Design Theory_Final book_Muling

Concept Maps of Design Theory Muling Jiang Information Design Theory and Critical Thinking Hugh Dubberly | Spring 2017 Northeastern University

Contents

02

Theory of signs

04

Model of a sign

06

Mathematical theory of communication

08

Design ethics

10

Translations and boundary objects

12

Theory of affordances

14

Context in ubiquitous computing

16

Conceptual models

18

Design process model

20

Bridge model and SECI model

22

Creating the artificial

24

Systems analysis of two generations

26

Design as reflection

28

Architectural relevance of cybernetics

30

Design and democracy

Theory of signs

By Ferdinand de Saussure “Linguistics is only a part of the general science of semiology; the laws discovered by semiology will be applicable to linguistics, and the latter will circumscribe a well-de ned area within the mass of anthropological facts.�

02

diachronic across is

Language

of

a complex system

linguistic

studied as

is

time(s)

self-regulating system

at a particular includes

synchronic

sign system as

product of time

the arbitrary nature of the sign is

Sign

has

two principles

as

product of social force

the linear nature of the signifier composed of

composed of arbitrary

signified is

signifier is

is

is

concept e.g.

mutable

is

“b o x�

sound image e.g. is

immutable

03

Model of a sign

By Charles Sanders Peirce “A sign, or representamen, is something which stands to somebody for something in some respect or capacity. It addresses somebody, that is, creates in the mind of that person an equivalent sign, or perhaps a more developed sign.�

04

e.g.

object is

referent

“b o x�

e.g.

idea

is

interpretant

(general) idea, a law

a sign

is

sinsign

is

sign

can be

index

symbol

qualisign consists in

characteristics

e.g.

representamen

quality of feeling, a possibility

reaction

icon

semiotic relationship

refers to object by

refers to object by

refers to object by

existent

virtue of law

can be

lesign

05

Mathematical theory of communication

By Claude E. Shannon “Information is a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message.”

“That information be measured by entropy is, after all, natural when we remember that information, in communication theory, is associated with the amount of freedom of choice we have in constructing messages.”

06

Amount of Information

creates

is related to

probability

entropy

from

freedom of choice

measured by

communication channel Information source

send message to

send signal to

Transmitter

send received signal to

Receiver

send message to

Information destination

is adding to

Noise select

a desired message

to

communication channel is

encoded

to

signal

through

to

transmitted signal

is

decoded

to

message

communication has three problems

Level a: technical

Level b: semantic

concerns

concerns

accuracy

identity

Level c: effectiveness concerns

success

07

Design ethics

By Richard Buchanan “Not only is ethics a form of designing, but designing is a form of ethics. One aspect of a designer’s creativity and responsibility is to devise ethical courses of action that navigate the moral dilemmas of a practical life.�

08

Design

is a form of

Ethics of

personal morality

has

character and personal values

arises from

human power or ability

four ethical dimensions

is embedded in

designer

conceiving integrity of performance

arises from

the activity

of

to

immediate goal

include

standard

is a matter of

personal and professional integrity

is guided by

structural integrity arises from

nature of the product

concerns

established by

codes of ethics

and

product integrity

bring products to reality

planning

has

other ethical dimensions

of

human character

usability

aesthetic

means

means

means

professional societies e.g.AIA,IDSA,AIGA

useful

usable

desirable

place in

individual purpose larger social, political, religious and philosophical context

ethical standards and the ultimate purpose of design

arises from

service

in accomplishment of

collective purpose

09

Translations and boundary objects

By Susan Leigh Star and James R. Griesemer “The creation and management of boundary objects is a key process in developing and maintaining coherence across interesting social worlds.”

“The creation of new scientic knowledge depends on communication as well as on creating new findings. But because these new objects and methods mean different things in different worlds, actors are faced with the task of reconciling these meanings if they wish to cooperate.”

10

make

Scientific work

information compatible by

can allow

requires

is

cooperation

heterogeneity

Translation betwwen viewpoints

teaches enforces develops

include

Standardization of methods

can

methods

discipline

emphasizing “how�

longer reach across divergent worlds

e.g.

the

collecting, preserving, labeling

information

obtained by

actors

creates

tensions

such as

repositories

are

e.g.

indexed object

library, museum

can be managed by

such as

Boundary objects is to

ideal types

are

e.g.

abstract descriptions

have 4 types

such as

maximize

coincident boundaries

same boundaries are

common objects

have

e.g.

creation of California map

different internal contents

the

autonomy and communication

species

such as

standardized forms

are

methods

of

common communication

across

dispersed work group

11

Theory of affordances

By J. J. Gibson “The different substances of the environment have different affordances for nutrition and for manufacture.

The different objects of the environment have different affordances for manipulation.”

“An affordance points both ways, to the environment and to the observer.”

12

respiration e.g.

