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Reference 1.

3. 4. 5.

E. G. Goff, "Is Politics still the Backbone of History?" Daedalus (Cambridge, Mass., Winter 1971) 1-19;,Benjamin Schwartz, "A Brief Defence of Political and Intellectual History-with Particular Reference to Non-Western Cultures", ibid., 98-112; Gordon Craig, "Political History", ibid., (Spring 1971) 323-338; S. T. Bindoff, "Political History" in Approaches to History, ed. By H. P. R. Finberg (London 1962) pp. 1 ff. Cf. Problems of Historical Writing in India, (New Delhi, 1963); S. R. Goyal, A History of the Imperial Guptas (Allahabad 1967) 28-40. Craig, 323 ff Cf. Daedalus (Winter 1971) 1 ff. D. D. Kosambi, An Introduction to the Study of Indian History (Bombay 1956) 1.

6. 7.

8. 9. 10.

11. 12: 13. . 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

20. 21. 22. 23. 24.

Collected Works ofR. G. Bhandarkar (Poona 1929) 1,4. A.:K. Narain, "Writing a New History of Ancient India: A Study of Problems, Sources and Methods," Problems of Historical Writing in India, 7. Jacques Pirenne, The Tides of HisiQrY~·~ted in Problems of Historical Writing in India, 56. • Goyal,37. Herbert Butterfield, George III and the Historians, quoted in Problems of Historical Writing in India, 58. Goyal, loc. Cit. Schwartz, 100. Ibid., 99-100. Goff, 12. V. S.·Pathak, Ancient Historians of India (Bombay 1966) 1"37. Goyal, 223 ff A. K. Narain (loc. cit., 8), has also pleaded for the adoption of this approach. P.E. Schramm, quoted by Le Goff, lococit., 5. Ibid., 6 ff V. S. Agrawala, The Journal of the Numismatic society of India; 16 (Varanasi 1954) 97 ff.; cf. Also Goyal, 136-37. T. V. Mahalingam, South Indian Polity, (Madras 1967) 87 ff. Cf. Lawrence Stone, "Prosopography", Doedalus (Winter 1971) 46-79. Ibid., 46-7. Eggling, Satapatha Brahman a, III, p. 4. Manusmrti, XII, 100.

25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31.

32. 33. 34. 35.

For the theory that the Imperial Guptas were' Brahmanas cf. Goyal, Ch. II. Manusmrti, VIII, 348. Nitisara, XV, 20. Cf. R. S. Sharma, Aspects of Polictical Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India (Delhi 1959) 190. D. C. Sircar, Select Inscriptions (Calcutta 1965) 451 ff. laimal Rai, The Rural-Urban Economy and Social Changes in Ancient India (Varanasi 1974) 30 ff. G. M. Young, Victorian England: Portrait of an Age, (Garden City, N. Y. 1936) quoted by Gordon A. Craig, lococit., 327. , Quoted in Daedalus (Winter 1971) 12. A. L. Basham in Historians of India, Pakistna and Ceylon, ed. By G. H. Philips (Oxford 1961) 292"i; Foreword in Goyal, of cit. Romila Thapar has adopted this approach, though only partially, in her Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas (Oxford- 1961). Recently, S. K. Purohit, one of my research students, has earned the doctorate with his work on the impact of religion on ancient Indian political history and administrative organisation. Some other research scholars are also working with me on similar topics.

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Reference 1. 2. 3.

For a discussion of some of thses questions see (a) Alavi ( 1983a); (b) Alavi (1989a). See Evans et a1. (1985), especially Skocpol's 'Introduction '. A vigorous theoretical debate about the postcolonial state and its class bases was triggered off by my article (Alavi 1972) on 'The state in postcolonial societies: Pakistan and Bangladesh' which also appears in Gough and Sharma (1973); Goulboume (1979) and elsewhere. For some of the main initial contributions to the debate see Hein and Stenzel (1973); Saul (1974); Leys (1976); von Freyhold (1977) and Landon (1977). Since I first raised this issue seventeen years ago, my ideas have been further developed and reformulated. For a partial exposition ofthses see Alavi (1982).

121

5. 6.

7. 8. 9. 10.

11. 12. 13. 14.

