Concept Maps of Design Theory Muling Jiang Information Design Theory and Critical Thinking Hugh Dubberly | Spring 2017 Northeastern University
Contents
02
Theory of signs
04
Model of a sign
06
Mathematical theory of communication
08
Design ethics
10
Translations and boundary objects
12
Theory of affordances
14
Context in ubiquitous computing
16
Conceptual models
18
Design process model
20
Bridge model and SECI model
22
Creating the artificial
24
Systems analysis of two generations
26
Design as reflection
28
Architectural relevance of cybernetics
30
Design and democracy
Theory of signs By Ferdinand de Saussure “Linguistics is only a part of the general science of semiology; the laws discovered by semiology will be applicable to linguistics, and the latter will circumscribe a well-de ned area within the mass of anthropological facts.�
02
diachronic across is
Language
of
a complex system
linguistic
studied as
is
time(s)
self-regulating system
at a particular includes
synchronic
sign system as
product of time
the arbitrary nature of the sign is
Sign
has
two principles
as
product of social force
the linear nature of the signifier composed of
composed of arbitrary
signified is
signifier is
is
is
concept e.g.
mutable
is
“b o x�
sound image e.g. is
immutable
03
Model of a sign By Charles Sanders Peirce “A sign, or representamen, is something which stands to somebody for something in some respect or capacity. It addresses somebody, that is, creates in the mind of that person an equivalent sign, or perhaps a more developed sign.�
04
e.g.
object is
referent
“b o x�
e.g.
idea
is
interpretant
(general) idea, a law
a sign
is
sinsign
is
sign
can be
index
symbol
qualisign consists in
characteristics
e.g.
representamen
quality of feeling, a possibility
reaction
icon
semiotic relationship
refers to object by
refers to object by
refers to object by
existent
virtue of law
can be
lesign
05
Mathematical theory of communication By Claude E. Shannon “Information is a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message.” “That information be measured by entropy is, after all, natural when we remember that information, in communication theory, is associated with the amount of freedom of choice we have in constructing messages.”
06
Amount of Information
creates
is related to
probability
entropy
from
freedom of choice
measured by
communication channel Information source
send message to
send signal to
Transmitter
send received signal to
Receiver
send message to
Information destination
is adding to
Noise select
a desired message
to
communication channel is
encoded
to
signal
through
to
transmitted signal
is
decoded
to
message
communication has three problems
Level a: technical
Level b: semantic
concerns
concerns
accuracy
identity
Level c: effectiveness concerns
success
07
Design ethics By Richard Buchanan “Not only is ethics a form of designing, but designing is a form of ethics. One aspect of a designer’s creativity and responsibility is to devise ethical courses of action that navigate the moral dilemmas of a practical life.�
08
Design
is a form of
Ethics of
personal morality
has
character and personal values
arises from
human power or ability
four ethical dimensions
is embedded in
designer
conceiving integrity of performance
arises from
the activity
of
to
immediate goal
include
standard
is a matter of
personal and professional integrity
is guided by
structural integrity arises from
nature of the product
concerns
established by
codes of ethics
and
product integrity
bring products to reality
planning
has
other ethical dimensions
of
human character
usability
aesthetic
means
means
means
professional societies e.g.AIA,IDSA,AIGA
useful
usable
desirable
place in
individual purpose larger social, political, religious and philosophical context
ethical standards and the ultimate purpose of design
arises from
service
in accomplishment of
collective purpose
09
Translations and boundary objects By Susan Leigh Star and James R. Griesemer “The creation and management of boundary objects is a key process in developing and maintaining coherence across interesting social worlds.” “The creation of new scientic knowledge depends on communication as well as on creating new findings. But because these new objects and methods mean different things in different worlds, actors are faced with the task of reconciling these meanings if they wish to cooperate.”
10
make
Scientific work
information compatible by
can allow
requires
is
cooperation
heterogeneity
Translation betwwen viewpoints
teaches enforces develops
include
Standardization of methods
can
methods
discipline
emphasizing “how�
longer reach across divergent worlds
e.g.
the
collecting, preserving, labeling
information
obtained by
actors
creates
tensions
such as
repositories
are
e.g.
indexed object
library, museum
can be managed by
such as
Boundary objects is to
ideal types
are
e.g.
abstract descriptions
have 4 types
such as
maximize
coincident boundaries
same boundaries are
common objects
have
e.g.
creation of California map
different internal contents
the
autonomy and communication
species
such as
standardized forms
are
methods
of
common communication
across
dispersed work group
11
Theory of affordances By J. J. Gibson “The different substances of the environment have different affordances for nutrition and for manufacture. The different objects of the environment have different affordances for manipulation.” “An affordance points both ways, to the environment and to the observer.”
12
respiration e.g.