Medium

air

affords

unimpeded locomotion visual perception

water niche

affords

e.g.

Substances

nutrition

in the

occupy a certain

solid substance Observers

can alter the affordances of

manufacture

is a fact of

Affordances

affords

Environment

rigid surface perceived by

drinking, washing, bathing

Surfaces and layouts

affords

supports, barriers

can be

have

affords

nonrigid surface

floating, swimming

offers

benefit or injury life or death

has

detached object Objects

quality or property

affords

manipulation

can be

so they need

attached object

affords

supports

perception sexual

may be

nurturing Other persons and animals information

afford

interative behaviors

misinformation

such as

cooperative economic

Places

are

regions

afford

political concealments

13

Context in ubiquitous computing

By Paul Dourish “New opportunities have engendered considerable interest in “context-aware computing” – computational systems that can sense and respond to aspects of the settings in which they are used.

However, considerable confusion surrounds the notion of “context” – what it means, what it includes, and what role it plays in interactive systems.”

14

hold a perspective that

it is a form of information by

encoded and represented

positivists so that

it is delinedable representational problem

we can define the context in advance

has four assumptions can be

it is stable it is separable Context

can be

encoded and represented

does not

context is a stable feature of the world, independent of the actions of individuals.

vary form instance to instance

can be defined as

objects in

holds between

it is a relational property

activities ubiquitous computing interactional problem

has four assumptions

it is an occasioned property

relevant to

the scope of contextual features is

technical

has notion drawn from

by

is

particular settings

defined dynamically

contextuality is something that people do.

phenomenologists it arises

from

activities

social science hold a perspective that as examines ground

ethnomethodology

orderliness

of

social actions

is an approach related to

motivations

behind

ubiquitous computing

information retrieval can do

in

behavior tailoring

15

Conceptual models

By Jeff Johnson and Austin Henderson “A key part of interaction design is creating a conceptual model of an application. The purpose of conceptual design — of creating a conceptual model — is to get the concepts and their relationships right, to enable the desired task- ow. In other words, start by designing how the user would ideally think about the application and its use in supporting tasks.”

16

Major tasks or goals (use cases) Designers

has

task analysis

several ways

e.g.

task hierarchy consolidated task-sequence analysis

use

objects/operation analysis

is the most important component in

Conceptual Model

based on

good understanding

of

indicates

user proďŹ le

relevant attributes

e.g.

duties, level of education, knowledge, experience with previous versions

is an

purpose

enumeration and taxonomy of concepts

include

high-level description

functionality

to

to

its users

of

for

design the user interface

an annotated list

of

important concepts

embodied by

e.g.

application

vocabulary

includes

resolved issues conceptual design issues

objects that users manipulate

e.g.

known problems

include

open issues attributes of those objects mapping

demonstrates

the quality of the model

must be driven by

task-domain

operations that users can perform on specialization relationships between objects

include

containment other relationships

e.g.

whole/part, source/result, task/sub-task

17

Design process model

By Christopher Alexander “For every problem there is one decomposition which is especially proper to it, and this is usually different from the one in the designer’s head. For this reason we shall refer to this special decomposition as the program for the problem...This program is a reorganization of the way the designer thinks about the problem.�

18

to

Designer

directions or instructions

plays in three possible process

in

in

to

selection problems

to be solved

mechanically

provides

Design Process

in

unselfconscious situation

C1

F1

context

form

selfconscious situation

C2

F2

conceptual model

ideas & diagrams

improved situation

C3

F3

mathematical picture

is built out of

have

interaction in actual world

have

interaction in mental picture

have

interaction in formal picture and mental picture

orderly complex of diagrams

has

sets (mathematical) can be explored by

treelike

nesting

define a structure

form - context boundary

such as

misfit, conflict, concur and no interaction

linear graph

19

Bridge model and SECI model

By Hugh Dubberly , Shelley Evenson “Designers often speak of design as a process. Typically, design thinking leads to design making, which leads to artifacts. Yet the design process also leads to something more—to new knowledge. Thus we might characterize designing as a form of learning. Curiously, the converse is also true. We might characterize learning as a form of designing.”

