MAS | 100 x Congo. A century of Congolese art in Antwerpen by Cultuur Stad Antwerpen

A Century of Congolese Art in Antwerp

AN EXHIBITION WITH TWO ITINERARIES 1. On the walls you will discover facets of pre-colonial history and early contacts between Europe and Africa. How did artists from 16th century Antwerp depict Africans? And how were Congolese people represented from the late 19th century and onwards? Then, we delve into the Belgian colonisation of the Congo. This runs from the late 19th to deep into the 20th century. 2. At the core of the exhibition space are the 100 highlights, one hundred years after the start of the Congolese collection of the city of Antwerp. On your journey you will encounter the wealth and diversity of the classical works of art and utensils from peoples of the present-day Democratic Republic of the Congo.

A Century of Congolese Art in Antwerp

Exactly one hundred years ago the Congolese collection of the city of Antwerp came into being, in all-out colonial times. 100 x Congo features one hundred highlights. What stories are hidden behind the objects? How did they end up here? What did they mean to Congolese peoples? And what about the African presence in Antwerp? Here you will find how early contacts between Europe and Africa went. How Antwerp masters depicted Africans. Why Congolese men and women were staged at the world fairs. During colonisation the missionary work had its impact on Congolese culture. And how did Congolese people perceive the white man (mundele)? For this exhibition the museum collaborates with Belgian and Congolese researchers and artists. We engage in dialogue with Antwerp residents of Belgian and Congolese descent. The MAS invites you: think along with us about the representation of Africans and about the past, the present and the future of the Congolese collection.

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The Congolese collection of the MAS and its blind spots. What we do not know.

Little is known about the Congolese creators of these art works and utensils, and about their meaning. European colonizers were hardly interested in the identity and status of the artists and artisans. The majority of the objects came into possession of the city of Antwerp in the early 20th century, mainly through art dealers and donors. The Belgian intermediaries left little information about the objects. Were they plundered or bartered? Purchased or gifted? Who was the owner in Congo? Often the trail leading to the provenance of the objects reaches a dead end with the Belgian merchants and donors. Dating proves difficult as well. Half of the objects certainly date from before 1920. Some unique metal items even date back to the 17th and 18th centuries. Collaborating with Congolese researchers, also in the context of restitution, is a necessary step in filling these gaps in our knowledge and in order to resolve the many unanswered questions.

THESE WORKS ARE DISPLAYED AT THE ENTRANCE.

1| Homage to the old masters Chéri Samba (°1956, Kinto M’Vuila, Congo) 1994 Acrylic and glitter on canvas Loan from Bernard de Grunne, Brussels

Homage to the old masters ‘Following an official request, I visited the Völkerkundemuseum of the University of Zürich, which is situated below ground under a garden full of bamboo. I was struck by the great number of antique objects in the hall (masks, textiles, sculptures...), of the highest quality. I felt some of these objects gave me goosebumps. I was convinced that these objects still possessed their supernatural powers and that they were genuine, as, at that time, there was no competitive market, and there should be no forgeries. However, I was astonished to hear that Mr. Coray, who had established this impressive collection, had never known Africa, whence the pieces of his collection originated, in order to meet the creators whom I pay homage to. Are there other collectors such as Mr. Coray?’ Chéri Samba, 1994

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Faute ya commerĂ§ant* On the value of Congolese cultural objects in the MAS

Patrick Mudekereza, an artist-writer from Lubumbashi, has engaged in conversations on the Congolese collection with artists, (art) historians, anthropologists, policy makers and activists. His poems, spread throughout the exhibition, describe the various values of the objects: aesthetic, commercial, symbolic, scientific, spiritual. He also examines creation, trade, donations, loans and exhibitions. The crime of plundering and acquisition without consent is often obscured by science, the art trade and a new sacralisation in museums. The artistic intervention in hand restores the art objects and utensils to their complexity. Mudekereza does this through conversations on our attachment to these objects. Perhaps we can thus prioritise the quest for their possible future. And avoid the pitfalls of researching their provenance. Patrick Mudekereza, 2020

*The title, The vendor is to blame, is inspired by the song of the famous Congolese rumba singer Lutumba Simaro. It relates how a vendor of clothes is blamed for the injustice done to a cheated wife, as he has sold the same clothes to both her and her husbandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mistress. 7

Traces of the colonial past in Antwerp. Late 19th and early 20th century

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Africans pictured.

HIGHLIGHTS

17th century

from the MAS collection

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Under the black /

The Congolese collection of the MAS and its blind spots

INTRO

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- p. 5 The European world view expands. Europe and Africa in contact.

Patrick Mudekereza artist in residence

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Late 15th to 17th century

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1920. First Congolese objects in an Antwerp museum

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HIGHLIGHTS

from the MAS collection

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Africa and Europe: new influences, new dynamics in the arts

Congo in â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;motherlandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Belgium

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- p. 79 In many hands

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Futur-velours.com

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The European world view expands. Europe and Africa in contact Late 15th to 17th century In the late Middle Ages and Renaissance, the Portuguese explorations broadened the European world view radically. This had an impact on Africa. The contacts left their marks: rare objects bear witness to cultural exchange, historical documents to the slave trade. Late 15th century: Portuguese caravels sailed along the African west coast. Their purpose: to gain profit from the trade in spices, ivory, gold and slaves. Rulers of flourishing kingdoms, such as Kongo and Benin, came into contact for the first time with European seafarers, who established trading posts. Barter trade in European and African goods began, diplomatic gifts were exchanged. And thus African objects arrived in the art cabinets of European royals and rich citizens. In the 16th century Antwerp grew into a worldwide trade centre with many branches. Merchants and artisans, artists and diplomats from all over Europe resided in this port city. Pioneering cartographers published new maps of the world. Early atlases showed how all oceans were connected. Africa, America and Asia expanded Europeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s horizon.

Trade centre Antwerp

The years 1500 and 1600. Portuguese and Spanish merchants developed Antwerp into an important player in the trade between areas in West Africa, southern Europe and South America. Some eighty Portuguese firms, among them the Ximenes family, capitalized on gold, ivory, pepper and sugar. They operated in Lisbon and Antwerp. They also shipped slaves. These people provided bonded labour on sugar cane and cotton plantations in America and the Caribbean. Spanish, Portuguese and Italian families, established in Antwerp, also brought Africans to work as servants, whether or not as slaves. Their presence is visible in the works of painters from Antwerp and other artists.

2| World map Typus Orbis Terrarum from the atlas Tonneel des aerdtbodems Abraham Ortelius, Antwerp 1571 Paper Loan from the Heritage Library Hendrik Conscience, Antwerp (K 24052)

3| Afro-Portuguese saltcellar Ivory carver from the Edo people, Benin Kingdom (today Nigeria) Ca. 1520 Ivory Gift from Margriet Olbrechts-Maurissens, 1974 Collection MAS (AE.1974.0025.0001)

Rare showpiece This splendid saltcellar from Benin is one of the earliest examples of cultural exchange between Africa and Europe. Commissioned by the Portuguese, ivory sculptors from the court of the oba (ruler), carved luxurious ivory objects. These ended up as showpieces in the cabinets of European monarchs and the elite. The main characters on this cellar are the armed Portuguese horsemen. The fish-motif symbolises Olukun, the Benin deity of the ocean and bringer of prosperity. The motif refers to the barter trade with the Portuguese, who imported new commodities.

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4| Naukeurige beschrijvinge der Afrikaensche gewesten (Accurate description of the African regions) Olfert Dapper (1636-1669), with maps and engravings by Jacob van Meurs Amsterdam 1668 Paper and vellum Loan from the Heritage Library Hendrik Conscience, Antwerp (K 95269)

Travalogues on Benin and Kongo This book by the Dutch physician Olfert Dapper from the 17th century, contains descriptions of the flourishing kingdoms of Kongo and Benin, and of their first contacts with the Portuguese. Dapper himself never travelled to Africa. He based his writings on other written and oral sources that were not always reliable.

5| Coin (excelente) with Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile Europe Ca. 1500 Gold and metal Loan from the Archaeological Department, Antwerp (A272/11/MU1)

The gold from which this coin is struck, originates from Ghana (Gold Coast) in West Africa. The coin was found in a shipwreck.

6| Accounts of the Portuguese merchant family Ximenes Incorporated in the notaryship of N. Claeys 1615 Paper

Loan from the FelixArchive (City Archives), Antwerp (N#540.00065)

Cargo: humans From Antwerp at least eighty Portuguese firms traded with Portuguese oversees areas. In Lisbon the firm of the Ximenes family chartered vessels for the slave trade in Africa. It shares responsibility for the inhuman transit of enslaved people to South America. The return loads from America consisted of cane sugar, tobacco and dyewood.

7| Accounts of the trade journey of the ship Griffioen to West Africa. Paper Loan from the Nederlandsch EconomischHistorisch Archief, Amsterdam (2.5.71.12)

Investing in gold, ivory and slaves Families from Antwerp that had migrated to Zeeland and Amsterdam, also invested in the shipping to West African coastal areas. They searched for gold, ivory and slaves. Traces of this can be found in the trade documents on the second journey of the Griffioen, a vessel of the Antwerp shipping company Van den Bogaerde, to West Africa in 1616-1617.

8| Ship model of a caravel from the 16th-17th century. Scale 1:25 Jules Van Beylen, after an engraving by Pieter Breugel 1957-1961 Wood and textile Collection MAS (AS.1961.034)

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Earliest portraits of Africans

In the Low Countries of the 16th century there lived but few black people from West and Central Africa. Most were musicians and standard bearers who performed for royals and the elite. In addition a small group of diplomatic envoys from West Africa lived here. Free Africans were a notable exception in Antwerp. We know little about them. The majority were Africans living in the ambiance of Portuguese merchants and diplomats. They were domestic servants. The portrait study of Katharina depicts the twenty-year-old servant of a Portuguese merchant. The German artist Albrecht Dürer painted her in 1521. He met her in Antwerp, where he was the guest of João Brandão. Brandão was a commercial representative (factor) of the king of Portugal. This is one of the earliest known live model studies of an African person in European visual arts. The portrait study of an anonymous man seems even somewhat older.

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9| Portrait study of Katharina Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528) 1521 Photo reproduction © Museum Uffizi, Florence

10 | Portrait study of an anonymous man Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528) 1508(?) Photo reproduction © Albertina, Vienna

11 | Adoration of the Magi Anonymous master, Antwerp School First half of the 16th century Oil paint on panel Loan from the Hospitaal Museum O.LV. ter Potterie, Bruges (O.P.49.1)

Exotic kings, extravagant dress The Adoration of the Magi is a popular theme in Antwerp Mannerism, a style of painting from the early 16th century: people from distant lands are represented in extravagant, expensive apparel, as is here the young Black King. By means of the displayed, ‘royal’ wealth, using for example precious silk, the affluent Flemish, Portuguese and Italian merchants in Antwerp demonstrated that trade in the city of the Scheldt flourished. And that they were connected with the world.

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Africans pictured 17th century

In the 17th century baroque artists such as Rubens gradually gained more access to African models. Therefore their figures became more realistic. Older painters had rarely encountered Africans. For their ‘imagined’ black characters, they depended upon stereotypical images. Rubens worked mainly in the cosmopolitan city of Antwerp and in Italy. His images of Africans were an example for the rest of Europe. Nevertheless, truly personalised portraits remained a rarity. People with a darker skin were more often staged in mythological scenes. Or as the Black king in scenes with the Magi. In the work of Rubens’ apprentices Jacob Jordaens and Jan Boeckhorst, however, we find also black women. Africans were not always considered different. Artists presumed that they too were receptive to the message of Christ, and could be converted. However, in the 17th century and beyond, there are certainly not only positive images. Until today Africans are caricatured, and used in stereotypical propaganda messages.

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12 | Four studies of the head of an African Constantin Meunier (1831-1905) after Rubens (1577-1640) Between ca. 1890 and 1905 Oil paint on canvas Loan from the Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium, Brussels (inv. 12552)

Rubens’ African man With his quadruple sketch of an African man from 1613-1615, Rubens surpasses his contemporaries and later European artists as well. He depicts the man in diverse moods with attention to detail and the hues of the dark skin. The man’s identity is unknown. Rubens’ famous work was for a long time entitled Studies of a Moor. Here we show the excellent copy by Constantin Meunier, since Rubens’ sketch never leaves the museum in Brussels. Meunier was an admirer of Rubens.

13 | Study of an African man Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640) 1609 Photo reproduction © Collectie Getty Museum, Los Angeles

14 | Mozes and his Ethiopian wife

Mozes’ Ethiopian wife Mozes, an important figure in Judaism, had, according to the Old Testament, a relationship with an Ethiopian woman Sippora. Because of her dark skin tone, the couple was criticised by his family. Here, Mozes protects her. With his depiction Jacob Jordaens seems to invite us to view Mozes’ wife as ‘one of us’. This befits Christ’s message of charity in the New Testament. The theme of this work is quite unique.

15 | Solomon welcomes the queen of Sheba Jan Boeckhorst (1604-1668) Ca. 1650 Oil paint on canvas Loan from the Terninck Foundation, Antwerp

The queen of Sheba In the Old Testament the African queen of Sheba traveled to the palace of the Jewish king Solomon in Jerusalem. He welcomes the beauty with open arms. Boeckhorst goes against the standards of his time in his depiction of black people. He inverts the usual black and white-contrast: the queen is black and her servants, carrying her train, are white.

Jacob Jordaens (1593-1678) Ca. 1650 Oil paint on canvas Rubens House, Antwerp (RH.S.095), 1951 Long-term loan from the Collection of the Flemish Community

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Traces of the colonial past in Antwerp Late 19th and early 20th century

The European conquest of a vast area in Central Africa began from the late 19th century onwards. At the Berlin Conference in 1884-1885, European countries acknowledged the Belgian king Leopold II as head of the Congo Free State. He exploited it as a personal colony. For the port city of Antwerp, this is a ‘golden deal’. Antwerp politicians, the bourgeoisie and businessmen supported Leopold’s colonial project. They made good fortune plundering Congo’s natural resources, such as ivory and rubber. Traces of this colonial past are still present in Antwerp: buildings, street names, monuments, firms and derrick cranes on the waterfront, too. The early 20th century saw the rise of national and international criticism of the atrocities, the human suffering and the upheaval of societies in the Congo Free State. The Belgian parliament decided to take over Leopold’s private property. From 1908 until 1960 Belgian Congo was an official colony of the Belgian State.