See Alavi (1981) for a theoretical exposition of the argument and Alavi (1983b). See also Alavi (1980) for an historical account. See Note 3. Some Marxist writers tend to take such a view, e.g. see 'articles by Hein and Stenzel (1973) and von Freyhold (1977). Payer(1974),p.175. See also Payer (1982). See Alavi (1982). Amin (1976), especially pp. 13-23. This was done by amendment of the pre-Partition Banking Control (Restriction of Branches) Act, abolishing exemption for foreign banks from the purview of the Act and then by virtue of a declaration by the State Bank of the criteria for granting permission to banks to open branches, which said that no permission would be given by it to foreign bnaks to open brances in places other than port towns, as defined. US Department of Commerce (1954), p. 5. State Banks of Pakistan (n.d.), p. 17. Se Alavi (1990). Mr. Zahid Hussain, former Governor of the State Bank of Pakistan and later Chairmen of the Pakistna Planning Commission, expresed to me his grave concern, because the Pentagon was dealing directly and secretively with the Pakistan army without consultation with the government of Pakistan and its foreign ministry, and that the government was uninformed of what was happening, and therefore extremely anxious about it.

122

15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

21. 22.

23.

Alavi and Khusro (1962). Alavi (1976), pp. 334-5. Ibid., p. 337. Khan (1981). Alavi (1976), p. 334. For an account of how landlord power is organised at the village level see Alavi (1971). See also Alavi (1974). For an account to this see Alavi (1987), pp. 97-103. In my survey of 1968-9 this was found to be the range of landownership of mandi merchants in Sahiwal District and it was generally agreed by them that this would be the typical range of landownership of mandi merchants all over the Canal Colony Districts of the Punjab. In Sindh the picture seems to be different as many Urduspeaking Muhajirs, refugees from India, have filled this niche where Hindu merchants have left- in some districts of Sindhi Hindu traders continue to operate. My interview at Sahiwal in December 1979 with Rana Hanif Mohammad (himself a landowner) who was Finance Minister in Mr. Bhutto's government at the time. He named two very senior officials who lured Mr. Bhutto into taking this step and evidently who were later well rewarded for that by Zia. Rana Hanif said that these officials had worked out the nationalisation measure in full detail in secret, without knowledge of the ministers. Mr. Bhutto was able to announce them, therefore, as a fait accompli. Rana Hanif said that a meeting of the Cabinet was

123

24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42.

43. 44~ 45. 46.

convened, Mr. Bhutto presented a packet of papers dealing with the nationalisation decree, and announced to his surprised Cabinet colleagues that he had that day nationalised the agro-based industries. See Alavi (1987). Alavi (1989b). Alavi (1989a). Alavi (1989c). Bin Sayeed (1960). Alavi (1958, 1959). Marshall (1959), p. 255. Ahmad (1960). Wolf-Phillips (n.d.). Bailey (1963), p. 109. See Jalal's excellent study (1985). See Bin Sayeed (1960), pp. 241ff. Wolpert (1984), p. 360. Constituent Assembly (Legislature) of Pakistan (1948), p. 239. Wolpert (1984). Gerth and Wright Mills (1948), p. 232. Constituent Assembly of Pakistan (1956). Braibanti (1959).' Report of The Court of Inquiry .... Into the Punjab Disturbances of 1953 (Popularly known as the 'Munir Report'). See Alavi (1990). See Alavi (1963). Daily Telegraph, 12 November 1954, London. Pakistan Today, Summer 1958, London.

124

47. 48.

49. 50. 51. 52.

53. 54.

55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62.

Marshall (1959).. Ibid., p. 150. I was given an opportunity to read this fascinating letter. See Alavi (1987). Financial Times, 1 February 1989, London. Jang (Urdu), 10 March 1989, London. Bhutto (1989), p. 263ff. Financial Times, 19November 1988, London. Guardian, 18 November 1988, London. Guardian, 15November 1988, London. Financial Times, 8 November 1988, London. Economist, 3 December 1988, London. Independent, 1 December 1988, London: Jang (Urdu), 2 December 1988. Economist, 1 December 1988. Financial Time, 5 December 1988, London. Independent, 6 February and 15 February 1989, London.

Bibliography Ahmad, Colonel Mohammed (1960), My Chief (Karachi: Longman Green). Alavi, Hamza (1958), 'Conditions of political advance in Pakistan', Pakistan Today, Summer. Alavi, Harnza (1959), 'Democracy and the Generals', Pakistan Today, Summer. Alavi, Hamza (1963), 'US aid to Pakistan: an evaluation', Economic Weekly, Special no., July.