20

they use different terms to describe essentially the same process

Analysis-Synthesis Bridge Model

SECI Model

is isomorphic to

illustrates

describes

the bridge and related models of

Robinson model Kumar innovation model Kaiser/IDEO model Suri/IDEO model

iterative nature are specific instances of of

knowledge creation process

design gap by

by

thinking

Analysis (researching)

Interpret (abstract)

Model of what “is”

including a spiral

Synthesis (prototyping)

suggest

Model of what “could be”

Analysis

Synthesis

Externalization articulating

Combination connecting

modeling

modeling explicit

distilled to

manifest as tacit

explicit

tacit

Describe (concrete)

What “is”

What “could be”

current

future

observing

instantiating Socialization empathizing

current

Internalization embodying

future

21

Creating the artificial

By Herbert A. Simon “Design is the core of all professional training; it is the principal mark that distinguishes the profession from the science.�

22

science disciplines The task

is to teach

about

natural things

how they are and how they work

of

how to make artifacts that have desired properties engineering disciplines

is to teach

artificial things

about

how to design by

in

the science of artificial

has

inner environments

the theory of design

is concerned with

goals

for

adaptation

of

to

outer environments includes topics

are

defined

the evaluation of design

by

utility function

the search for alternatives

includes

includes

factorization

utility theory theory of evaluation

includes

includes

heuristic search

afferent means-ends analysis

statistical decision theory

through

efferent optimal alternatives computational includes methods

algorithm for choosing

allocation

of

resources for search

the

structure satisfactory alternatives

hierarchic system

in the

theory

of

design organization formal logic of design

includes

imperative and declarative logic

representation

of

design problems

includes

spatial and taxonomy

23

Systems analysis of two generations

By Horst Rittel “The term ‘systems analysis’ means attacking problems of planning in a rational, straightforward, systematic way, characterized by a number of attitudes which a systems analyst and designer should have.”

24

they are

system analyst, designer mainly works for conducts

can be solved by traditional and formulaic processes.

1. understand the problem 2. gether information

problems of science

3. analyse information System Analysis

4. generate solution

is 8-steps procedure

first generation

can solve

5. assess solution

tame problems formulated

6. implement through

7. test solution

has

can be

tested

8. modify solution system approach

Design Method Movement (1962 - 1972)

contains

operated by exhaustivel list

paradoxes of rationality

repeated

questions and issues can not be

are raised towards to solve introduced by is an argumentative process

second generation H. Rittel

arises the next

stopped by rule right or wrong

position position ... position

against

evidence gathered, arguments built

wicked problems can solve

are discussed to

mainly works for

remains significant to

planning problems design problems

make decision to

take process ...

the ideal planning model is a cybernetic—goal-oriented and involving feedback—process

they are

designers

for

1.he articulated the relationship between science and design two reasons 2. he proposed principles for dealing with the limitations of design processes

25

Design as reflection

By Donald Schön “A good design process gives direction to inquiry while at the same time it leaves design structure open to transformation.”

26

Design

is family of

has

has

three dimentions

Design process

design as generative metaphor

has

frames

story telling

of

problems

new situation

helps

contain

normative evaluation

normative leap

problematic situation

under the influence of

reective conversation design as rational decision includes

familiar ideas

revealed by

include

carried over to

include

selection

of

alternatives

with

shift stance

towards

generation

of

alternatives

situations can be

implications

of

includes

domain of where language

systematic search

moves ( from earlier to present to further )

random generation

drawing and speaking

designer

describes appreciates

consequences implications

of

is

depends on

intelligent path finding

interdependence

of

design elements

moves

27

Architectural relevance of cybernetics

By Gordon Pask “But the cybernetic theory is more than an extension of pure architecture. As we noted somewaht earlier, pure architecture was descriptive and prescriptive but it did little to predict or explain. In contrast, the cybernetic theory has an appreciable predictive power.�

28

assisted by

computer develop to

design procedures

functionalism mutualism holism

useful instruments

Architect acts as

architecture

social control

unifies

different disciplines

such as

architectural sub-theories

use

“machine for living in” house (functionalism)

has

“pure” architecture

of

extention

is more than

Cybernetic theory

cybernetic theory of architecture

has

environment in areas

between

dialogue

achived by

inhabitants

is

descriptive

prescriptive

include

but it

cybernetic design paradigm

has

Gaudi

has stages

specification of the purpose/goal

choice

of

of

the system

basic materials

into

do little to

predict or explain

of

selection in contrast

invariants

to be

programmed

appreciable predictive power what the environment will learn and

specification

of

how the environment will adapt explanatory power

constructional system

development choice

of

plan

for

adaptation

29

Design and democracy

By Gui Bonsiepe “Design humanism is the exercise of design activities in order to interpret the needs of social groups, and to develop viable emancipative proposals in the form of material and semiotic artifacts.�

30

esthetics as the domain of freedom and manipulation

extension of popularization in

social history

becomes

shows

products

for

everyday life

reduction in depth

share

one point of contact

with

manipulation

that is

appearances

leads to

esthetics

design

as

exercise

of

design activities

in order to

develop viable emancipative proposals

in the form of

semiotic artifacts material

interpret the needs of social groups relationship

more to autonomy

between

depending on

leans to

ambivalent intentions

more to heteronomy

participation democracy

of

dominated

for

self-determination

means

autonomy

as

reduction

of

heteronomy

e.g.

domination by external forces

technology and industrialization as a procedure for democratizing the consumption of goods and services

31