From sideshow at the World Fairs to community: Congolese people in Antwerp

In 1885 and 1894 Antwerp was the decor of large scale World Fairs. For these occasions respectively 12 and 144 Congolese were shipped over. They were exhibited like a fairground attraction in a human zoo to the Belgian public. During their short stay many of the Congolese fell ill. Eight people died. The names and final resting places of these people are absent from the collective memory. In colonial times hardly any Congolese were living in Antwerp or in Belgium in general. This was a consequence of strictly controlled freedom of movement in the Congo. Also, travel from the colony to Belgium was limited. Only a few Congolese who worked on the Congo boats of the Matadi-Antwerp-line, or who travelled as servant (‘boy’), resided (temporarily) in the city of the Scheldt. It was only from the mid-20th century onwards, and particularly after the independence of the Congo in 1960, that the Congolese community in Antwerp gradually grew. 16 | Stand with the caption ‘De Congolanders’

In search of a name for a people How to name the colonised populations in the Congo State? Initially this is unclear. In 1885, French and Dutch names circulate. Should they be called Congolanders? Congotecs - like the Aztecs? Congolans? Congotiques?

Antwerp 1885 Wood and paint Former Folklore Museum, Antwerp Collection MAS (AF.00096)

17 | Hymn of the Alliance of Belgium – The song of the Congolese Journal La vie Anversoise 27 June – 4 July 1885 Paper Bequeathed by Paul Osterrieth, 1940 Collection MAS (MAS.0320.002) 20

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1885, Congolese by the river Scheldt

In 1885 Antwerp organised the first World Fair in Belgium. It presented the ideal occasion for popularising Leopold II’s colonial project. And for attracting investors to the port of Antwerp. As with all World Fairs, industry and trade were the principal ingredients. The exhibition breathed the optimism of progress. All participating countries advertised their colonies. The Belgian pavilion displayed Congolese mineral resources as well as cultural objects without much attention to the makers or the meaning. To highlight the ‘work of civilisation’ a Congolese human zoo was erected, as a fictitious village. Mockingly this was called ‘Vivi by the Scheldt’. At that time Vivi was the capital of the Congo. Twelve Congolese have to re-enact daily life in their village. The onlookers gawk at the spectacle. They were presented with a world divided along the stereotypical contrasts: ‘white = superior’ and ‘black = primitive’. Location: Antwerp Zuid Number of visitors: 3.500.000 for the whole exhibition, with various countries participating. Visitor profile: Belgian and international businessmen, high elite

18 | World Fair in Antwerp from May to October 1885

20 | Staged group photograph, Antwerp, 1885

Poster (reproduction) © Collection Letterenhuis, Antwerp

19 | The layout of the World Fair in Antwerp (Zuid), 1885 Plan (reproduction) © FelixArchive/ City Archives, Antwerp

From left to right: Tshinkela (man), Siouka M’Pongo (man), Zala (woman), Kassenkou (man), Tati Fernando (man), Lubendo (boy), Massala (man), Mongo (boy), Zoumba (woman), N’zambi (boy), Mabouté (girl) en Loumambe (boy).

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21 | Power statue (nkisi nkondi) of chief Ne Kuko Kongo peoples, Kikuku, Boma region, Democratic Republic of the Congo. 19th century Wood, metal strips, rope, textile and glass beads Loan from the Africa Museum, Tervuren (EO.0.07943)

Stolen power statue This highlight of the World Fair of 1885 belonged to Ne Kuko, a Kongo chief. Following activation by a ritual specialist (nganga), it protected its community and the village of Kikuku against calamity. The Belgian Alexandre Delcommune robbed the statue in 1878 and appropriated its power in order to protect his trading post. Ne Kuko was willing to pay a ransom. In vain. The statue ended up in the Museum of the Belgian Congo in Tervuren, in 1912. In 1973 president Joseph Mobutu requested to have it returned in the context of his ‘recours à l’authenticité’. The chief of Kikuku repeated this request in 2016. The statue plays an important role in the debate on the restitution of stolen Congolese patrimony.

22 | Portrait of Masala (?-1895) in Antwerp 1885 Photograph on cardboard Bequeathed by Paul Osterrieth, 1940 Collection MAS (MAS.0302.001)

‘King’ Masala

Masala, from the vicinity of the former capital Vivi, played a principal part. Preceeding his departure he was an important interpreter and mediator (ma-sala) between Congolese chiefs and European merchants. Fernando Tati was another interpreter. The Belgian press staged Masala as king. During his stay in Belgium he paid a diplomatic visit to Leopold II, and attended theatre performances.

23 | Caricature of Masala: Le roi s’amuse (The king has fun) 1885 Paper Bequeathed by Paul Osterrieth, 1940 Collection MAS (MAS.0302.004)

24 | Invoice of the firm F.& V. Claes, ‘bereidingen en handel van natuurkundige voorwerpen’ (‘preparations and trade in physical objects’). 1887 Paper and ink Loan from Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen, the Netherlands (series 607)

25 | Standing female statue Kongo peoples, recorded as ‘Teke’ Before 1885 Wood, fibre, beads and kaolin Purchased from the firm Frans and Vincent Claes Loan from Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen, the Netherlands (RV-607-4)

Twelve Congolese were selected for the passage to Mputu (Europe). 22

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After the World Fair After the World Fairs of 1885 and 1894 the transported Congolese returned by boat. King Leopold II donated numerous Congolese objects to the Ethnographic Museum in Leyden. Others were sold and later on resold. The world fairs were an attraction for museum curators. In 1887 the Claes firm sold objects to the Leyden museum and later to German museums. Until the early 20th century it played a key role in the distribution of Congolese objects imported via the port of Antwerp.

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The World Fair of 1894: another human zoo

In 1894 Antwerp organised a second World Fair. Once again, colonial imports and Congolese cultural artefacts were on display in the Belgian pavilion. The so-called ‘work of civilisation among the primitive Congolese population’ was demonstrated, as was the Belgian victory over Arabo/Swahili slave traders . The message: only colonisation can enlighten ‘the wild Congo’. In the human zoo 144 Congolese women, children and men re-enacted everyday life. Among them, members of the Force Publique, the colonial army. The villagers rowed in canoes, played their musical instruments and demonstrated their metallurgy. The village was built next to modern buildings. The Antwerp exhibition of 1894 was a dress rehearsal for the World Fair in Tervuren in 1897, and the inauguration of the Royal Pavilion in 1889. That was the forerunner of the museum in Tervuren. Location: in front of the Antwerp Museum of Fine Arts, Antwerp (Zuid) Number of visitors: 3.500.000 for the whole exhibition, with various countries participating Visitor profile: Belgian and international businessmen, the high elite

26 | The world exhibition in Antwerp. From May to November 1984

28-29 | View of the Congolese mock village with pond, Antwerp (Zuid), 1894

Poster (reproduction) © FelixArchive/City Archives, Antwerp

Photo reproduction © Heritage Library Hendrik Conscience, Antwerp

27 | Plan of the world exhibition in Antwerp (Zuid), 1894 Official plan (reproduction) © FelixArchive/City Archives, Antwerp

30 | Staged group portrait of Congolese, Antwerp (Zuid), 1894 Photo (reproduction) © Collection Africa Museum, Tervuren

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31 | Slit drum in the shape of an animal Loi (?), Ubangi, Democratic Republic of the Congo Before 1894 Wood Loan from the Africa Museum, Tervuren (MO.0.0.36413)

This split drum was again exhibited at the 1897 exhibition in Tervuren. It had been shown at the Antwerp exhibition of 1894.

A tragic discovery

During preparation of this MAS exhibition, unknown archival pieces came to light: during the 1894 Antwerp World Fair more than 44 seriously ill Congolese were admitted to two hospitals. At least eight people died. They were buried in the cemetery of the district of Kiel. Following its clearance their remains were placed in a mass grave in the Schoonselhof cemetery, together with those of anonymous Belgians. This tragic incident remained unexposed until now, and requires further research. In memoriam – 1894 Name Bitio Sabo Isokoyé Manguesse Monguene Binda Mangwanda Pezo

Age

Died

20 years old 24 years old 31 years old 18 years old 18 years old 25 years old 17 years old 18 years old

12 - 05 -1894 13 -05 -1894 22 -05 -1894 28 -05 -1894 28 -05 -1894 16 -06 -1894 22 -06 -1894 09 -07 -1894

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32 | Register of the Stuivenberg hospital in Antwerp

34 | Map of the liquidated cemetery Kiel [plot K]

1894 Paper and ink File Alexis Mols in General Direction World exhibition 1894 Loan from the FelixArchive/ City Archives, Antwerp (325#988)

24 August 1892 to 2 February 1895 Paper Loan from the FelixArchive/City Archives, Antwerp ( 637#40)

Alexis Mols The names of the 44 sick Congolese, of whom eight died, are mentioned in the archival file of the Antwerp citizen Alexis Mols (1853-1923). He also mentioned the costs of their healthcare. The liberal politician Mols was an industrialist and merchant in Congolese palm oil, rubber and ivory. He was member of the board of the world exhibition of 1894. Mols was a confidant of Leopold II and co-manager of the Antwerp company Anglo-Belgian Indian Rubber and Exploration Company (ABIR). It owned a rubber concession in the Congo Free State.

Dead and sick Congolese From the 144 peopled shipped in from Congo, two died upon arrival in Antwerp in May 1894, due to extreme undernourishment: Bitio and Sabo. Later, 43 women, children and men, and one baby, were admitted to hospital. They had respiratory problems, suffered from serious eye problems and dysentery. Their age varied from 16 to 31 years. Together they spent 503 days in the Stuivenberg hospital before being repatriated in August 1894.

33 | Register of the Stuivenberg hospital in Antwerp 1894 Reproduction File Alexis Mols in General Direction World exhibition 1894 Loan from the FelixArchive/City Archives, Antwerp (325#988)

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Forgotten mass grave

Initially the eight deceased Congolese were buried in the Kiel cemetery. This was shut in 1938, and in 1945 two V-bombs destroyed parts of the neglected cemetery. ‘Perpetually licensed’ grave monuments, such as those of the Antwerp elite, were rebuilt in the Schoonselhof cemetery in Wilrijk. The remains of less well-off Antwerp citizens and of the eight Congolese ended up in a mass grave, the Ossuary in plot U. There is no commemorative plaque for the Congolese or the other 360.000 nameless citizens.

35 | The forgotten resting place of the eight Congolese (1894) The cemeteries at Kiel and Schoonselhof Realised by MAS, 2020

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1930, Belgian centennial. Another world fair

At the 100th anniversary of Belgium the port city of Antwerp was - for the third time - the backdrop for an international exhibition, together with the industrial city of Liège. The success of the world port and national pride were two central themes. Congolese soldiers of the Force Publique, the colonial army, travelled to Belgium. The organisers no longer staged spectacular shows in a Congolese human zoo. This time the reconstruction of a West African village with ponds in Kiel Vest was a French private initiative. Location: Kiel in Antwerp Number of visitors: over 5.000.000 Visitor profile: Belgian and international businessmen, other Belgian citizens

36 | World exhibition for Colonies, Maritime Shipping and Flemish art, Antwerp (Kiel) Brochure (enlarged reproduction) 1930 © FelixArchive/City Archive, Antwerp

37 | Plan of the world exhibition, Antwerp (Kiel) Reproduction 1930 Collection MAS, Antwerp (MAS.0301 1/3-3-3)

38 | Dioramas of the Congo palace at the world exhibition

39 | Gazet van Antwerpen – the Congo palace Program booklet of the World Exhibition October 1930 Paper and ink Gift from Willy and Sibylle Doninck-Roop, 2012 Collection MAS (MAS.0077.181)

40 | Gazet van Antwerpen – Colonial section Program booklet of the world exhibition May 1930 Paper and ink Gift from Willy and Sibylle Doninck-Roop, 2012 Collection MAS (MAS.0077.018)

Reproductions Gazet van Antwerpen 1930 Collection MAS, Antwerp (MAS.0077.026)

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41 | Gazet van Antwerpen – Colonial school propaganda Program of the world exhibition August 1930 Paper and ink Gift from Willy and Sibylle Doninck-Roop, 2012 Collection MAS (MAS.0077.102)

42 | Gazet van Antwerpen – View of the dioramas

43 | The Word exhibition of Antwerp 1894 Montage of historical images MAS, 2020

44 | Anvers Congo Compagnie Maritime Belge Poster Louis Royon (reproduction) Ca. 1930 © Collection Letterenhuis, Antwerp

Program of the world exhibition May 1930 Paper and ink Gift from Willy and Sibylle Doninck-Roop, 2012 Collection MAS (MAS.0077.026)

Stereotypical image In the Congo palace the successes and progress due to colonisation were proudly displayed. There was a lot of propaganda for the catholic missionary work. Conversion was emphasised, as was the usefulness of missions, schools and boarding schools, and medical care. Dioramas with plaster casts rendered a stereotypical image of the Congolese population. It was supposed to live amid exotic fauna and flora.

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1920. First Congolese objects in an Antwerp museum

From 1900 onwards, ‘Congo-boats’ moored in Antwerp more regularly, laden with goods from the colony. Likewise, weapons, art works and utensils of the Congolese peoples, gathered during military campaigns, Christian missions and scientific expeditions. Often violence or abuse of power was involved. For over thirty years the majority of objects ended up in the Museum of the Belgian Congo in Tervuren, where the ‘work of civilisation’ was exulted. Returned colonists showed colonial objects as ‘trophies’ in their homes. Objects also circulated in the emerging trade in Congolese art. These ended up in private collections. In 1920 the first objects for its ‘Congolese section’ came into possession of the Antwerp Museum Vleeshuis. Then the city purchased about 1600 pieces from art dealer Henri Pareyn, and Minister of Colonies Louis Franck donated a further sixty or so, following his tour of inspection in Congo. This caused the museum of Tervuren to lose its monopoly as heritage institute for Congolese objects. The collections of Pareyn and Franck form the foundations for the African collections of the city of Antwerp.