125

Alavi, Harnza (1971), 'Politics of dependence: a village in West Punjab', South Asian Review, 4(2). Alavi, Harnza (1972), 'The state in post-colonial societies: Pakistan and Bangladesh' New Left Review, 74. Alavi, Harnza (1974), 'Rural bases of power in south Asia' , Journal a/Contemporary Asia, 4(4). Alavi, Harnza (1976), 'Rural elite and agricultural development in Pakistan', in Stevens, R.D., Hamza Alavi and Peter Bertocci (eds), Rural Development in Pakistan and Bangladesh (Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press). Alavi, Harnza (1980), Journal of Contemporary Asia, 10(4). Alavi, Harnza t 1981), 'The- structure of colonial social formations', Economic and Political Weekly, XVI, nos 1012. Alavi, Harnza (1982), 'State and class under peripheral capitalism', in Alavi, Harnza and Teodor Shanin (eds), Introduction to the Sociology of Developing Societies (London: Macmillan and New York: Monthly Review Press): Alavi, Harnza (1983a), 'State and class in Pakistan', in Gardezi, Hassan and Jamil Rashid (eds), Pakistan: The roots 0/ dictatorship (London: ZED Press). Alavi, Harnza (1983b), 'India: transition from feudalism to colonial capitalism', in Alavi, Harnza, Doug MeEachern et Capitalism and Colonial Production (London: Croom

Ll.,

Helm). Alavi, Harnza (1987), 'Pakistan and Islam: ethnicity .and ideology', in Halliday, fred and Harnza Alavi (eds), State and Ideology in the Middle East and Paksitan (London: Macmillan and New York: Monthly Review Press).

126

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Reference 1.

Tara Chand, Influence of Islam on Indian Culture. Allahabad, 1946, p. 145. Tara Chand, loco cit., p. 116-24; "Virasaivism" by Kumar-Swamiji in: The Cultural Heritage of India, Calcutta, 1957, IV, pp. 98-107; Arun P. Bali, The Virsaiva Movement" in: Indian Movements: Some Aspects of Dissent, Protest and Reform, S. C. Malik (ed.) A. S., Simla, 1978, pp. 67-77. In the case of the Sikh movement, a distinct organisation was set up by Guru Govind for the purposes of action. This was a break from the earlier organisational pattern common to the various sects broadly adhering to bhaki. According to Sukumar Sen (Cultural Heritage, loc. cit., IV, p. 283), the usual haunt of Gorakshanath was the Shade ofbakula tree at Vijayanagar. It has been argued by David N. Lorenzen (in: "Evaluation of the Kabir Panth ", a paper presented at the International Congress of Human Sciences in Asia and North Africa, Mexico, 1976, mimeographed) that there is little relationship

159

8. 9.

10.

between Kabir and Ramanand, and that the claim of Kabir's being a disciple of Ramanand was a later development, designed to bring his followers into the traditional fold. Tara Chand (loc. cit., p. 151), emphasizes that "Kabir's teachings were shaped by Sufi saints .and poets". However, Hazari Prasad Dwivedi (Kabir, Delhi, 1971, pp. 45-56) has stressed his indebtedenes to the Nathpanthis. "Bhandarkar, R. G., Vaisnavism, Saivism and other Minor Sects, London, 1913, p. 57; Radhakrisnan, S., Indian Philosophy, London, 1962, I, p. 221. The ideas of Weber and Grierson, trying to link the growth of popular bhaki with Christian monotheism, and Dr. Tara Chand's arguments linking it with Islam (Influence of Islam, loco cit., pp. 106-8) are too well-known to be repeated here. Behind them lay the diffusion theory of culture which modem anthropolgists do not accept. R. S. Sharma, Indian Feudalism C. 300-1200, Calcutta, 1965, pp. 263-73. For a recent review, see B. D. Chattopadhyaya, "Origin rr the Rajputs: The Political, Economic and Social Processes in Early Medieval Rajsthan, " Indian Historical Review, Delhi, III, No.1, July 1976, pp. 59-82. The example of the Marathas who, in general, were not classified as kshatriyas before the 17th century is an index of the former, while the case of the Meenas of Rajasthan who had been owners of land at one time but gradually sank in the Varna scale signalizes the latter. For a fuller discussion see

160

11.

12.

13. 14. 15.

16.

Satish , Chandra, "Social Background to the Rise of the Maratha Movement during. the Seventeenth Century", in: Medieval India: Society, the Jagirdari Crisis and the Village, Delhi, 1982, pp. 139-40. Cf. Tara Chand, " .... the ascendency of the Brahmans in the social life of India began in the Gupta, period, and was completed when the foreign immigrants were received into the Hindu social system... the Rajputs paid the price of their elevation from brarbarism to civilisation by accepting and confirming their [brahmans'] claims of superiority" (Influence of Islam on Indian Culture, Allahabad, 1946, p. 131). W. W. Hunter, Orissa, Vol. I, pp. 33-54, ii 255-56; Dilbagh Singh, "Caste and Structure of Village Society III Rajasthan during the Eighteenth Century," Indian Historical Review, Vol. II, No.2, Jan. 1976, pp. 299-311. B. N. Sharma, Harsha and His Times, Varanasi, 1970, pp. 401-02 and 430-31. R. S. Sharma, Social Change in Early Medieval India (,C A. D. 500-1200), Delhi, 1969. Avalon, A." Principles of Tantra, London, 1914, Ch. xvii, p. 352. See also Bagchi P. C., Studies in the Tantra, Calcutta, 1939, Dasgupta, S. B., Obscure Religious Cults as Background to Bengali Literature, Calcutta, 1946, and The Struggle for Empire, (Vidya Bhawan Series V), 1957, pp. 40413. Jayasi, Padmavat, V. S. Agrawal (ed.), Jhansi, V. S. 2018, No. 38/448.

