mid Term Appraisal (Delhi, 1963). 52. Kotovsky, op cit., p. 80. )3. ibid., p. 82. 54. Adhikari, op cit., p. 39. >5. For reasons of space we are unable to enlarge on this question which deserves more attention than it has received so far on the Left. The following works may provide a useful introduction to this subject: Ralph Nicholas, "Village Factions and Political Parties in Rural West Bengal, " Journal of Commonwealth Political Studies, vol. II, no. 1, November 1963; Oscar Lewis, Village Life in Northern India (Urbana, 1958), chapter IV; T. O. Beidelman, A

Comparative Analysis of the Jajmani System (New York, 1959); Frederik Barth, Political Leadership Among Swat Pathans (London, 1959).

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