The donation by Minister of Colonies Louis Franck to the city of Antwerp

From February to October 1920 Louis Franck, Minister of Colonies, and an Antwerp citizen, made a tour of inspection of the Congo. Upon his return he donated the objects he had gathered to the Antwerp Museum Vleeshuis instead of the museum in Tervuren. For a minister, this was singular. The collection includes unique pieces. Franck (1868-1937), son of liberal and free thinking parents, studied at the Royal Academy Antwerp and was active as a lawyer in maritime law in Antwerp. From 1918 to 1924 he was Minister of Colonies. Louis Franck founded the Koloniale Hogeschool (Colonial College), now Campus Middelheim of the University of Antwerp. The college was a training institute combining almost military discipline with an academic education. A rigorously selected male elite corps was prepared for the work as colonial civil servant in the Belgian colonies of Congo and Ruanda-Urundi. Between 1924 and 1962 about one thousand students graduated in the colonial and administrative sciences.

45 | Portrait of Louis Franck (1868-1937)

47 | Book Le Congo Belge, Tome II Author Louis Franck. Editor: La Renaissance du Livre (Brussels) 1929-1930 Paper Collection MAS (AF/D.212/1 of 2)

ca. 1920 Photo (reproduction) © Letterenhuis, Antwerp

46 | Book Le Congo Belge, Tome I Author Louis Franck. Editor: La Renaissance du Livre (Brussels) 1929-1930 Leather and paper Loan from a private collection, Antwerp

48 | Journey to the Belgian Congo by Louis Franck, Minister of Colonies Post cards Congo-Belge. Nr. 109, 110, 114 and 111 1920 Paper Gift from Marc Favril, 2009 Collection MAS (AE.2009.0018.0111D. 0112D; 0116D; 0117D)

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Early collector and merchant: Henri Pareyn

Henri Pareyn (1869-1928) was a son of West Flemish family of boatmen. Since his marriage to Césarina Deraedt in 1896 he lived in Antwerp. This early collector became a key figure in the Belgian trade in Congolese art. Although he himself never travelled to Africa, he rifled the quays of the river Scheldt. ‘Congo-boats’ moored there every month. He bought objects off returned colonials. Until his death in 1928 Pareyn’s house in the Tolstraat was full of Congolese objects. Pareyn never ran a gallery, strictly speaking. Yet he supplied a wide network of buyers, from beyond Belgium as well. He sold to the museum of Tervuren and to numerous private collectors. His customer base included avant-garde artists and art dealers in Paris. After his death his collection was put up for auction.

49 | Portrait of Henri Pareyn (1869-1928) Early 20th century Photo (reproduction) ©MAS archive, with permission of B. de Grunne

50 | Antwerp council decision. Approval purchase Congo collection Pareyn 17 May 1920 Paper Historical archive, former Ethnographic Museum Antwerp Collection MAS

A big deal In 1920 Henri Pareyn offered up for sale a part of his collection to the Antwerp Museum Vleeshuis. Until that time the museum had mainly focused on European art and the history of Antwerp. Following long negotiations Pareyn succeeded in striking a deal: the city of Antwerp paid him 43.000 Belgian francs, a considerable amount at that time. Frans Claes and Louis Franck mediated with the municipal administration. The money was paid in instalments over a period of four years.

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51 | Auction booklet of the collection Pareyn, Art nègre du Congo (‘Negro Art’ of the Congo)

53 | Museum Vleeshuis, a display of the purchased Congolese art

Imprimerie Brouwers Fils & C°, Anvers, 1928 Collection MAS (EMA 20040)

International auction After the death of Pareyn in 1928, his widow put up the remainder of his vast collection for public auction, in the luxurious halls of the Antwerp Grand Hotel Weber. The auction was directed by Frans Claes and attracted countless national and international buyers: private collectors, dealers and representatives of European ethnographic museums. For five days buyers could place their bids. With some 2000 lots this remains one of the largest auctions of Congolese art ever.

Ca. 1930-1940 Photo (reproduction) Collection MAS (AE.2009.0152.0038 and 0039)

54 | Grand Hotel Weber, furnished as auction hall, 1928 Photo (reproduction) © Africa Museum, Tervuren

55 | Drum Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo Late 19th-early 20th century Wood and fibre Purchased from Pareyn Collection MAS (AE.3919)

52 | Grand Hotel Weber Antwerp, ca. 1920

56 | Female statue

Post card (reproduction) © FelixArchive/City Archives, Antwerp

Kongo peoples, Democratic Republic of the Congo Late 19th century Wood and metal Purchased from Pareyn Collection MAS (AE.0602)

From Antwerp to England and the US The proceeds of the Pareyn auction amounted to nearly two million Belgian francs! The Antwerp press mentioned ‘une vente sensationnelle’ (a sensational sale), yet it was bitter: a mere 19 objects were bought for the Museum Vleeshuis. The museum of Tervuren too, derived little benefit. The lion’s share went to Sir Henry Wellcome (1853-1936), an Englishman with American roots. Thousands of pieces of the former Pareyn collection relocated to England and the United States. To this day, Pareyn objects are traded on the art market. 34

57 | Jug with standing man Voania (from) Muba, Woyo, Democratic Republic of the Congo 1920-1930 Earthenware Purchased from Pareyn Collection MAS (AE.0589)

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The Congo collection: from Museum Vleeshuis to the MAS

The Museum Vleeshuis was the first to show the Congolese objects from the municipal collections, from 1920 onwards. The Congo section was to acquaint the Belgian public with the colony’s peoples. The museum presented the objects in a mixed-up way, in the spirit of the times: weapons, statues, masks and utensils stood and lay among animal skulls, as in a cabinet of curiosities. During WWII the Congolese objects ended up in the Hessenhuis. Subsequently, they remained all but unseen for forty years, until the long-planned Ethnographic Museum on the Suikerrui opened its doors in 1988. Since 2007 the Congolese objects belong to the World Cultures collection of the MAS, which opened in 2011.

58 | Part 1. The Congo collection in the Museum Vleeshuis Ca. 1930-1940

Part 2. The Colonial College in Antwerp Montage historical images Realised by MAS, 2020

– 1920. f i r s t c o n g o l e s e o b j e c t s i n a n a n t w e r p m u s e u m –

Pioneer: Frans Olbrechts

The Belgian scientist Frans Olbrechts (1899-1958) conducted ground-breaking research into cultures from Europe and beyond. He is considered the spiritual father of the Ethnographic Museum of Antwerp, founded in 1952 without a permanent museum building. Olbrechts was one of the first to approach Congolese objects not as mere ethnographic witnesses, but as art. Early on he distinguished the hand of individual artists. Olbrechts had trained as a germanist at the Catholic University of Leuven and as an ethnologist at Columbia University, New York. He developed his career at the University of Ghent and, from 1947 until his death in 1958, he was director of the Royal Museum of the Belgian Congo in Tervuren. 59 | Exhibition poster Kongo kunst

61 | Ex libris of Frans Olbrechts

Design: Jean Van Noten 1937 Paper Historical archive, former Ethnographic Museum Antwerp Collection MAS (AE.2001.0026.D)

Design: Jean Van Noten S.d. Paper and ink Loan from a private collection, Ghent

60 | Portrait of Frans M. Olbrechts (1899-1958) Design: Jean Van Noten 1937 Charcoal drawing Gift from M. Olbrechts-Maurissens, 1977 Collection MAS (AE.1977.0037.0274)

62 | Book Les arts plastiques du Congo belge, (The plastic arts of the Belgian Congo), French translation of the Dutch edition of 1946 Frans Olbrechts, in collaboration with Albert Maesen 1959 Brussels Collection MAS (library EVA)

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63 | Magazine cutting about the Congo collection of the Museum Vleeshuis 1937 Paper Loan from the Letterenhuis, Antwerp (Olbrechts archive, 0203)

Ground-breaking exhibition With the ground-breaking exhibition Kongo kunst in the Stadsfeestzaal (City Festival Hall) in 1937-1938, Olbrechts established Congolese art as an international player. Of the more than 1500 shown, many pieces originated from the donation by Louis Franck and the purchase from Henri Pareyn. The poster shows a Hemba ancestral statue. The city of Antwerp purchased the statue in 1930 for a hefty amount.

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Missionaries: bonfires and respect

In colonial times, the main objectives of missionaries were the mass conversion to Christianity of the Congolese, and a sound elementary education. Medical care too, was an essential task of friars, Brothers and Sisters. The attitude with which the missionaries met traditional Congolese culture and religion, varied individually. Many came into conflict with the banganga, spiritual healers, and with Congolese chiefs. Well-known are the stories of 19th century bonfires with which religious brothers burnt the ‘pernicious’ and ‘heathen’ ritual objects of Congolese religion. Ancient art works and utensils were destroyed. Yet not all missionaries operated in this way. Some respected the expressions of Congolese philosophy and studied Congolese languages and cultures. As their knowledge increased, their appreciation of its wealth grew. Some missionaries documented their Congolese objects. These often ended up later in Belgian and other European museums.

64 | Chief Bambi Graça, Kinsimba (village), Angola Photo: Jan Vissers Gift from Jan Vissers, 1959 Collection MAS (AE.1959.0051.0002.D)

Jan Vissers: missionaryanthropologist

to exist within fifty years. This notion moved him to feverishly acquire and document objects. Vissers gained the trust of chieftains and received numerous crucifixes. He collected for the Dutch Africa Museum in Berg en Dal, the museum of Tervuren and the Ethnographic Museum in Antwerp.

The Dutch Father Jan Vissers (?-1989) was active from 1946 into the 1960s among various peoples in northern Angola en Cabinda. He developed into an ethnologist-anthropologist. In his opinion, their ‘dying art’ would cease

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Crucifixes and power sceptres

During the Christianisation in the 15th and 16th centuries, the coastal inhabitants of the Kongo kingdom became acquainted with Christian symbols. They themselves began to produce them, giving them their own meaning. Portuguese and Flemish crucifixes served as models for those of the Kongo chiefs. The Kongo peoples interpreted the shape and symbolic meaning of the European crucifixes in their own way. Crucifixes (nkangi kiditu) came to be part of the power-charged objects (minkisi) of the chiefs. They possessed a healing as well as destructive power. They served as distinguishing signs. The rulers carried them as sceptres. By doing so rulers enforced their authority and their royal lineage. According to Father Vissers, some crucifixes date from the 18th century.

65 | Crucifix

67 | Crucifix

Essi Kongo, village of Kivola, Angola Acquired from clan head Matundu (clan Nekontshi Mpangi Nekongo) Wood, copper (the corpus is a cast from a Portuguese model) Purchased from Father Jan Vissers, 1959 Collection MAS (AE.1959.0015.0001)

Solongo, village of Mongo, Angola Acquired from clan head Badi Sita (clan Tskala Mpanzu, Angola) Copper Purchased from Father Jan Vissers, 1959 Collection MAS (AE.1959.0015.0005)

68 | Cross pendant with female figure

66 | Crucifix Essi Kongo, village of Kinguvu, Angola Acquired from the clan Nenoki Ndumba a Nzinga Copper and lead Purchased from Father Jan Vissers, 1959 Collection MAS (AE.1959.0015.0003)

Solongo, village of Kifinda, Angola Acquired from clan head Kothsii a Mvemba (clan Kengue) Fibre rope and brass Purchased from Father Jan Vissers, 1959 Collection MAS (AE.1959.0015.0011)

â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 1920. f i r s t c o n g o l e s e o b j e c t s i n a n a n t w e r p m u s e u m â&#x20AC;&#x201C;

69 | Cross pendant with Christ and feather attire

73 | Figure of Christ

Mimbamba, village of Kinsimba, Angola Acquired from clan head Pedro Mendes (clan Miungu) Copper Purchased from Father Jan Vissers, 1959 Collection MAS (AE.1959.0015.0012)

70 | Small crucifix Essi Kongo, village of Fuansi, Angola Acquired from clan head Lutete Mavungu (clan Mbenza Nekongo) Wood and metal Purchased from Father Jan Vissers, 1959 Collection MAS (AE. 1959.0015.0009)

Essi Kongo, village of Kinsimba, Angola Acquired from clan head Bambi Graça (clan Simba kia Kostshi) Copper Purchased from Father Jan Vissers, 1959 Collection MAS (AE.1959.0015.0006)

74 | Figure of Christ Essi Kongo, village of Lengue, Angola Acquired from clan head Antonia Lutete Kela (clan Mpudi a Nzinga) Copper Purchased from Father Jan Vissers, 1959 Collection MAS (AE.1959.0015.0004)

71 | Figure of Christ Solongo, village of Mukula, Angola Acquired from clan head Ngonga (clan Ne Petelu a Ngombe) Copper Purchased from Father Jan Vissers, 1959 Collection MAS (AE.1959.0015.0010)

72 | Figure of Christ Essi Kongo, village of Yenga, Angola Acquired from clan head Pedro Bambi (clan Kilamvu) Copper Purchased from Father Jan Vissers, 1959 Collection MAS (AE.1959.0015.0008)

– 100 x c o n g o –

Nkanu art from an abolished Mission museum

In 2016 the MAS Museum receives an unexpected donation. As so many Belgian Mission museums, the friars of Onze-Lieve-Vrouw van Lourdes (Our Lady of Lourdes), are facing an ageing population and the looming vacancy of premises. The generation that has been active in the (Belgian) Congo ages rapidly. When their Mission museum in Oostakker closed down, the congregation sought a new location for its collection. A considerable part was adopted by the MAS. Among the pieces are the nkanda sculptures of the Nkanu. The nkanda is a rite of passage for boys reaching adulthood. The colourful sculptures and panels that are shown during this education refer to the importance of fertility of humans and animals. The nkanda sculptures and panels carry metaphorical messages that refer to immoral behaviour. That which in everyday life is respected, may, through the ‘ritual’ framework, be mocked momentarily.