161

17.

18.

19. 20.

21. 22.

23.

In: the Dashkumarcharit of Dandin, there are a number of references to Aghoris and Tantriks begin 'slain by the ruler' for actions which were against dharma, and for endangering the state. Jayasi (38/448) also warns Ratan Sen against the magicoreligious practices of the Tantriks, 'saying that even the famous Raja Bhoj had been deceived, i.e., had lost his throne due to these Tantrik practices. For the hostile attitude of the Lokayatas (i.e., Tantriks) and the Sahajiyas towards the ruling classes of the time, see Chattopadhyaya D., Lokayata: A Study in AncientIndian Materialism, Delhi, 1983. See, for instance, M. G. S. Narayanan and Veluthat Kesavan, "Bhakti Movement in South India," with a select bibliography, in: Dissent, Protest and Reform, lococit., pp. 33-66. Barani, Tarikh-i-Firuzshahi, p. 505. Barani, Fatawa-i-Jahandari, tr. As Political Theory of the Delhi Sultanate by M. Habib. A. Jahan, Allahabad n.d., Advice XI. Baranai, Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi, p. 216. Abdul Wahid Bilgrami, Haqaiq-i-Hindi, Hindi tr. By S. A. A. Rizvi, Kashi, V. S. 2014. Se~ also Rushdnama, Hindi, tr. By S. A. A. Rizvi and S. Zaidi as A lakhabani, Aligarh, 1971. Zia Nakshabi's Tuti Namah, based on the persian translation of a Sanskrit work, was well-known. He seems to have taken special interest in translations from Hindu i.e., Sanskrit sources, and his works include a translation of Kok Shastra. The earliest Persian-treatise on Indian music was the Cunyat-ul-

162

Munya, written in 1374-75 for Malik Shamsuddin

24.

25. 26.

Abu Raja, a leading noble of Firuz Tughalaq, and governor (naib) of Gugarat. The standard Sanskrit works made available to the author include Bharata Sangit Ratnawali etc. Abdul Aziz Shams Baha-iNuri translated Varahamihira's work on astronomy, Brihatsamhita, at the instance of Firuz Tughalq under the title Tarjuma-i-Barahi, (I. 0., MSS. Ethe. 1997). (S. M. Ikram, History of Muslim Civlisation in India and Pakistan, Lahore 1961, pp. 173-84; Chunyat-ul-Munya, Pers, text, ed. By Shahab Sarmadee, Delhi, 1978). "A salvation religion [such as, bhakti] developed by socially privileged groups within a nation normally has the best chance of becoming permanent when demilitarization has set in and when the nation has lost either possibility of political activity or the interest in it. Consequently, salvation religions usually emerge when the ruling classes, noble or middle class, have lost their political power to a bureaucratic, militaristic imperial state... This does not mean that salvation religion arises only at such times. On the contrary, the intellectual conceptions may sometimes arise without the stimulus of such anterior conditions, as a result of unprejudiced reflection in periods of dynamic political or social change". (Max Weber, The Sociology of Religion, Eng. tr. by Ephraim. Fischoff, Boston, 1964, pp. 122-23). Max Weber, Sociology of Religion, pp. 97, 110-11. Fawaid-ul-Fuad, pp. 150, 195-97.

163

27. 28.

29.

30. 31.

Savitri Chandra, "Indian Social Concepts in the Latter Half of the Sixteenth Century", p. 35 infra. Irfan Habib, "The Historical Backgroun of the Popular Monotheistic Movements of the 15th-1ih Centuries," Ideas in History, Bisheshwar Prasad (ed.), Bombay, 1969, pp. 6-13. In this context, see Marx (Capital, Moscow, 1959, iii pp. 329-31) who postulates a situration where "the mechant turns the small masters into his middlemen". Niharranjan Ray: The Sikh Gurus and the Sikh a Tradition, Patiala, 1977, pp. 23-25. For a similar development in the case of Chaitanya, see Tapan Ray-chaudhuri, Bengal under Akbar and Jahangir, Delhi, 1966, pp. 119-142.

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