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REFERENCE 1 . This essay owes a great deal to discussions with Raphael Samuel over many years; to Gwyn Prins and several generations of students at Emmanuel £ollege Cambrideg; and more recently to Nilo Odalia and the lively audience at Jl1.y.lectures at the Universidade Estadual deo,~~Paulo '1it Araraquarnin 1989. .~ !. ". Ii. . " .. ~. 2 . For a famous (and debatabte) e~mple., See R.W. Fogel and B. Engerman, 'Jiirlj,e on the Cross (Boston. 1974). There is,i'ia judiciol& assessment of the position of eC9nbmichistory today in - D. C. Coleman. History. and the Economic Past (Oxford, 1987). . .;

i r


33

J. Vincent, The Formation of the British Liberal Party (London, 1966). 4'. Other varieties are surveyed in What is , History Today? ed. J. Gardiner (London, 1988). 5. J. Le Goff, (ed), La nouvelle histoire (Paris, 1978): J. Le Goff and P. Nora (eds), Faire de yL'histoire (3 vols, Paris, 1974). Some of the 3.

essays in this collection are available in English: J. Le Goff and P. Nora, (eds). Constructing the Past (Cambridge, 1985). 6. T. S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (New York, 1961). 7. J. B. S. Haldane, Everything has a History (London, 1951). 8. P. Aries, Centuries of Childhood tr. R. Baklick (London, 1962); P. Aries, The Hour of Our Death tr. 11. Weaver (London, 1981); M. Foucault. Madness and Civilisation, tr. R. Howard (London, 1967); E. Le Roy Ladurie, Times of Feast, Times of Famine tr. B. Bray (New York), 1971); A. Corbin, The Foul and the Fragrant. translation (Leamington, 1986); G. Vigarello, Concepts of Cleanliness, translation (Cambridge, 1988); J. C. Schmitt (ed.), Gestures, special issue, History and Anthropology 1(1984); R. Bauman, Let Your Words be Few (Cambridge, 1984). 9. F. Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, 'tr. S. Reynolds, 2nd edp(2 vols, London 1972-3). 10. The examiner's name was: Lewis Namier, R. Cobb, ,[he, Police and the Peqple, '(Oxford, 1970), p.81. " "', 11. E. Hoornaert et al., Historui da Igreja no Brasil: ensaio de interpretacao a Partir do povo, Petropolis, 1977. 12. J. G. A. Pocock, 'The Concept of a Language', in The Language of Political Theory. (ed.) A.


34

13. 14. 15. 16.

Pagden (Cambridge, 1987). Cf. D. Kelley: 'Horizons of Intellectual History'. Journal of the History of Ideas 18 (1987), pp. 143-69. and 'What is Happening to the History of Ideas? Journal of the History of Ideas 51 (1990). pp. 3-25. R. G. Collingwood. The Idea of History. (Oxford, 1946). pp. 213ft. Braudel (1949). Ouoted in Varieties of History. ed. F. Stern (New York, 1956). p. 249. I take the term from the famous Russian critic Mikhail Bakhtin, in his Dialogic Imagination, tr. C. Emerson and M. Holquist (Austin, 1981). pp. xix, 49, 55, 263, 273 Cf. M. de Certeau,

Heterologies: Discourse on the Other, tr. B. Massumi (Minneapolis, 1986). bet.: ;\ 1most any issue of the History Workshop Journ,il, ' 18. Cf. P Burke, The French Historieal Reuolut ' (pambridge, 1990). p. 113. 19. J. H. Ru: .nson, The New History (New York, 1912); ef.. J/ R. Pole, 'The New History and the Sense of SgCialPurpose in American Historieal Writing' (1973, reprinted in his Paths to the American Past (New York, 1979, pp. 271-98). 20. L. Orr. 'The Revenge of Literature', New Literary lIistory 18~198~, pp.' 1-22. 21. R. Fruin, 'De - nieuwe historiographie' , reprinted in this Yerspreide Geschriften 9 (The Hague, 1904, ppi410 ..18. 22'. M. Harbsmeier. - 'World Histories before Domestication' Culture and History 5 (1989) pp.93-,131. 23. W. Alexander, The History of Women (London, 1979); C. Meiners, Geschiehte des weibliechen Geschlechts (4 vols. Hanover, 1788-1800).