75-77 | Nkanda panels: soldier of the Force Publique, a missionary and a man Nkanu, Democratic Republic of the Congo Mid-20th century Wood, pigment, bamboo and leather Gift from the Congregation Our Lady of Lourdes, Oostakker, 2016 Collection MAS (MAS.0170.049, 050 and 051)

78 | Small nkanda panel (parrot) Nkanu, Democratic Republic of the Congo Mid-20th century Wood and pigment Gift from the Congregation Our Lady of Lourdes, Oostakker, 2016 Collection MAS (MAS.0170.052)

– 1920. f i r s t c o n g o l e s e o b j e c t s i n a n a n t w e r p m u s e u m –

79-80 | Dolls (man and woman) Nkanu, Democratic Republic of the Congo Mid-20th century Wood and pigment Gift from the Congregation of Our Lady of Lourdes, Oostakker, 2016 Collectie MAS (MAS.0170.035 and MAS.0170.0036)

81 | Pole sculpture (kala, plural makala) Nkanu, Democratic Republic of the Congo Mid-20th century Wood and pigment Gift from the Congregation of Our Lady of Lourdes, Oostakker, 2016 Collection MAS (MAS.0170.053)

82 | View of a mission exhibition in Oostakker, 1947 Photo (reproduction) ©KADOC, Leuven

83 | View of a mission exhibition of the Congregation of Our Lady of Lourdes, Oostakker, 1947 Photo (reproduction) © KADOC, Leuven

– 100 x c o n g o –

Under the black/white mask

The film Under the white mask was made for this exhibition by Matthias De Groof (b. 1981). It is a new montage of the art documentary Under the black mask by the Belgian film director Paul Haesaerts (1901-1974). Haesaerts’ film from 1958 is about Congolese art objects and utensils. Twenty of the highlights shown in this exhibition appear in his version. This educational art documentary might have been innovative, yet the content was stereotypical. In the reworking by De Groof the sculptures are not talked about, but they themselves look at, and talk to us. They do so using the words of the poet, thinker and politician Aimé Césaire (1913-2008). His French text from 1950 was translated into Lingala, and holds up a troubling and still extremely topical mirror to Europe. The text as well as the music already existed by the time Haesaerts directed his film. According to De Groof, Under the white mask is the film that Haesaerts could have made. 84 | Under the white mask: The film that Haesaerts could have made. Date: 2020 Realization: Matthias De Groof Text: (based on) Aimé Césaire’s ‘Discours sur le colonialisme’ Editing: Matthias De Groof and Neel Cockx Translation Lingala: Bienvenu Sene Mongaba Translation Dutch: Matthias De Groof Voice: Maravilha Munto Production: Daniel De Valck (Cobra Films) Duration: 10 min.

85 | Screenplay with sketches for Sous le masque noir Paul Haesaerts 1957-1958 Paper Loan from RMFAB, Archives Contemporary Art of Belgium, Brussels (AHKB, 565)

86 | Art documentary Sous le masque noir Archival documents Paul Haesaerts, Art et Cinéma 1957-1958 Paper Loan from RMFAB, Archives Contemporary Art of Belgium, Brussels (AHKB, 563, 566, 565)

– under the bl ack/white mask –

HIGHLIGHTS FROM THE MAS COLLECTION

100 HIGHLIGHTS

Discover the 100 highlights of twenty Congolese peoples! Together they offer a view of Congoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ancient cultural and artistic abundance. What did they signify? And what stories do they tell? The African collection of the MAS numbers around 15.000 objects. Over 5000 objects originate from the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Congo-Kinshasa), and neighbouring countries: the Republic of the Congo (Congo-Brazzaville) and Angola. You will go on a virtual journey through present-day Congo. Evidently we will not visit everywhere: not all peoples are represented in the MAS collection. We start in the southwest, at the mouth of the river Congo and in the historical kingdom of Kongo. We finish in the northern equatorial area. Colonial borders have artificially divided erstwhile culturally coherent territories and many peoples. Art objects and utensils, separated a century ago, are reunited here!

Kongo peoples From the 16th century, the Kongo peoples had to deal with the slave trade, increasing European intrusion and internal power struggles. Colonisation set in from the late 19th century. France, Portugal and Belgium divided the kingdom of Kongo, and separated the population.

KONGO PEOPLES

Nowadays various Kongo peoples live in the region of Congo estuary: in Gabon, Angola with the enclave Cabinda, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and the Republic of the Congo. Socially and culturally they are connected to one another. They also share the historical awareness of their old kingdom. Also, the phenomenon of chieftaincy remains important.

1-2

Power statues of standing women (minkisi) Kongo peoples, Democratic Republic of the Congo/Republic of the Congo/Angola Late 19th century and before 1920 Wood and metal Gift from Louis Franck, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0608 and AE.0609) 3

Power statue (nkisi nkondi ) Kongo peoples, Republic of the Congo/ Democratic Republic of the Congo Late 19th-early 20th century Wood, metal and textile bundles with magic substances Purchased from Jacobs, 1942 Collection MAS (AE.1942.0002.0002) 5

Power statue (nkisi)

Female power statue (nkisi)

Kongo peoples: Vili(?), Republic of the Congo/Democratic Republic of the Congo/Angola Early 20th century(?) Wood and metal Bequeathed by Van DeurenVan Remoortere, 2003 Collection MAS (AE.2003.0010.0009)

Kongo peoples, Republic of the Congo/ Democratic Republic of the Congo/Angola Late 19th-early 20th century Wood, glass and metal Gift from Louis Franck, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0606)

Powerful statues Minkisi (‘medicines’, ‘power objects’) are objects charged with power from the invisible land of spirits and the dead.

– 100 x c o n g o –

Initiation figure of the chief or nganga Kongo peoples, Democratic Republic of the Congo/Republic of the Congo/Angola Late 19th-early 20th century Wood and metal Gift from Geudens, 1923 Collection MAS (AE.0618)

Power statue (nkisi nkozo) Kongo peoples: Yombe, Democratic Republic of the Congo/Republic of the Congo Late 19th century Wood, metal, mirror, cane, gunpowder, cowry, raffia, textile, resin, horn, monkey paw, kaolin, animal skin and red pigment Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0621)

Night rifles The dog, wearing a hunting bell around its neck, carries a medicine box on its back, which is only partially intact. The canes between his paws and on his back were filled with gunpowder. These ‘night rifles’ were meant to kill witches. The dog was the hunter’s companion in daily life. It also helped the nganga in his search for dangers in the invisible world.

Chief with supernatural powers Just like a nkisi statue, a Kongo chief was charged with supernatural powers during his inauguration. As a spiritual leader he himself was a nkisi, a living amulet. His destiny was the destiny of everyone and everything. His authority was sustained by the ancestors. His power was so enormous that people had to be protected against it. Aided by ritual specialists (diviners, sorcerers...) he was a intermediary between the worlds of the living and the dead. He was both feared and respected.

Power statue (nkisi), sitting man Kongo peoples, Democratic Republic of the Congo/Republic of the Congo Late 19th-early 20th century Wood, European textile, raffia, mirror glass, horn, bone, resin, claw and pigment Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0612)

– 100 h i g h l i g h t s –

KONGO PEOPLES

They played a central role in politics and religion, mediated with the supernatural and helped humans to deal with capricious spirits and forces of nature. A benevolent statue protected fertility and provided remedy. Malevolent statues (nkisi nkondi) persecuted evildoers. The sculptor carved the statue. The nganga or ritual specialist added the active substances. They were also called ‘fetishes’, from the Portuguese feitiço. This roughly means ‘magic charm’ or ‘idol’.

Power statue (nkisi) with raised arm Mother and child (phemba) Kongo peoples, Democratic Republic of the Congo/Republic of the Congo Late 19th-early 20th century Wood, mirror, ivory, metal, textile, claw, cowry, fibres, shell, bone, resin and pigment Gift from Louis Franck, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0611)

Beauty and courage

Mirrors with a meaning A nkisi power statue was activated by a nganga or ritual specialist using magical substances. Imported European commodities such as dyed textiles and tacks intensified its power. Mirrors, ‘solidified water’, held a special meaning for the Kongo. These separated the world of the living from the one of the spirits, warded off danger and offered protection. The eyes of a nkisi statue were often inlaid with mirror glass, just like the small boxes containing magic ingredients, which were fixed to the stomach. The nganga used the mirror box to detect evil.

KONGO PEOPLES

Kongo peoples: Yombe, Republic of the Congo/Democratic Republic of the Congo Late 19th century Wood, beads, mirror, metal and pyrography Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0555)

In the 19th century statues of a mother and child played an important role in fertility rituals. This figure refers to women as the givers of life. She is represented according to ancient ideals of beauty: filed teeth, scar patterns on her chest and back... The scars, in reality a centimetre in thickness, made women attractive and proved their courage during the scarification. A beautiful woman was destined to be an exemplary spouse. Body decorations were also used to indicate her ethnic group and social status. 11

Staff of office (mvuala) 9

CT-scans

Performed by the Radiology Section, UZA (Wilrijk) in collaboration with G. Van der Snickt, heritage scientist, UAntwerpen, ARCHES & AXES research groups, 2020

Kongo peoples: Yombe, Republic of the Congo/Angola 19th century Wood and copper Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0719)

A chief’s staff of office For the Kongo peoples, batons (mvuala) refer to 14th century myths about the origins of their realm. Even after its decline, 400 years later, these staffs remained a symbol of the communication between the living and the ancestors. For a long time they were an important item in the chief’s outfit. – 100 x c o n g o –

Cap (mpu) Kongo peoples: Vili, Republic of the Congo/Democratic Republic of the Congo/Angola Late 19th-early 20th century Raffia or pineapple fibres Bequeathed by J. Baetes, 1938 Collection MAS (AE.4489)

Caps with status In the hierarchy of the Kongo peoples, caps were important distinguishing signs. They indicated status, authority and identity. This mitre-shaped, finely woven type (mpu) was reserved for men and women of higher rank. The caps were made of dried palm leaves or pineapple fibres. The ingenious crochet technique was the work of men, and could take months to finish. The geometrical patterns go back to the 16th and 17th century. 13-14

Lidded baskets Kongo peoples, Republic of the Congo/ Angola Unknown Wood Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.6572 and AE. 6573)

Prestigious baskets People stored clothing, valuables as well as ancestral relics in these prestigious baskets. Strips of bark and wood are woven in intermittently to increase their solidity. This craft was based on an ancient tradition which existed until the early 20th century. The interior consists of broad, uncoloured plaits of plant material. On the outside, complex geometrical patterns bear symbolic meaning. Thus, the diamond shape refers to the circle of life. Each corner indicate a transitional phase: birth, adulthood, death and the reception into the world of ancestors and spirits. 15

Emblem of power Kongo peoples, Republic of the Congo/ Democratic Republic of the Congo/Angola 19th-20th century(?) Ivory and patina Purchased from Jan Vissers, 1959 Collection MAS (AE.1959.0015.0019)

Clenched fists, thumbs up For the Kongo peoples, a clenched fist with the thumb raised is a symbol of royal power. This ivory emblem is decorated with rosettes and an imitation of cowry shells. The rosettes were a symbolic motif of the Lemba association, established as early as the 17th century. It protected married couples and settled trade disputes.

â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 100 h i g h l i g h t s â&#x20AC;&#x201C;

KONGO PEOPLES

The sitting figure refers to the female founder-ancestor of the clan, or to the fertility of human beings and of nature. The motifs are pictograms. They contain messages about the relations between the living and the dead.

Masks as mediators

Mask with feather headdress

KONGO PEOPLES

Kongo peoples: Vili, Republic of the Congo/Democratic Republic of the Congo Mid-20th century(?) Wood, feathers, plastic buttons, textile, leather and horn Bequeathed by A. Van DeurenVanremoortere, 2003 Collection MAS (AE.2003.0010.0017) 17

Face mask Kongo peoples: Yombe (?), Republic of the Congo/Democratic Republic of the Congo Late 19th century Wood Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.3714)

Rulers made use of masks. They represented chiefs and ritual experts (banganga). These talented and highly trained healers communicated with the supernatural. One is adorned with a lavish feather headdress. For the Kongo, bird feathers evoke the idea of mediation with the supernatural. Masks acted against troublemakers. They ensured due respect was paid to the ancestral laws and the ruler’s authority. The masks look fearsome with their open mouths and bare, sharply-filed teeth.

Teke At the Berlin Conference in 1884-1885, European countries subdivided Africa. The territories of many peoples were partitioned, without the inhabitants’ consent.

TEKE

The Tio kingdom, with the Teke and Mfinu, was also separated: the Teke lived under the colonial rule of France and Belgium. Nowadays most Teke live along the shores of Malebo-pool and the Congo river in the Republic of the Congo (Brazzaville), the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Kinshasa). A few groups live in Gabon. Some marks of distinction of Teke rulers are displayed on the ceremonial weapons and ritual statues. Their chiefs and other dignitaries could be recognized by their hairstyle with a bun on the back of the head. Their beard was a sign of dignity and wisdom. Chiefs bore parallel lines of scarification (mabina) on the forehead and cheeks. For the Teke and related peoples this was the ideal of beauty. It also indicated their social status.

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20-21

Male statue (kira or buti)

Two divination figurines

Teke, Republic of the Congo/Democratic Republic of the Congo Late 19th-early 20th century Wood and crust patina Bequeathed by A. Van DeurenVan Remoortere, 2003 Collection MAS (AE.2003.0010.0011)

Teke, Republic of the Congo/Democratic Republic of the Congo Before 1940 Brass Gift from Engels, 1941 Requisitioned WWII, copper, 1946 Collection MAS (AE.1941.0006.0001, AE.1946.0002.0017)

Charged statues The Teke used power statues in divination, as protection against evil spirits or to amass wealth and power. During rituals the statues were charged with power by adding magical substances. Such cult objects were also containers of spirits. Ancestral spirits dwelt in nkira statues and anonymous spirits in buti figures. The function of the statuettes is not revealed by their appearance. This is possibly a statue of an ancestor who offered protection to his or her descendants. Names of Teke statues refer to the ancestor’s occupation in life: such as ‘ancestor chief’, ’ancestor hunter’ or ’ancestor blacksmith’.

Spiritual blacksmith A blacksmith who forged iron tools, weapons and divination figurines, was a ritual specialist as well. He was akin to healers and political leaders. The extraction of minerals from iron ore was compared to childbirth. It was subject to strict ritual prescriptions. 22

TEKE

Ceremonial axe (imbu) Teke, Republic of the Congo/Democratic Republic of the Congo Late 19th-early 20th century Wood, copper (axe blade), brass, iron and nails Purchased from auction Breckpot, 1930 Collection MAS (AE.0771)

The mighty word of the chief

Jug with a human head Teke, Republic of the Congo/Democratic Republic of the Congo Early 20th century Earthenware Purchased from auction Breckpot, 1930 Collection MAS (AE.0595)

On important occasions the chief would wear a ceremonial axe of prestige over his shoulder. This piece with a decorated haft is a masterpiece. The top is in the shape of a human head and the copper blade sticks out of the open mouth. It symbolizes the mighty word of the chief and his role as a judge. Just like other power symbols the axe could also represent the chief when he was absent at village meetings.

– 100 h i g h l i g h t s –

Mbuun MBUUN

Challenging cup

This Mbuun cup probably once contained ritual kaolin (mpio). It was passed along during rituals of investiture of a chief. The gesture legitimated his ownership of land and symbolised the presence of his ancestors. A figure with bent knees, arms outstretched forward, and hands facing up, bears a cup. According to oral traditions this was the provocative gesture of a challenger who, with bent knees, was offering earth to his opponent. The latter would adopt the same posture and boldly strike the earth from the hands.