Medium
air
affords
unimpeded locomotion visual perception
water niche
affords
e.g.
Substances
nutrition
in the
occupy a certain
solid substance Observers
can alter the affordances of
manufacture
is a fact of
Affordances
affords
Environment
rigid surface perceived by
drinking, washing, bathing
Surfaces and layouts
affords
supports, barriers
can be
have
affords
nonrigid surface
floating, swimming
offers
benefit or injury life or death
has
detached object Objects
quality or property
affords
manipulation
can be
so they need
attached object
affords
supports
perception sexual
may be
nurturing Other persons and animals information
afford
interative behaviors
misinformation
such as
cooperative economic
Places
are
regions
afford
political concealments
13
Context in ubiquitous computing By Paul Dourish “New opportunities have engendered considerable interest in “context-aware computing” – computational systems that can sense and respond to aspects of the settings in which they are used. However, considerable confusion surrounds the notion of “context” – what it means, what it includes, and what role it plays in interactive systems.”
14
hold a perspective that
it is a form of information by
encoded and represented
positivists so that
it is delinedable representational problem
we can define the context in advance
has four assumptions can be
it is stable it is separable Context
can be
encoded and represented
does not
context is a stable feature of the world, independent of the actions of individuals.
vary form instance to instance
can be defined as
objects in
holds between
it is a relational property
activities ubiquitous computing interactional problem
has four assumptions
it is an occasioned property
relevant to
the scope of contextual features is
technical
has notion drawn from
by
is
particular settings
defined dynamically
contextuality is something that people do.
phenomenologists it arises
from
activities
social science hold a perspective that as examines ground
ethnomethodology
orderliness
of
social actions
is an approach related to
motivations
behind
ubiquitous computing
information retrieval can do
in
behavior tailoring
15
Conceptual models By Jeff Johnson and Austin Henderson “A key part of interaction design is creating a conceptual model of an application. The purpose of conceptual design — of creating a conceptual model — is to get the concepts and their relationships right, to enable the desired task- ow. In other words, start by designing how the user would ideally think about the application and its use in supporting tasks.”
16
Major tasks or goals (use cases) Designers
has
task analysis
several ways
e.g.
task hierarchy consolidated task-sequence analysis
use
objects/operation analysis
is the most important component in
Conceptual Model
based on
good understanding
of
indicates
user proďŹ le
relevant attributes
e.g.
duties, level of education, knowledge, experience with previous versions
is an
purpose
enumeration and taxonomy of concepts
include
high-level description
functionality
to
to
its users
of
for
design the user interface
an annotated list
of
important concepts
embodied by
e.g.
application
vocabulary
includes
resolved issues conceptual design issues
objects that users manipulate
e.g.
known problems
include
open issues attributes of those objects mapping
demonstrates
the quality of the model
must be driven by
task-domain
operations that users can perform on specialization relationships between objects
include
containment other relationships
e.g.
whole/part, source/result, task/sub-task
17
Design process model By Christopher Alexander “For every problem there is one decomposition which is especially proper to it, and this is usually different from the one in the designer’s head. For this reason we shall refer to this special decomposition as the program for the problem...This program is a reorganization of the way the designer thinks about the problem.�
18
to
Designer
directions or instructions
plays in three possible process
in
in
to
selection problems
to be solved
mechanically
provides
Design Process
in
unselfconscious situation
C1
F1
context
form
selfconscious situation
C2
F2
conceptual model
ideas & diagrams
improved situation
C3
F3
mathematical picture
is built out of
have
interaction in actual world
have
interaction in mental picture
have
interaction in formal picture and mental picture
orderly complex of diagrams
has
sets (mathematical) can be explored by
treelike
nesting
define a structure
form - context boundary
such as
misfit, conflict, concur and no interaction
linear graph
19
Bridge model and SECI model By Hugh Dubberly , Shelley Evenson “Designers often speak of design as a process. Typically, design thinking leads to design making, which leads to artifacts. Yet the design process also leads to something more—to new knowledge. Thus we might characterize designing as a form of learning. Curiously, the converse is also true. We might characterize learning as a form of designing.”