17 .


35

24. W. Cronon, Changes in the Land (New York, 1983); A: W. Crosby, Ecological Imperialism (Cambridge,1986). 25. There are some sharp comments on this problem in E. Said, Orientalism (London1978). 26. E. De Decca, 1930: 0 silencio dos vencidos (Sao Paulo, 1981). 27. Cf. R. Porter, 'The Patient's View: Doing Medical History from Below', Theory and Society 14 (1985),pp. 175-98. 28. On the ordinary soldiers, see J. Keegan, The face of Battle (London,1976). . 29. J. Oxouf,(ed.),Nous les maitres d'ecole (Paris, 1967) examines the experience of elementary . school-teachersc. 1914. 30. L. Hunt, (ed.), The New Cultural History (Berkeley,1989). . 31. F. Braudel, Civilisation materielle et capitalisme (Paris, 1967); revised ed. Les Structures du quotidien. (Paris, 1979); The Structures of Everyday Life, tr. M. Kochan (London, 1981). Cf. J. Kuczynski, Geschichte des Alltags des ,::Jeutschen Volkes (4 vols, Berlin,'1980-2). . . 32. M. De Certeau, L'invention du quotidien (Paris, 1980);E. Goffman, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (New York, 1959); H. Lefebvre,Critique de la vie quotidienne (3 vols, Paris, 1946-81).Cf. F. Mackie, The Status of Everyday Life (Lodnon,1985). 33.. J. Lotman, 'the Poetics of Every Day Behaviour in Russian Eighteenth-Century . Culture', in The Semiotics of Russian Clture, ed. J. Lotman and B. .A. Uspenskii (Ann Arbor, 1984), pp. 231-56. A fuller discussion of the problem of writing the history of cultural rules is in P: Burke,'. Historical Anthropology of


36

Early Mode[n Italy (Cambridge, 1987), pp. 5ff, 2lff. !j 34. L. Hunt, -led., The New Cultural History (Berkeley, 1989) 35. N. Elias, 'Zum

Begriff

des

Alltags'

in

Materiellen zur Soziologie des Alltags, ed. K. 36. 37. 38.

39.

Hammerich and M. Klein (Opladen, 1978), pp. 22-9. Cf. P. Burke, Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (London, 1978), chapter 3. R. Samuel and P. 'Thompson, (eds), The Myths We Live By (London, 1990). P. Thompson, The ,Voice of the Past 1978; revised ed., Oxford, 1988); J. Vansina, Oral Tradition, tr. H.M. Wright (London, 1965) and Oral Tradition as History (Madison, 1985) P. Smith, (ed.), The Historian and Film (Cambridge 1976); A. Trachtenberg, 'Albums of War', Representations 9 (1985) pp. 1-32; J. Tagg, The burden of Representation: Essays on Photographies and Histories (Amherst, 1988).

40. E. Panofsky, Essay in Iconology (New York, 1939); E. Wind, Pagan Mysteries in the Renaissance (London, 1958). A more sceptical point of view is expressed by E. H. Gombrich, 'Aims and Limits of Iconology' in his Symbolic Images (London, 1972), pp. 1-22. 41. C. Ginzburg, ' Da Aby Warburg a E. H. Gombrich', 'Studi Medieuali 8 (1966) pp. 101565. His" criticism was directed against Fritz Sax I .in particular. On iconography for historians of mentalities see, M. Vovelle (ed.), Iconographie et historie des mentalites (Aix, 1979). 42. K. Hudson, The Archaeology of the Consumer Society (London; 1983). j


37

43. J. Deetz, In Small

Things Forgotten: the Archaeology of Early American Life (New

York, 1977). 44. M. 1. Finley, The Use and Abuse of History (London, 1975), p. 101. 45. A. Appadurai, (ed,), The Social Life of Things (Cambridge, 1986). 46. W. Aydelotte, Quantification in History (Reading, Mass., ¡1971); A. Bogue, Clio and the