Caryatid-shaped cup Mbuun, Democratic Republic of the Congo Late 19th century(?) Wood Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0281)

Mbuun cups shaped like a female figure bearing an object (caryatid) are extremely rare.

Pende Dancers wearing wooden Pende masks (mbuya), with raffia collar and headdress, performed during various festivities, such as the ending of the mukanda, the initiation rituals for boys.

PENDE

The mbuya masks represent dozens of characters. Each has a proper choreography and rhythm. Typical characters are the Chief, the Bewitched, the subversive Clown and the Warrior or Law enforcer. In the course of time some characters were replaced by new ones. These came into being based on new dance steps, rhythms and songs, for which occasion a new mask was created, the ultimate step in the creative process. The masks were personifications of ancestral spirits and used as mediators between the dead and the living. They were worn by men, women and children could also join the dance. Nowadays masks are also used in entertaining performances. 52

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27-31

Mask (mbuya) Pende, Democratic Republic of the Congo Before 1920 Wood, raffia and pigment Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0554)

Death mask This mask with a male face and an extension under the chin is called Giwoyo. The plank-shaped extension is not a beard. It represents a deceased person on a stretcher and refers to the ancestors. 25

Wooden mask (mbuya) with lobed hairstyle Pende, Democratic Republic of the Congo Before 1920 Wood and raffia Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0551) 26

Wooden mask (mbuya) with raffia collar Pende, Democratic Republic of the Congo Before 1920 Wood and raffia Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0550)

Five mask pendants (ikhokho, singular gikhokho) Pende, Democratic Republic of the Congo Early 20th century Ivory and lead Purchased from Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0832; AE.0833; AE.0841; AE.0860 (lead); AE.0858)

These pendants also exist in wood, bone or fruit stone. The amber-coloured patina of the ivory pendants is caused by wear, the washing with fine sand, and skin contact. The wearer’s skin was rubbed with oil and camwood powder.

Necklaces as protest These miniature mukanda and healer’s masks were made as a pendants by the ivory carver. They were worn by the keepers of the wooden masks and by initiated boys, and were prescribed by healers. They also played a role in the handing over of power of a chief or the legal successors. Whoever was gifted a ghikhoko by an ancestor also received his vital force. Ikhokho were popular from 1930 until Congo’s independence in 1960. They emphasised the Pende identity and symbolised the protest against the colonial occupation.

Wrong colour The black discolouration of this wooden mask with a conical hairstyle, is the result of an incorrect restoration in the 1950s. Wooden masks of the Pende were usually painted red or in yellow ochre. Both masks were originally painted in the same colour.

– 100 h i g h l i g h t s –

PENDE

Whistle

Mask pendant

Pende, Democratic Republic of the Congo Before 1920 Ivory Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0847)

Pende, Democratic Republic of the Congo Before 1920 Ivory or bone Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0851)

Whistle in the shape of a key This Pende whistle with head is carved in the style of small mask pendants (ikhokho). The shape derived from the 17th and 18th century keys of imported seamen’s chests and trunks.

Mbala Among the Mbala and neighbouring peoples, mother-and-child statues, together with male figures, were used in rituals accompanying the transition of power of a chief. Collectively they were called pindi and kept in a ‘treasury’. Mbala women had an advisory role in politics.

MBALA

The theme of mother-and-child refers to the life-giving role of the chief and to his function as protector of the fertility of humans, animals and crops.

Statue of mother and child (wenyi) Mbala, Democratic Republic of the Congo Late 19th century(?) Wood Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0520)

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Luluwa Luluwa wooden statues can usually be identified by the complex scarification patterns on the face and body. Scarification was a means of enhancing human beauty. For the Luluwa physical beauty reflected moral qualities. It also increased the ritual effectiveness of the sculptures.

An ancestor could reincarnate in a child. These small carvings were attached to clothing or kept beside the bed. They were regularly rubbed with palm oil.

Hair comb with a human head Luluwa, Democratic Republic of the Congo Before 1920 Wood Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0655)

Box

Half figure (female) Luluwa, Democratic Republic of the Congo 19th century Wood and oil patina Purchased from Pieter Jan Vandenhoute, 1960 Collection MAS (AE.1960.0014)

Protection during pregnancy Luluwa women used sculptures to protect themselves and their baby during pregnancy. These served during a fertility rite (bwanga bwa cibola).

Luluwa, Democratic Republic of the Congo 19th century(?) Wood, ivory and oil patina Purchased from Van De Walle, 1960 Collection MAS (AE.1960.0046.0006)

Ivory box This refined box is made from a fragment of elephant’s tusk, with a shiny brown-red patina. It was probably a container for cannabis. The incised motifs refer to scar patterns, the ideal of beauty of the Luluwa in the 19th century.

– 100 h i g h l i g h t s –

LULUWA

In the late 19th century the use of tobacco and cannabis was quite common in the Luluwa region. Smoking or sniffing took place in specific contexts: divination, jurisdiction or healing. Tobacco was imported from South America into central Africa by the Portuguese. Arabs traded cannabis from India to parts of Africa.

LULUWA

Pipe for tobacco or cannabis

Mortar for tobacco or cannabis

Luluwa, Democratic Republic of the Congo Before 1920 Wood, iron and raffia Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0433.1-2/2)

Luluwa, Democratic Republic of the Congo 19th century(?) Wood and leather Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.1177.1-2/2)

Kanyok

Ceremonial adze (kabenz kanèn)

Bowl with sitting figure

Kanyok, Democratic Republic of the Congo Before 1920 Wood, pigment, iron and copper Collection MAS (AE.0726)

Kadyaat Kalool(?), Kanyok artist, Democratic Republic of the Congo Before 1920 Wood Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0504)

Adze as a status symbol

KANYOK

This decorated adze is a ceremonial object. It was never used as a tool for carving, but emanated the power and status of important men. A Kanyok dignitary would wear adzes like these at the hip or over his left shoulder during ceremonies.

Artist with a name This bowl, carried by a sitting woman is probably made by Kadyaat Kalool (deceased 1920). He is one of the few artists in this exhibition known by name. Kadyaat Kalool was a manindak, a master wood sculptor. At the court of the chief of the northern city of Kanda Kand, he made ritual and art objects in a personal style.

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Chokwe For centuries the Chokwe dominated an area that stretched from central Angola to the southern regions of Congo and Zambia. During the 18th and 19th centuries their territory lay on an important trade route between the Atlantic coast and the African interior. Their rulers negotiated in the barter trade between the Europeans and neighbouring peoples.

The refined art objects and utensils for which the Chokwe are renowned, were made for this elite by professional artists. This was also the case with the leader’s chairs after a Portuguese model. They were in use until the mid-20th century, despite the declining power of the chiefs during the colonisation.

Knife with sheath

Hair comb with Cihongo dance mask Chokwe, Democratic Republic of the Congo/Angola 20th century Wood and metal Gift from M. Olbrechts-Maurissens, 1975 Collection MAS (AE.1975.0031.0028)

Comb with dance mask The dance mask on the comb symbolises wealth, prosperity and male power. European brass tacks give the object a refined and precious look. They were imported from the 18th century onward.

Chokwe, Democratic Republic of the Congo/Angola 20th century Wood, metal and leather Gift from the Friends of the Ethnographic Museum, Antwerp, 1994 Collection MAS (AE.1994.0001.0001.1-2/2)

This was a prestigious object among the Chokwe. They used only one word to express that something ‘was made with much craftsmanship and love’: utotombo.

– 100 h i g h l i g h t s –

CHOKWE

The Chokwe never really had a central government. Their territory numbered various political centres. The head of each centre was a mwananganga or ‘master of the land’. These high-ranking individuals descended from the Lunda conquerors who had settled in Angola around the 15th century.

Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0775)

Oracle figurines Chokwe, Democratic Republic of the Congo/Angola Before 1960 Ivory Purchased from Van De Walle, 1960 Collection MAS (AE.1960.0046.0001-2-3)

These three oracle figurines (thuphele, singular kaphele) come from a diviner’s basket.

Chief’s reclining seat (citwamo ca mangu) Chokwe, Democratic Republic of the Congo/Angola Late 19th century Wood and leather Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0494)

The decoration of these chairs is based on Chokwe iconography despite their European appearance. The motifs emphasize the status, wealth and authority of the owner.

45-46

Whistles

CHOKWE

Chokwe, Democratic Republic of the Congo/Angola Ivory Late 19th-early 20th century Purchased from Pareyn (1920) and Van De Walle (1960) Collection MAS (AE.0784 and AE.1960.0046.0004)

Drum (mukup(i)ela)

Whistling language Whistles were worn as amulet pendants during initiation rituals of boys as well as during hunting. The leader used them to communicate at long distance with the other hunters and dogs. These specimens have holes for modulation, in order to change key. Thus it was possible to communicate by means of a complex ‘whistling language’. 47

Dancing club or mace decorated with a female head

Chokwe, Democratic Republic of the Congo/Angola Before 1920 Wood, leather and snakeskin Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0341)

Drum of the leader The hourglass-shaped Chokwe drum was a courtly instrument. Until the mid-20th century it belonged to the leaders and was kept in the house of the principal spouse. The drum was usually destroyed at his death. Before playing it, the resin on the skin was warmed up for a better sound. The gap was closed with a stopper. A membrane in the stopper vibrated and hummed when the drum was played.

Chokwe, northeastern Angola or southern Congo Before 1920 58

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Zombo

Statue of a woman with a child on her shoulders Zombo, Democratic Republic of the Congo Early 20th century Wood, fibre, magical substances and traces of pigment Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0521)

The child is sitting astride with one leg across the mother’s shoulder, and holding her head. Around the mother’s navel, a cavity contains the relics of power substances, referring to its ritual use. It was probably used during the Khita fertility rite which also protected mothers and children. Statues of mother figures commemorated the female founder of the clan and her life-giving power. The fertility of the mother symbolises the continuity of the community. The mother ensured the destiny of her descendants.

ZOMBO

Protecting mother

Yaka

During a period of isolation adult men conveyed their knowledge to the boys involved. The latter learned skills, gained insight into mythology, and received sexual education. The rite of passage also included circumcision. This rite was like a re-birth: the boys died metaphorically and were reborn as men. The learning period ended with masked ceremonies during which the initiates were reintegrated into society. The masks embodied the ancestors. Once the dance was finished, their power was depleted and the masks were destroyed or sold. The central aspect of the symbolism is the story of the creation and the fertility of humans, animals and the land. The curled-up nose is a phallic symbol that evokes the sun’s fertilization of the earth.

– 100 h i g h l i g h t s –

YAKA

The initiation school (n’khanda) for Yaka boys was a key moment in the transition from childhood to adulthood. It involved ceremonies.

YAKA

52-53

Initiation mask (kolukha)

Initiation masks (ndemba)

Yaka, Democratic Republic of the Congo Early 20th century Wood, raffia and pigment Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0514)

Yaka, Democratic Republic of the Congo Early 20th century Wood, raffia and pigment Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Purchased from auction Breckpot, 1930 Collection MAS (AE.0515 and AE.0516)

KUBA/BUSHOONG PEOPLES

KUBA/BUSHOONG

At the end of the 19th century the Kuba kingdom in the forests and the savannas of the Kasai in the Congo was about as large as Belgium. It numbered 150.000 inhabitants. The kingdom was founded in the 17th century and had developed into a confederation of ethnic groups, governed centrally by the king or nyim. The nyim ruled from his palace in the capital Mushenge. Provincial chiefs and vassals represented his authority elsewhere. The king bound his subordinates to him by bestowing upon them countless titles of power. All Kuba strived to obtain such a title. Rank and wealth were displayed in beautifully decorated art objects, valuable weapons, clothing apparel and braided headdresses. The masks are the representation of the mingesh (singular ngesh), natural spirits who mediated between Nyeem - the supreme being - and humans. They provided fertility, healing and success at hunting.

Short sword (ikul) Kuba/Bushoong, Democratic Republic of the Congo Late 19th-early 20th century Iron, brass and wood Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0317)

Status symbols The indication of rank and status 60

was subject to rules. Every rank was identifiable through its proper accessories. Male status symbols included headdresses with feathers, glass beads and cowry shells. Men could also display with an ikul (a short sword) or a ceremonial knife. Richly ornamented swords owned by higher classes had wooden hilts with copper, brass, lead, and tin inlays and brass tacks.

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Oldest royal mask Bwoom, the oldest royal mask type, dates back to the 18th century. The open nostrils were used to look through. The hairstyle with triangular areas at the sides used to be fashionable. It bears witness to an ancient tradition.

Pwoom itok mask Kuba peoples: Ngeende or Ngongo, Democratic Republic of the Congo Wood, raffia, pigment and copper Late 19th-early 20th century Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0329)

Pair of figurines with long arms and beckoning hands

Kuba/Bushoong, Democratic Republic of the Congo Late 19th-early 20th century Wood, textile, raffia, cowry, metal and pigment Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0331)

Female royal mask Ngaady a mwaash is one of the three royal masks of the Bushoong, the ruling group of the Kuba. It represents Mweel, the sister and wife of Woot. They were the mythical royal couple from whom the Bushoong dynasty descended. It performed as a mime with other royal masks, and at funerals. The tears symbolize Mweel's grief caused by the separation from her brother, and the prohibition of incest.

Kuba/Bushoong, Democratic Republic of the Congo Iron and camwood powder Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0773 and AE.0774)

The art of the blacksmith and kingship World-wide we know of only three wrought-iron Kuba art works, including this pair. According to Kuba tradition the statuettes were made by Myeel, a 17th-century prince and a skilled blacksmith. The link between forging and kingship existed elsewhere in Central Africa as well. Forging and melting require the use of the four elements and were therefore considered to involve magic. Moreover, blacksmiths produced essential tools and weapons.

Bwoom mask Kuba peoples: Bambala, Democratic Republic of the Congo Late 19th-early 20th century Wood, raffia, European textile, tin, beads, cowry and brass Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0332)

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KUBA/BUSHOONG

Ngaady a mwaash mask

59-60

Drinking cups for palm wine Kuba/Bushoong, Democratic Republic of the Congo Late 19th-early 20th century Wood and brass Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0264 and AE.0288)

Cups for palm wine

KUBA/BUSHOONG

These wooden drinking cups were coveted luxury items in the 19th and early 20th century. They were used for drinking wine (maan) made from the raffia palm. It is still a popular drink today. A Bushoong proverb says: ‘Sweet youth lacks wisdom, the wise elder lacks sweetness of character.’ This alludes to the first, sweet wine which is made out of the palm. It becomes stronger in taste as time goes by.