20
they use different terms to describe essentially the same process
Analysis-Synthesis Bridge Model
SECI Model
is isomorphic to
illustrates
describes
the bridge and related models of
Robinson model Kumar innovation model Kaiser/IDEO model Suri/IDEO model
iterative nature are specific instances of of
knowledge creation process
design gap by
by
thinking
Analysis (researching)
Interpret (abstract)
Model of what “is”
including a spiral
Synthesis (prototyping)
suggest
Model of what “could be”
Analysis
Synthesis
Externalization articulating
Combination connecting
modeling
modeling explicit
distilled to
manifest as tacit
explicit
tacit
Describe (concrete)
What “is”
What “could be”
current
future
observing
instantiating Socialization empathizing
current
Internalization embodying
future
21
Creating the artificial By Herbert A. Simon “Design is the core of all professional training; it is the principal mark that distinguishes the profession from the science.�
22
science disciplines The task
is to teach
about
natural things
how they are and how they work
of
how to make artifacts that have desired properties engineering disciplines
is to teach
artificial things
about
how to design by
in
the science of artificial
has
inner environments
the theory of design
is concerned with
goals
for
adaptation
of
to
outer environments includes topics
are
defined
the evaluation of design
by
utility function
the search for alternatives
includes
includes
factorization
utility theory theory of evaluation
includes
includes
heuristic search
afferent means-ends analysis
statistical decision theory
through
efferent optimal alternatives computational includes methods
algorithm for choosing
allocation
of
resources for search
the
structure satisfactory alternatives
hierarchic system
in the
theory
of
design organization formal logic of design
includes
imperative and declarative logic
representation
of
design problems
includes
spatial and taxonomy
23
Systems analysis of two generations By Horst Rittel “The term ‘systems analysis’ means attacking problems of planning in a rational, straightforward, systematic way, characterized by a number of attitudes which a systems analyst and designer should have.”
24
they are
system analyst, designer mainly works for conducts
can be solved by traditional and formulaic processes.
1. understand the problem 2. gether information
problems of science
3. analyse information System Analysis
4. generate solution
is 8-steps procedure
first generation
can solve
5. assess solution
tame problems formulated
6. implement through
7. test solution
has
can be
tested
8. modify solution system approach
Design Method Movement (1962 - 1972)
contains
operated by exhaustivel list
paradoxes of rationality
repeated
questions and issues can not be
are raised towards to solve introduced by is an argumentative process
second generation H. Rittel
arises the next
stopped by rule right or wrong
position position ... position
against
evidence gathered, arguments built
wicked problems can solve
are discussed to
mainly works for
remains significant to
planning problems design problems
make decision to
take process ...
the ideal planning model is a cybernetic—goal-oriented and involving feedback—process
they are
designers
for
1.he articulated the relationship between science and design two reasons 2. he proposed principles for dealing with the limitations of design processes
25
Design as reflection By Donald Schön “A good design process gives direction to inquiry while at the same time it leaves design structure open to transformation.”
26
Design
is family of
has
has
three dimentions
Design process
design as generative metaphor
has
frames
story telling
of
problems
new situation
helps
contain
normative evaluation
normative leap
problematic situation
under the influence of
reective conversation design as rational decision includes
familiar ideas
revealed by
include
carried over to
include
selection
of
alternatives
with
shift stance
towards
generation
of
alternatives
situations can be
implications
of
includes
domain of where language
systematic search
moves ( from earlier to present to further )
random generation
drawing and speaking
designer
describes appreciates
consequences implications
of
is
depends on
intelligent path finding
interdependence
of
design elements
moves
27
Architectural relevance of cybernetics By Gordon Pask “But the cybernetic theory is more than an extension of pure architecture. As we noted somewaht earlier, pure architecture was descriptive and prescriptive but it did little to predict or explain. In contrast, the cybernetic theory has an appreciable predictive power.�
28
assisted by
computer develop to
design procedures
functionalism mutualism holism
useful instruments
Architect acts as
architecture
social control
unifies
different disciplines
such as
architectural sub-theories
use
“machine for living in” house (functionalism)
has
“pure” architecture
of
extention
is more than
Cybernetic theory
cybernetic theory of architecture
has
environment in areas
between
dialogue
achived by
inhabitants
is
descriptive
prescriptive
include
but it
cybernetic design paradigm
has
Gaudi
has stages
specification of the purpose/goal
choice
of
of
the system
basic materials
into
do little to
predict or explain
of
selection in contrast
invariants
to be
programmed
appreciable predictive power what the environment will learn and
specification
of
how the environment will adapt explanatory power
constructional system
development choice
of
plan
for
adaptation
29
Design and democracy By Gui Bonsiepe “Design humanism is the exercise of design activities in order to interpret the needs of social groups, and to develop viable emancipative proposals in the form of material and semiotic artifacts.�
30
esthetics as the domain of freedom and manipulation
extension of popularization in
social history
becomes
shows
products
for
everyday life
reduction in depth
share
one point of contact
with
manipulation
that is
appearances
leads to
esthetics
design
as
exercise
of
design activities
in order to
develop viable emancipative proposals
in the form of
semiotic artifacts material
interpret the needs of social groups relationship
more to autonomy
between
depending on
leans to
ambivalent intentions
more to heteronomy
participation democracy
of
dominated
for
self-determination
means
autonomy
as
reduction
of
heteronomy
e.g.
domination by external forces
technology and industrialization as a procedure for democratizing the consumption of goods and services
31