Bitch Goddess: Quantification in American Political History (beverly Hills, 1983). 47. P. Chaunu, 'Le quantitatif au 3e niveau' (1973: reprinted in his Histoire quantitatif, histoire serielle (Paris, 1978). 48. G. Le Bras, Etudes de sociologie religieuse (2 vols, Paris 1955-6);M. Vovelle, piete baroque et dechristianisation (Paris, 1973). 49. G. Henningsen, 'EI "Banco de datos" del Santo Oficio', Boletin de la Real Academia de Historia 174 (1977), pp. 547-70. 50. J. Mabillon, De re diplomatica (Paris, 1681). 51. C. Lioyd, Explanation in Social History (Oxford, 1-986)offers a general survey. More accessible to non-philosophers is S. James, The Content of Social Explanation (Cambridge, 1984). 52. E. Erikson, Young Man 'Luther (New York, 1958); P. Gay, Freud for Historians (New York, 1985); D. Stannard, Shrinking History (New York, 1980). 53. R. G. L. Waite, The Psychopathic God: Adolf Hitler (New York, 1977). 54. I take the distinction- between 'inteniionalists' and 'functionalists' from T. Mason, 'Intention and Explanation' in The Fuhrer State, Myth and Reality, ed. G. Hirschfeld and L. Kettenacker (Stuttgart, 1981). pp. 23-40. My


38

thanks to Ian Kershaw for bringing this article to my attention. . 55. P. Lowenberg, 'The Psychohistorical Origins of the Nazi Youth Cohort', American Historical Review 76 (1971), pp. 1457-502. 56. J. Delumeau, La peur en occident (Paris, 1978); and Rassurer et proteger (paris, 1989); P. N. and C. Z. Stearns, 'Emotionology', American Historical Review 90 (1986), pp. 813-36; C. Z. and P. N. Stearns, Anger (Chicago, 1986); T. Zeldin, France 1848-1945 (2 vols, Oxford 1973-

7).

~

57. P. Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice, tr: R. Nice (Cambridge, 1977). 58. The argument is unusually explicit in G. Sider, Culture and Class in Anthropology and History (Cambridge and Paris, 1986). 59. A. Gurevich, Medieval Popular Culture, tr. J. M. Bak and P. A. Hollingsworth (Cambridge, 1988). 60. Editorial collective, 'Why Gender and History? Gender and History 1 (1989) pp. 1-6. : 61. M. Agulhon, The Republic in the Village, tr. J. Lloyd (Cambridge, 1982). 62. M. Segal en, Love and Power in the Peasant Family, tr. S. Matthews (Cambridge, 1983); O. Smith, The Politics of Language 1791-1815 (Oxford, 1984); D. Cannadine and S. Price, (eds) Rituals of Royalty (Cambridge, 1987). 63. M. Kammen, 'Extending the Reach of . American Cultural History' American Studies 29 (1984), pp. 19-42.


39

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REFERENCES Barnds, W. J.

Barnet, Richard Birdwood,. Lord

v! Jj'.~

S~ I:)Y;

CITED India, Pakistan and the Great Powers, Council on Foreign Relations & Pall Mall Press, London,1972 Intervention and Revolution. World Publishing Co., New York, 1969 A Continent Decides, Robert Hale, London, 1953


91

Campbell, Jhon c.

Caroe, Olaf Galbraith, J. K. Jordan, Col. A. A. Khan, Maj. Gen. Fazal Muqeem

"-

Defense of the Middle East. Council on Foreign Relations, New York, revised edition, , 1960 . Wells of Power. Macmillan, London, 195 Ambassador's Journal, London,1969 Foreign Aid and the Defense of South East Asia 1962.

The Story of the Pakistan Army. OUP, Karachi 1963 Kuniholm, Br~e R 'A Political/Military Strategy for the Persian Gulf and South West Asia' in Samuel F. Wells and Mark A Bruzonsky (eds) Security in the Middle East. Westview Press, Boulder, 1987 Lifschultz, Lawrence From U2 To P3: The US Pakinstan Relationship New Left Review, No. 159, SeptOct, 1986 Maley, Wiliam (ed) Fundamentalism Reborn: Afghanistan and Taliban, Vanguard, Lahore, 1998 India's China War, London Maxwell, Neville 1970 Iran's Foreign Policy: 1941Ramazani, R. K. 7~ University of Virginia Press, Charlottesville, 1975 CIA: The Inside Story, Tully, Andrew William Morrow, New York, 1962 Venkataramani, M.S. The American Role in Pakistan: 1947-59, Vanguard Books, Lahore, 1984


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