The complex braided motifs are also found elsewhere: on the walls of dwellings, raffia fabrics and prestigious objects owned by the elite. The women wore them as a scar pattern. The Kuba call art bwiin, ‘pattern’. To them, a play of braided patterns and lines they prefer is of greater importance than volumes. Some new patterns were named after the kings who introduced them. 63

Pot supported by legs Kuba/Bushoong, Democratic Republic of the Congo Before 1920 Wood and patina Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0148)

61-62

Lidded boxes Kuba/Bushoong, Democratic Republic of the Congo Late 19th-early 20th century Wood, camwood powder and metal Bequeathed by Van Deuren-Van Remoortere, 2003 Collection MAS (AE.2003.0010.0002 and AE.2003.0010.0004)

Play of patterns These boxes were used to store cosmetic accessories, jewellery and small metal knives for cutting raffia. They often contain traces of the camwood powder (tool), with which body, hair and raffia fabrics were coloured.

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Songye

As a rule, small statues provided individual protection. Everyone could make them and they are found in many different styles. Large statues were commissioned from well-known artists. They often served the village for many generations. The large power statues were the result of close collaboration between the artist and the ritual specialist. The wood sculptor made a statue that would be act as a vessel to absorb supernatural powers. The ritual specialist activated it with songs and spells. He placed the magical substances in the abdominal cavity and in the horn on the head. Magical substances could be used in two ways: for harmful ends as well as for protection. The antelope horn linked the visible and invisible worlds, as an antenna.

Stolen statue of chief Nkolomonyi This statue embodied the power of a mighty Songye chief and mediated with the invisible world of spirits. It also guarded its community against dangers, among them the conflict with Belgian colonizers. It is unclear how the statue came into the possession of Paul Osterrieth (1872-1932), in December 1923 in Lusambo. Osterrieth was the offspring of a German family of traders, who owned rubber and coffee plantations in Lomami. A note in the MAS archives confirms that the statue ‘belonged to fetishist and chief Nkolomonyi, who was sentenced to death’ [by the Belgian colonial administration].

– 100 h i g h l i g h t s –

SONGYE

Songye power statues (mankishi, singular nkishi) served in dealing with personal and communal problems, such as sickness, death, failed harvests or unsuccessful hunting parties. Or as protection against evil spirits.

Recent research in collaboration with the Congolese partners confirms that in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the statue belonged to him. But who was Nkolomonyi? This Songye warlord, chief and ritual expert (nganga) rebelled fiercely against the occupation by Belgian colonizers. Following his arrest, he was either executed on the spot or transported to prison in Lusambo, for the execution of his death sentence. Subsequently, the statue was stolen from the village by Belgians.

SONGYE

Power statue (nkishi) of Nkolomonyi Songye, Democratic Republic of the Congo Late 19th-early 20th century Wood, raffia, animal fur, reptile skin, horn, iron, copper, glass beads and snakeskin Bequeathed by the family Paul Osterrieth, 1940 Collection MAS (AE.1940.0001.0047)

CT-scans

Performed by the Radiology Section, UZA (Wilrijk) in collaboration with G. Van der Snickt, heritage scientist, UAntwerpen, ARCHES & AXES research groups, 2020

but also as an ethical question. The museum is aware of the imbalance of power during acquisition of the objects in the colonial period (1885-1960). In the context of the exhibition the MAS enters into dialogue with Congolese researchers. An investigation into the provenance of each object is started. More joint research is important in the policy around restitution of looted artefacts. The MAS is a municipal museum. This means that the Congolese collection is property of the city of Antwerp. The final decision on restitution or return of objects is in the hands of the City Council of the Mayor and Aldermen. 65

Ceremonial axe (kilonda) The MAS and restitution The MAS is open to official requests from the Congo for restitution of works of art and utensils. The museum does not decide by itself which objects are eligible for this. That would be a paternalistic approach. The decision should be made by the Congolese themselves. The MAS does not consider the question of restitution as a mere legal matter, 64

Songye, Democratic Republic of the Congo Late 19th century Wood, reptile skin, iron, copper and wood Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0204.1-2/2)

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was invoked, it was rubbed with palm oil. Traces of it are still visible.

Ceremonial axe (kilonda) Songye/Sapo Sapo, Democratic Republic of the Congo Late 19th century Wood, iron and copper Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0420)

Power statue (nkishi)

These Songye axes (bilonda) with their elaborate wrought-iron blade belonged to kings, chiefs and high officials. They were worn over the shoulder to indicate rank and title. During dances and ceremonies they were carried in the hand. The combination of iron, copper and the complex wrought-iron point to a long tradition of metallurgy. Such ceremonial parading axes allude to weapons and other tools that were transformed into emblems of power and authority. 67

Standing female statue Songye, Democratic Republic of the Congo Before 1920 Wood, oil patina and cowry Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0744)

For the protection of women and children This statue with a ribbed neck and the geometric shape of her body is a masterpiece of Songye culture. It symbolises fertility. The statue was used to protect women during pregnancy, to heal children and prevent infant mortality. Each time it

Power statue (nkishi) Songye, Democratic Republic of the Congo Before 1920 Wood, glass beads and copper Gift from Louis Franck, 1921 Collection MAS (AE.0749) 70

Power statue (nkishi) Songye, Democratic Republic of the Congo Late 19th century Wood, oil patina, horn, copper and cowry Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0559) 71

Mask with raffia collar Kuba peoples: Kete, Biombo, Democratic Republic of the Congo Before 1920 Wood and raffia Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0339)

This colourful mask with bulging eyes performed in the context of circumcision rituals of boys and at funeral ceremonies.

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SONGYE

Ceremonial axes

Songye, Democratic Republic of the Congo Late 19th century Wood, oil patina, horn, copper, iron, cowry and magical substances Gift from Louis Franck, 1921 Collection MAS (AE.0720)

Face of the spirits 73-74

SONGYE

Masks (bifwebe) Songye or Luba, Democratic Republic of the Congo Wood Late 19th-early 20th century Purchased from Henri Pareyn (1920) and purchased from auction Breckpot (1930) Collection MAS (AE.0334) and (AE.0335)

Masks with strong geometric facial expressions and fine grooves are typical of the Luba and Songye. The general term kifwebe (plural bifwebe) refers equally to the mask and to the Bwadi bwa Kifwebe mask association. As the face of the spirits in the service of the ruling elite, they were used as agents of social control. They were also used at various other occasions, from funerals to entertainment.

Hemba The Hemba are renowned for their statues of leaders. These sculptures (singiti) were among the objects a man inherited upon becoming a chief.

HEMBA

This statue commemorates a historical leader of the Hemba/Niembo clan. It was used in the ancestor cult. That confirmed the shared origins and cohesion of the clan. Moreover, it endorsed the power of leaders. This ancestor figure dons a ‘chinstrap’ beard and a cruciform braided hairstyle: these are signs of a higher rank. His closed eyes look into another world from where he watches over his offspring. He holds his hands about his lightly swollen abdomen with a protruding navel. The gesture refers to the proverb: ‘humankind begins at the navel’. It accentuates the relation between the ancestors and the living.

Statue of an ancestor (lusingiti, plural singiti) Niembo clan, Hemba, Democratic Republic of the Congo 19th century(?) Wood and patina

Purchased from Charles Leirens, 1931 Previous collections: Henri Pareyn, Béla Hein, Charles Leirens Collection MAS (AE.0864)

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Luba The central Luba kingdom was founded in the 17th century. Kings derived their power from Mbidi Kiluwe, a mythical hunter-ruler who introduced kingship. Luba rulers demonstrated their authority through artfully designed objects. They inherited them from their predecessors. Some were displayed in public, such as the chief’s ceremonial staffs and weapons. Others, like chairs and bow rests, were hidden and guarded in a secret place. This to prevent theft as well as to protect people against their power. The power of Luba kings radiated over neighbouring peoples, where chiefs imitated the Luba power structures and insignia of authority. This was also the case with the Hemba, their eastern and culturally related neighbours. 76

Ceremonial staff (kibango)

Bow and arrow rest

Luba, Democratic Republic of the Congo Late 19th-early 20th century(?) Wood, patina and metal Purchased from New-Africa, White Fathers, Antwerp, 1961 Collection MAS (AE.1961.0062.0002)

Luba, Democratic Republic of the Congo 19th century Wood, patina and metal Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0722)

LUBA

Sign of leadership and power

Secrecy The female figure on top represents a female founder of the royal dynasty. Holding her hands to her chest is a sign of respect and secrecy. It refers to the Luba notion that women keep the secrets of the leadership in their breasts. The staff was endowed with power by a ritual specialist.

Finely decorated bow and arrow rests, carved from wood, were emblems of leadership and power. They referred to the founder of the Luba kingship, the mythical huntsman Mbidi Kiluwe. A female dignitary guarded the bow rests at a secret location in the royal residence. They were regularly rubbed with oil, by way of sacrifice. The neat hairstyle of this woman and the realistic rendering of her scars, indicate her high rank and lineage.

– 100 h i g h l i g h t s –

Pair of amulets

Chief’s stool with caryatid (kipona)

Luba, Democratic Republic of the Congo Before 1920 Ivory, beads and leather Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0793 and AE.0794)

Luba, Democratic Republic of the Congo Late 19th century Wood Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0500)

This rare pair of pendants commemorated twin ancestors. The dotted circle decoration on the body symbolises life and continuity.

Seat of power

Ceremonial axe

LUBA

Luba-Hemba, Democratic Republic of the Congo 19th-20th century Wood, patina and iron Gift from M. Olbrechts-Maurissens, 1974 Collection MAS (AE.1974.0025.0009) 79

Kneeling female statue holding a calabash (mboko)

81-83

Amulets in human shape, one with legs

Luba, Democratic Republic of the Congo First half of 20th century(?) Wood and copper Gift from W. Jambers, 1958 Collection MAS (AE.1958.0015.0001)

Luba, Democratic Republic of the Congo Before 1920 Ivory and bone Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0798; AE.0808; AE.0811)

Kneeling woman with calabash

Protective pendants

In the interest of his subjects, the supernatural powers of a Luba leader were protected. To that end, he surrounded himself with ritual specialists. The statues played an important role in the context of investiture of kings and chiefs, and during divination rituals. The calabash was filled with white clay, oil and other power objects.

The caryatid stool was the emblem of power on which the authority of the Luba was ‘based’. The stool served as a royal ‘residence’. The caryatid, the ancestral figure in her supporting role, represented the female provenance of Luba kingship. Such a throne was powerfully charged. Therefore it was wrapped in a cloth, hidden away and closely guarded. It was only used during the inauguration of a new king.

Small pendants made from elephant’s tusk and hippopotamus’ tooth were mainly in use in the 19th century. They represented ancestral spirits. These intimate pieces were worn on the body or around the wrist: for the protection and the commemoration of deceased relatives. To honour the ancestors they were regularly caressed and oiled. This and the continuous contact with the body polished the surface and coloured them from yellow to reddish-brown.

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Tabwa Tabwa statues used in commemoration of ancestors, often point their hands towards the navel. This posture accentuates the unity of the owner with preceding generations. The statues show remarkable patterns of scars (scarifications). A symbolic line (mulalambo) on male and female bodies runs from the head over the torso to the navel. It divides the body in two symmetrical halves and symbolises the division of the universe and the complementarity of man and woman: the male force is situated on the right side, the female on the left.

84 84

Calabash with female figure Tabwa(?), Democratic Republic of the Congo Late 19th century Wood, textile, gourd and pebbles Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0792)

CT-scans

TABWA

Performed by the Radiology Section, UZA (Wilrijk) in collaboration with G. Van der Snickt, heritage scientist, UAntwerpen, ARCHES & AXES research groups, 2020

Calabash for predictions Calabashes for water and daily use are called keso. This one with a wooden torso was used during divination and healing rituals. From the head through the wooden female chest runs a channel. Through this slot, small objects such as pebbles and fruit stones were inserted during divination sessions. Similar calabashes are known among the Tabwa and neighbouring peoples like the Hemba and Luba.

Fragment of a male statue Tabwa, Democratic Republic of the Congo Late 19th-early 20th century Wood Purchased from New-Africa, White Fathers, Antwerp, 1961 Collection MAS (AE.1961.0062.0003)

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Hair comb (mwindulo or kisakulo) Tabwa, Democratic Republic of the Congo Before 1920 Wood and pyrography Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.5554)

The hair comb is decorated with the zigzagging balamwezi motif which refers to the new moon. The twelve teeth signify the menstrual cycle . 87

Pipe (mutete) with strap

TABWA

Tabwa, Democratic Republic of the Congo Before 1930 Terracotta, animal skin and braiding Purchased from auction Breckpot, 1930 Collection MAS (AE.3755.1-2/2)

Social pipe The head on this pipe shows a vertical row of scarifications, with an intersection between the eyes. This pattern was named ‘the face of the cross’ by the Tabwa, the seat of dreams, predictions and perspicacity. Smoking of tobacco (nsunko or fwanka) as well as other substances played a social role during marriage negotiations, among others, and in the context of divorce as well.

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Lega The Lega had no centralized supreme authority. Power was divided among representatives of various clans and lineages. Socially and politically, the Bwami association underpinned society. This organisation was accessible to both men and women, and knew various grades. In order to be initiated, one had to serve as a moral example first.

LEGA

The wooden and ivory Lega masks (lukwakongo) were not always intended to hide the face as is the case with most Congolese masks. They are emblems of the members of the Bwami association. They were used in many various ways. Because of the secrecy of the initiations, some representatives of the Belgian colonial administration distrusted such associations. They saw them as an organised form of resistance.

Male figurine (iginga)

Mask

Bwami association, Lega, Democratic Republic of the Congo First half of the 20th century Ivory Exchange with Jef Vanderstraete, 1955 Collection MAS (AE.1955.0004.0003)

Bwami association, Lega, Democratic Republic of the Congo First half of the 20th century Wood, fibre and beads Exchange with Jef Vanderstraete, 1955 Collection MAS (AE.1955.0004.0004)

Horn

Miniature mask (lukwakongo) with handle

Lega(?), Democratic Republic of the Congo Before 1920 Ivory and reptile skin Gift from Louis Franck, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.1004)

Horns like these, carved from an elephant’s tusk, announced the arrival of a chief, accompanied dances or were used to send messages.

Bwami association, Lega, Democratic Republic of the Congo Mid-20th century(?) Wood and crust patina Bequeathed by Van DeurenVan Remoortere, 2003 Collection MAS (AE.2003.0001.0015)

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Mask (lukwakongo) Bwami association, Lega, Democratic Republic of the Congo First half of the 20th century Ivory Exchange with Jef Vanderstraete, 1955 Collection MAS (AE.1955.0004.0002)

Good and bad deeds

highest ranking members of the Bwami association. The ivory pieces represented characters with good or bad qualities. Their meaning was revealed during initiation by the teachers. They were only ever seen by initiates. They were never intended for public display. Until today their precise meaning remains unclear to all uninitiated.

Lega masks were held in front of the face, arranged on the ground or attached to a stake or the body. Their significance was based on certain patterns in imagery and actions. In the masks, good and bad deeds were represented facing each other. Moral qualities were thus presented in a vivid way.

LEGA

Female figure (iginga) Bwami association, Lega, Democratic Republic of the Congo First half of the 20th century Ivory Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.3639) 94

Crocodile (iginga) Bwami association, Lega, Democratic Republic of the Congo First half of the 20th century Ivory Exchange with Jef Vanderstraete, 1955 Collection MAS (AE.1955.0004.0001)

For the initiated only Among the Lega people ivory referred to solidarity: it originates from a herd animal, the elephant. Ivory pieces (iginga) were the secret possessions of the 72

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Mbole Mbole society was directed by the Lilwa association. It had ritual, social, political and judicial functions. There was a clear hierarchy and secrecy ruled over the initiation school. The rites were based on a refined moral-philosophical system.

MBOLE

The statues with heart-shaped faces and dangling limbs represent persons condemned to death and hanged. They had disturbed public order or broken the laws of the Lilwa association. The meaning of these ofika or ‘statues of the hanged’ was explained to boys during the rites of passage. As a deterrent, the statues were also carried around on a stretcher made of vines. They had to keep members of the association on the straight and narrow.

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Ofika or ‘Statues of the hanged’ Lilwa association, Mbole, Democratic Republic of the Congo Late 19th-early 20th century(?) Wood and pigment Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS [AE.0672 (male) en AE.0673 (female)] 97

Plank-shaped mask Lilwa association, Mbole, Democratic Republic of the Congo Late 19th-early 20th century(?) Wood, kaolin and pigment Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.3528)

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PERE

Pere

Zande

Rare horns

The Zande in the northeastern Congo and neighbouring regions in the Central African Republic and South Sudan, are not a Bantu people like most of the Congolese peoples. They speak an Ubangi language. The court art of the Zande produced numerous artistically elaborated objects: bells, pipes, boxes, spoons, knives and musical instruments. These are often decorated with a head.

Possibly, the Pere horns produced various sounds as the wind blew through them. In doing so, they mediated between humans and nature. They are likely to have been used during initiation rituals concerning the overarching leadership of the Pere. There were four dynastic clans. Only about ten wooden Pere horns are known in museum and private collections. As to their use and meaning, they remain among the most enigmatic objects from eastern Congo. Formally they present a carved, stylized figure with a complex open-worked central section. 98

Wind horn (?) Pere or Nande (?), Democratic Republic of the Congo Before 1950 Wood Purchased from Willy Mestach, 1956 Collection MAS (AE.1956.0024)

Wooden bell with two clappers Zande, Democratic Republic of the Congo Before 1920 Wood Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0772)

Clapper bell This remarkable bell is elaborated as a stylized figure. Data concerning provenance are not at hand. Comparison with similar objects of the Zande suggests that the bell was used during hunting. Or perhaps it was played during rituals and dances of diviners.

ZANDE

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Bow harp (kundi) in the shape of a standing man and woman Ngbaka or Zande(?), Ubangi region, Democratic Republic of the Congo Before 1920 Wood, leather, beads and human hair Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0598 en AE.0599)

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Harps for praise or love In the late 19th and early 20th century, stringed instruments were very widespread among the Zande. Five-stringed harps were used to accompany songs praising the chief, or love songs. The tuning key is typical to Zande harps: it is always on the left side of the neck. Harps with a sound box standing on legs were also used by the neighbouring Ngbaka. This pair is designed as man and woman. They were possibly played in a duet, according to the ‘twin-principle’, with high tones for the female, and low tones for the male voice.

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In many hands

In the multimedia project In many hands twenty-five people shine their light on the Congolese collection of the city of Antwerp. They speak about an object of choice from the one hundred highlights in the exhibition. The narrators are inhabitants of the Congolese capital Kinshasa, citizens of Antwerp and people with a connection to the city by the Scheldt. The MAS engages in a dialogue with them about the various meanings of the Congolese collection, and the importance of a plurality of voices. They consider the highlights from different angles. The objects raise numerous questions. What do they mean? What feelings do they evoke? Where do they belong? This is a project of the Belgian-Congolese film collective Faire-Part.

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87 | In many hands Antwerpen-Kinshasa Sound: Rob Jacobs, Nizar Saleh Image: Nizar Saleh, Constanze Wouters, Hannah Bailliu, Margo Mot Editing: Constanze Wouters, Rob Jacobs, Nizar Saleh Minutes: 35 Translations: Deogracias Kihalu, Rob Jacobs

Testimonies: Aiko Devriendt Carol Beya Tshidi David Katshiunga Emmanuel Ogbebor François Bavenga Pambu Henriette Kabeya Ntumba Herman Cornelissen Hyppolite Mayuba Jeannette Maota Mambimbi Jérôme Mikobi Judith Elseviers Karoline ‘Leki’ Kamosi Louna Gonzalez Carrera Marie Antoinette Kumudidi Walo Maxim Ryckaerts Omar Ba Patricia Van de Velde Rob Jacobs Sandrine Ekofo Sarah Agyemang Seckou Ouologuem Soraya Odia Tania Kaja Kapinga Verro Ekaka Ndombe

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Africa and Europe: new influences, new dynamics in the arts

Africans and Europeans have been in contact for centuries. Partly through these mutual influences, other forms of art come into being in Congo, alongside to the ‘classical’ art. The objects are made for the open market as well as for their own use. They date from the mid-18th century to deep into the 20th century. Many sentiments accompany the contacts: fear and hatred, but also fascination. From the end of the 19th century onwards a number of Congolese artists and artisans criticized the Belgian colonisation. They employed a new imagery that manifests a Congolese vision of the ‘oppressed’ and the ‘oppressors’. With humour, yet seriously as well, they denounce the division of roles into ‘colonist’ and ‘colonised’. Seemingly anecdotal images indirectly comment on imbalances of power. A central theme is that of the ‘white people’ attired with hat, jacket, pants and shoes. They are the mindele. This Congolese word initially refers to ‘people wearing strange and excessive clothing’, later to white people.

88 | Carved elephant’s tusk Loango coastal area, Republic of the Congo 19th century Ivory Former collection of dr. Bedaux Loan from Marc Felix (FX19 0010)

Congolese-European imagery From the early 19th century onwards, the ivory carvers from Loango encountered changes in their environment. Congolese, foreign merchants, transients: they are all captured in a European-Congolese imagery. A recurrent theme is the subservient role of Africans. The characters on this elephant’s tusk march along a spiral, as in a trading caravan. They are escorted by soldiers and musicians. The Africans are weighed down by burdens, walk barefoot, are naked or wear a pagne or loincloth. The Europeans wear shoes, pants and a jacket.

89 | Power statue (nkisi) Kongo peoples, Republic of the Congo/ Democratic Republic of the Congo Before 1922 Wood, mirror, nails and textile Gift from Van der Cruyssen, 1922 Collection MAS (AE.0615)

Protective mirror glass Many Congolese objects testify to contacts with Europeans dating back centuries. This statue contains dyed textile and fragments of a European mirror. These imported materials heighten its power. The eyes and the

box attached to the stomach containing ‘magical ingredients’ are covered with mirror glass. A mirror was seen as ‘solidified water’. It separated the world of the living from the spirit world, warded off dangers and offered protection. The nganga or ritual specialist scrutinised the mirror in search of dangers or possible predictions.

90 | Chief’s chair (elembo) Ngombe, Ubangi region, Democratic Republic of the Congo Late 19th-early 20th century Wood and brass Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.3930)

Tacks of status In the western world brass tacks are used for upholstering furniture. From the mid-19th century these tacks came to Congo. Because of their rarity they were a sought-after currency and a sign of wealth and status. Chief’s chairs and other prestigious objects were decorated with them, giving them a elaborated and precious look.

91 | Statue of a man Kongo peoples, Republic of the Congo/ Democratic Republic of the Congo Early 20th century Wood Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0610)

This man is sitting with a book on a European wicker chair.

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92 | European man with moustache, sun hat and walking stick Kongo peoples, Republic of the Congo/ Democratic Republic of the Congo Mid-20th century Wood and enamel paint Gift from De Schlutterbach, 1956 Collection MAS (AE.1956.0016)

The straw hat with black band (canotier, boater) was a successful product of the Antwerp department store Tietz on the Meir. Hence the nickname of the hat: den tits.

93 | Statue of an armed man Statue of an armed man Kongo peoples, Democratic Republic of the Congo Late 19th-early 20th century Wood Loan from Marc Felix (FX17 0024)

Soldier under Belgian command This black soldier was enlisted in the Force Publique. Initially, this was the colonial army of the Congo Free State, later on the military and police force of the Belgian Congo. Africans remained ordinary soldiers and could not obtain officer grades. They offered logistic support under Belgian command.

94 | Statue of a soldier

Is this man in a djellaba a depiction of a North African (or Moroccan?) soldier? In his left hand he holds the strap of a bag, in his right hand a rifle.

95 | Mask of an European (Portuguese?) seafarer Kongo peoples: Vili, Republic of the Congo/Democratic Republic of the Congo Mid-19th century Wood Loan from Marc Felix (FX95 0084)

96 | Mask of a Chinese man with moustache Kongo peoples, Yombe, Republic of the Congo Late 19th-early 20th century Wood Loan from Marc Felix (FX02 9934)

China in Congo The Asian facial features of this unique Kongo mask are realistic. The mask testifies to the presence of some thousand Chinese bonded labourers. Late 19th century they came from Macau to Congo. The workmen were employed in the construction of the first, economically significant railway between the port city of Matadi and present-day Kinshasa. Later on they also established small businesses.

Beembe, Republic of the Congo Late 19th-early 20th century Loan from Marc Felix (FC88 0481)

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97 | Kifwebe-like type of mask of Jesus Christ Southeastern Luba, Democratic Republic of the Congo Early 20th century(?) Wood and kaolin Loan from Marc Felix (FX98 0398)

Mask of Christ This Luba mask of the suffering Christ with crown of thorns, blood and tears is unique. From 1890 onwards the Luba were introduced to images of Christ, during the missionary work in their territory. Presumably this mask was never worn by a dancer. It was possibly used as an emblem of a Congolese religious movement which combined Christian elements with local traditions. Maybe it was suspended in the meeting place of the followers of the movement.

98 | Mask with canoe and hammock bearers Suku, Democratic Republic of the Congo 20th century Wood, raffia, pigment and textile Loan from Marc Felix (FX180071)

Symbol of unequal relations This mask shows a wooden canoe and a tipoi (hammock or palanquin), two ancient means of transport. Two Congolese bearers carry the hammock while a missionary is quietly reading the Bible. It is possible that the Portuguese introduced the concept of the hammock in central Africa.

Congolese chiefs and other notables liked being transported in this way as well. But especially European colonials enjoyed being carried by Congolese, and liked being thus photographed. The palanquin developed into a symbol of colonial hierarchy and unequal relations.

99 | Car Beembe, Republic of the Congo Undated Wood Loan from the Africa Museum, Tervuren (EO.1966.48.25)

Mopeds and cars The sandy paths through the immense colonial area were adapted to motorised traffic. Mopeds and (imported) cars long remained restricted to Belgian colonists, missionaries and international entrepreneurs. This four-wheeler with chauffeur and passenger is not lacking in humour.

100 | Comb with nude cyclist Chokwe, Angola/Democratic Republic of the Congo 20th century Wood Gift from Margriet Olbrechts-Maurissens, 1974 Collection MAS (AE.1976.0037.0017)

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101 | Comb with horseman Lwena, Angola 20th century Wood Gift from Margriet Olbrechts-Maurissens, 1975 Collection MAS (AE.1975.0034.0016)

102 | Comb with horseman Chokwe, Angola/Democratic Republic of the Congo 20th century Wood Gift from Margriet Olbrechts-Maurissens, 1975 Collection MAS (AE.1975.0031.0029)

103 | Comb with horseman Chokwe, Angola/Democratic Republic of the Congo 20th century Wood and copper Gift from Margriet Olbrechts-Maurissens, 1975 Collection MAS (AE.1975.0031.0026)

104 | Comb with horseman Chokwe, Angola/Democratic Republic of the Congo Early 20th century Wood Gift from A. Deprez, 1923 Collection MAS (AE.0651)

Comb with merchant This set of hair combs is decorated with horsemen. They refer to the caravan routes that crossed the territory of

the Chokwe in present-day Angola, and to their trade with the Portuguese in the 19th century. Goods were transported from the Atlantic coast to the interior. The horse and ox were the beasts of burden best adapted to the tropical climate. An important motif is the merchant (pombeiro or funante in Portuguese). He wears European attire with a jacket and hat.

105 | Painted ivory carving with six persons Coastal area Angola/Cabinda(?) Late 19th-early 20th century Painted ivory Loan from the National Museum of World Cultures, Rotterdam (WM-28629)

Black-white distribution of roles Three black figures each shoulder a mundele, a white uniformed person, as if crossing a river. The very unusual polychromy of the precious ivory heightens the realistic character of this colonial scene: black people serve the Europeans. Thus the ivory carving highlights the divide between white and black.

106 | Statue of a Portuguese in seaman’s uniform Kongo peoples, Democratic Republic of the Congo/Republic of the Congo/Angola Mid-17th century Ivory Loan from Marc Felix (FX00 0177)

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107 | Statue of a Protestant missionary with bible

112 | Container with soldiers

Loango coastal area Late 19th century-early 20th century Ivory Loan from Marc Felix (FX93 0264)

Vela Raphael, Kitombe, Democratic Republic of the Congo Ca. 1930 Calabash Former collection Pierre Loos Loan from Bren Heymans

108 | Statue of a man in a European suit

Artistic containers

Kongo peoples, Democratic Republic of the Congo/Republic of the Congo/Angola 20th century Ivory Gift from Geert Godenne, 2014 Collection MAS (MAS.0107)

109 | Statue of a man in a European suit Kongo peoples, Democratic Republic of the Congo/Republic of the Congo/Angola Late 19th century Ivory Loan from Marc Felix (FX14 0037)

110 | Container with sailing ships

113 | Jar with sitting couple

Democratic Republic of the Congo Before 1920 Calabash Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.6964)

111 | Container with bicycle and animals Toniph Kito, Democratic Republic of the Congo Before 1959 Calabash Purchased from R. Van de Sande, 1959 Collection MAS (AE.1959.0002.0006)

From the 1930s artists decorated containers for water with colonial scenes. They signed them and sold them to colonials. The motifs are executed in a complex technique. Incisions are filled up with kaolin (white clay), and contrast with burnt-in black details. The motifs of ritual containers were supplemented with sayings, folk tales and legends, or with scenes of everyday life. Well-known artists are Benoît Madya and Vela Raphaël. Their workshops were situated in the vicinity of the city of Moanda.

Woyo artist Voania, village of Muba, Democratic Republic of the Congo Early 20th century Earthenware Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0587)

114 | Jar with man, woman and child Woyo artist Voania, village of Muba, Democratic Republic of the Congo Early 20th century Earthenware Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0588)

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115 | Jar with standing man Woyo artist Voania, village of Muba, Democratic Republic of the Congo Early 20th century Earthenware Purchased from auction Breckpot Collection MAS (AE.0584)

116 | Jar with sitting woman Woyo artist Tsin Tana, village of Muba, Democratic Republic of the Congo Early 20th century Earthenware Transfer Zeevaartmaatschappij, 1953 Collection MAS (AE.1953.0009.0021)

the Kongo peoples usually women - to sign his work. Museums own hundreds of works by this artist. His style can be recognized by the rounded pots crowned by a group of figures. Following Voania, his pupil Tsin Tana Muba signed his clay sculptures. A Belgian colonial helped to organise export to Europe and the US.

119 | Lady with small suitcase Kongo peoples, Democratic Republic of the Congo/Republic of the Congo/Angola 20th century Wood Loan from Marc Felix (FX03 0243)

117 | Toby jug, ‘beer drinker’

120 | Suitcase

Europe 18th to 19th century Porcelain Loan from Marc Felix (FX16 0024)

Democratic Republic of the Congo Ca. 1930-1940 Wickerwork Flea market Waterloo Loan from Bren Heymans

This piece of English pottery, picturing a sitting drinker with tankard and jug, a known as a Toby jug and was placed on graves as an offering. The motif often appears in wooden or stone funeral art of the Kongo peoples.

Artist-pioneer Voania In the late 19th century, Kongo artists met the European demand of ‘souvenirs’ from Africa. Voania (ca. 1860-1928) was one of the first potters - among – a f r i c a a n d e u r o p e : n e w i n f lu e n c e s , n e w d y n a m i c s i n t h e a rt –

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Congo in ‘motherland’ Belgium

After the First World War the missionary activities by clergymen and -women expanded greatly. Until the late 20th century these focused on three pillars: evangelisation, healthcare and education. In this period numerous Congolese objects arrived in Belgium. Many congregations organized mission exhibitions or set up a museum in their principal ‘mother’ establishment. These were signboards of their missionary work in the Congo. Exhibitions and museums mainly had an educational function for new clerics, Belgian schoolchildren and the wider public. The purpose was also to collect money for missionary schools. From the Congo many masks and statues, minerals and stuffed animals were sent to Belgium. Particularly well-known were small carvings in ebony and ivory. Less familiar is Congolese lace, produced by girls supervised by clergywomen. Objects made in mission posts arrived en masse in Belgian living rooms. They left their mark on the Congolese culture and created the image of the Congo in ‘motherland’ Belgium. They literally became iconic objects.

121 | African boy with collection box

123 | Portrait of Brother Bruneel

Europe 20th century Plaster, paint and tin Gift from the Congregation of Our Lady of Lourdes, 2016 Collection MAS (MAS.0170.087)

P.C. Bruneel, 1954 Oil paint on panel Gift from the Congregation of Our Lady of Lourdes, 2016 Collection MAS (MAS.0170.121)

124 | View of the mission posts, Kisantu (?)

122 | Coin bank ‘for the missions’ Belgium 20th century Plaster Gift from the Congregation of Our Lady of Lourdes, 2016 Collection MAS (MAS.0170.086)

Grateful nodding Money boxes picturing a Congolese boy were displayed in Belgian shops, churches and mission houses. Its use was to collect money for the ‘civilizing activities’ by the missions in Congo. Upon inserting a coin, the boy’s head nodded. These relics bear witness to the problematic missionary past and the paternalistic perspective on the Congolese showing childlike gratitude. They demonstrate the balance of power between Belgians and the Congolese. The message: without Belgian support the Congolese will not survive.

Undated Gift from the Congregation of Our Lady of Lourdes, 2016 Collection MAS (MAS.0170.123)

125 | Map ‘Our mission in the Belgian Congo’ Mid-20th century Gift from the Congregation of Our Lady of Lourdes, 2016 Collection MAS (MAS.0170.124)

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Flemish skills in Congo

From the 1920s onwards the brothers of Our Lady of Lourdes built mission posts in southerly situated Kisantu and Lemfu, in Molegbe in the equatorial area and in Albertstad (now Kalemie). In the workshops of technical schools Congolese boys had to learn typically Flemish skills, such as carpet weaving. A lathe was introduced for the production of black ebony figurines. Together with decorative ivory carvings these found their way to Belgium. Mission workers and others involved distributed them in Belgium. The figurines kept alive the close connections to the colony. They were also displayed and sold in mission exhibitions. Their imagery includes stereotypical representations of the Congolese population and fauna, including elephants, crocodiles and lions.

126 | Statuette of an ibis

128 | Two vases

Democratic Republic of the Congo Mid-20th century Ivory Gift from Gilis Bilmeyer, 2002 Collection MAS (AE.2002.0004.0005.ED)

Democratic Republic of the Congo Mid-20th century Ebony Gift from the Congregation of Our Lady of Lourdes, 2016 Collection MAS (MAS.0170.056; 054 and 055)

127 | Three figurines of the Holy Virgin Mary Democratic Republic of the Congo Mid-20th century Ivory Gift from Gilis Bilmeyer, 2002 Collection MAS (AE.2002.0004.0001, -0002 and -0003)

129 | Decorative tusks with animals Democratic Republic of the Congo 1950-1960 Ivory Anonymous gift Collection MAS (AE.2009.0012.0019 and 0020).

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130 | Congolese boys working ivory and ebony, 1959

131 | Part 1. Mission exhibitions in Belgium

Mid-20th century

Part 2. Mission school for boys in the Congo Mid-20th century Montage of historical photo’s Realised by MAS, 2020

Local materials, European techniques

In the mission schools of catholic sister congregations, Congolese girls industriously produced handicrafts. In the late 19th century Belgian sisters introduced the old Tenerife lace-making and applique technique. They possibly learned this technique in Tenerife, the stopping place on their voyage from Antwerp to Matadi. For centuries Tenerife was a shipping hub on the transatlantic transport route. The handicrafts were made using local materials (raffia, tree bark), but processed with traditional European techniques. They were used in the Congo as currency and presents. They were sold as well and thus made money for the mission posts.

Mission school for girls in the Congo

133 | Girls producing lace

Late 19th to mid-20th century Montage of historical photo’s Realised by MAS, 2020

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134 | Rectangular lace

139 | Doily

Democratic Republic of the Congo Ca. 1920 Tenerife technique in raffia Provenance: Troc Deurne, Steve Anaert Loan from Bren Heymans

Gbadolid region, Molegbe, Democratic Republic of the Congo Ca. 1950-1960 Raffia and tree bark Loan from the Sisters of St. Francis, Herentals

135 | Circular lace Democratic Republic of the Congo Ca. 1930 Tenerife technique in raffia Provenance: flea market Waterloo Loan from Bren Heymans

136 | Circular lace Democratic Republic of the Congo Ca. 1920 Tenerife technique in raffia Provenance: flea market Waterloo Loan from Bren Heymans

137 | Oval lace Democratic Republic of the Congo Ca. 1920 Raffia Provenance: Troc Deurne, Steve Anaert Loan from Bren Heymans

138 | Doily Democratic Republic of the Congo Ca. 1950-1960 Raffia and tree bark Loan from the Sisters of St. Francis, Herentals

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Kuba textiles

Kuba peoples from Kasai are world-famous for their embroidered fabrics in long-pile velvet raffia textile. These are produced using ancient techniques. In the formerly strict division of labour, the weavers were men. Women took on the applique and embroidering. In the mission posts the so-called velours du Kasai underwent changes with time. From the 1930s onwards the complex imagery became tighter and more sterile. You can see this development here. Artist Bren Heymans enters into dialogue with a number of contemporary female weavers from Ilebo in Kasai. 140 | Textile with embroidery Kuba, Democratic Republic of the Congo Late 19th-early 20th century Raffia Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0402)

141 | Textile with embroidery Kuba, Democratic Republic of the Congo Late 19th-early 20th century Raffia Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0388)

142 | Doily Weaving workshop Canonesses of St. Augustine Mushenge, Kasayi, Democratic Republic of the Congo 1939 Raffia Loan from the Missionary Sisters of the Immaculate Heart of Mary (ICM), Herverlee (246) 92

143 | Textile with text: ‘1892-1992. Centenary of the Sisters of Charity of Zaire’ Kuba 1992 Raffia Loan from the Heritage Centre | Sisters of Charity of Jesus and Mary, Ghent

144 | Textile with embroidery Created by Mbokashanga Golo, Kuba, Democratic Republic of the Congo 1940-1960 Raffia Previous collections Banque Belgolaise, Flea market Vossenplein Loan from Bren Heymans

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145 | Western Union

149 |

Design Bren Heymans, in dialogue with Bope Charo Mbawoto Realised by Bope Charo Mbawoto from Ilebo, Democratic Republic of the Congo 2019-2020 Raffia Loan from Bren Heymans

146 | Brenn/Bulape Design Bren Heymans, in dialogue with Bulape Ida Realised by Bulape Ida from Ilebo, Democratic Republic of the Congo 2019-2020 Raffia Loan from Bren Heymans

Futur-velours.com Old and new textiles in dialogue 2018-2020 Concept: Bren Heymans, Antwerp, Belgium In collaboration with: Adrianne Mashambolo Charo Mbawoto Germaine Kadi Ida Bulape Marie Jeanne Mbokashanga Naomie Mabintshi Lucie Mbokashanga Coordination: Hélène Loa (Kinshasa) Photographer: Patient Mingambengele (Ilebo) Realisation: Bren Heymans, MAS en Media Mixer

147 | Gardiens de symétrie Design Bren Heymans, Realised by Germaine Kadi from Ilebo, Democratic Republic of the Congo 2019-2020 Raffia Loan from Bren Heymans

148 | Union Minière Design Bren Heymans, in dialogue with Kwet-a-Ngata Mbengele Realised by Kwet-a-Ngata Mbengele from Ilebo, Democratic Republic of the Congo 2019-2020 Raffia Loan from Bren Heymans

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150 | Funerary statue of a ntadi (guardian), a fumani (thinker of sad things) Kongo peoples, North-Angola/ Democratic Republic of the Congo Late 19th-early 20th century Steatite Purchased from Henri Pareyn, 1920 Collection MAS (AE.0619)

Worried chief This statue depicts a thinking chief (fumani) worrying about the future well-being of his family and clan. Upon his death, the statue became his ‘double’ who remained on guard and kept the memory of the chief alive. The four leopard claws in the hat symbolise the circle of life: birth, life, death and rebirth. The stone memorials from the mountainous region along the river Congo may date back to the 16th century. They indicate the graves of influential and exemplary individuals.

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COLOPHON Exhibition - 03/10/2020 -28/03/2021 Concept and realisation Els De Palmenaer (curator Africa) and Nadia Nsayi Madjedjo (curator representation ) in collaboration with the MAS-team directed by Marieke van Bommel and all the colleagues of the City of Antwerp involved Scenography and execution Hendrik De Leeuw (scenography) Twin Design (construction) Volta (graphic design) Edition of texts Patrick De Rynck (Dutch) Translations SamSamTranslations (Sam Vangheluwe) (Dutch-English) StĂŠphanie Georges (Dutch-French) Design visitor guide Ann Walkers, BAI commissioned by MAS, 2020 Publisher BAI for MAS, 2020

Lenders Archeologisch atelier en onroerenderfgoeddepot, Antwerp Archives of Contemporary Art in Belgium, Brussels Bernard de Grunne, Brussels Bren Heymans, Antwerp Hendrik Conscience Heritage Library, Antwerp Heritage Centre | Sisters of Charity J.M., Ghent Hospitaal Museum O.L.V. ter Potterie, Bruges Felix Archive / City Archive, Antwerp Foundation National Museum of World Cultures, The Netherlands Foundation Terninck, Antwerp Franciscan Sisters, Herentals Marc Leo Felix, Brussels Missionary Sisters of the Immaculate Heart of Mary (ICM), Heverlee Royal Museum for Central Africa (Africa Museum), Tervuren Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium, Brussels Stichting Het Nederlandsch Economisch Archief, Amsterdam The Letterenhuis, Antwerp The Rubens House, Antwerp

ÂŠ Text: MAS, BAI and the autors.

The MAS thanks Nabilla Ait Daoud, Alderwoman for Culture, her staff, volunteers, interns and guides of the City of Antwerp (Antwerp Art City). With sincere gratitude to Patrick Mudekereza, Matthias De Groof, Bren Heymans and the BelgianCongolese film collective Faire-Part. The MAS also thanks following partners for their cooperation, their expertise, their advice for the realisation of the exhibition: Africa archive Brussels, KADOC Leuven, University of Antwerp, Ghent University, University of Kinshasa, University of Lubumbashi, Antwerp University Hospital, Studio Globo, Bonka Circus. We have endeavoured to contact all right holders. Anyone deeming themselves entitled to assert rights to reproductions is requested to contact mas@antwerpen.be

MAS Hanzestedenplaats 1 B - 2000 Antwerpen www.mas.be +32 (0) 3 338 44 00