Environmental Plan of the Sundarbans, the Largest Mangrove Forest

THE INTEGRATED SUNDARBANS MANAGEMENT PLAN

“To protect and conserve the Sundarbans from human interventions by having a strong collaboration between India and Bangladesh and a long term vision so regain the lost habitats.”

Plan 641 | Environmental Planning December 15, 2015 Prepared by: Gargi Singh I Qazi Aniqua Zahra I Saima Musharrat 1

Abbreviations GBM - Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna ECA: Ecologically Critical Area NDVI: Normalized Differential Vegetation Index IRG: International Resources Group ISD: Indian Sundarbans Delta IUCN: International Union for Conservation of Nature SRF: Sundarbans Reserved Forest

2

Table of Contents CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 7 1. 1 Location ............................................................................................................................... 7 1.2 Importance of Sundarbans .................................................................................................... 8 1.3 Population ............................................................................................................................. 8 1.4 Geo-Climatic Conditions ...................................................................................................... 8 1.4.1 Climate ........................................................................................................................... 8 1.4.2 Wind:.............................................................................................................................. 9 1.4.3 Rainfall ........................................................................................................................... 9 1.4.4 Soil: ................................................................................................................................ 9 1.4.5 Hydrology and River Systems: ...................................................................................... 9 CHAPTER 2: FACTUAL BASE ................................................................................................. 10 2. 1 Habitat ................................................................................................................................ 10 2.1.1 Mangrove forests: ........................................................................................................ 11 2.1.2 Wetlands ...................................................................................................................... 12 2.1.3 Polders.......................................................................................................................... 13 2.1.4 Protected areas ............................................................................................................. 14 2.1.5 Critical habitats ............................................................................................................ 16 2.1.6 Threats to ECA ............................................................................................................ 16 2.2 Biodiversity ......................................................................................................................... 16 2.2.1 Flora ............................................................................................................................. 18 2.2.2 Fauna ............................................................................................................................ 19 2.3 Water Quality in Sundarbans .............................................................................................. 23 3

2.3.1 Bangladesh Sundarbans ............................................................................................... 23 2.3.2 Indian Sundarbans ........................................................................................................ 28 2.3.3 Pollutants in Sundarbans: ............................................................................................. 29 2.4 Socio-Economic .................................................................................................................. 32 2.4.1 Livelihood Activities ................................................................................................... 32 2.4.2 Tourism ........................................................................................................................ 32 2.5 Anthropogenic Impacts: ...................................................................................................... 33 2.5.1 Loss of Natural Habitat ................................................................................................ 33 2.5.2 Loss of Biodiversity ..................................................................................................... 35 Threats....................................................................................................................................... 36 2.6 Role of Stakeholders ........................................................................................................... 37 2.6.1 Local Government Organizations ................................................................................ 37 2.6.2 Local NGOs ................................................................................................................. 38 Chapter 3: Goals and Objectives................................................................................................... 40 Chapter 4: Policy Tools and Implementation ............................................................................... 46 4.1 SRF Management Planning Policies, Tools and Strategies: ............................................... 46 4.2 Implementation ................................................................................................................... 49 4.2.1 Structure of the Plan Implementation: ......................................................................... 50 4.2.2 Planning Schedule ........................................................................................................ 52 4.2.3 Proposed Inventory for Data Collection ...................................................................... 52 Chapter 5: Conclusions ................................................................................................................. 54 APPENDIX ................................................................................................................................... 55 References ..................................................................................................................................... 59

4

List of Figures Figure 1: Location and Boundary of the Sundarbans ..................................................................... 7 Figure 2: Major Forest Types of the Sundarbans Reserved Forests (BD) .................................... 10 Figure 3: Shared mangrove forest by India and Bangladesh. Dark hatched parts are reclaimed areas and the stippled areas are reserved forests ........................................................................... 12 Figure 4: Ecological Zones in the Sundarbans Reserved Forests (BD) ........................................ 13 Figure 5: Wildlife Sanctuaries and Forest Ranges in the SRF (BD) ............................................ 14 Figure 6: Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve (India) ......................................................................... 15 Figure 7: Habitat boundary in the SRF (BD). ............................................................................... 17 Figure 8: Farakka Barrage in India ............................................................................................... 24 Figure 9: Flow levels at Harding Bridge before and after Farakka Barrage construction ............ 25 Figure 10: Water salinity density at Passur-Mongla River Site .................................................... 25 Figure 11: shows the predictions of what the scenario would be with low flow in Gorai, the climate change impacts (sea level rise and zero-flow in Gorai .................................................... 26 Figure 12: Oil Spill in Sundarbans, Bangladesh ........................................................................... 27 Figure 13: Reduced fresh water flow and impacts on the Sundarbans ......................................... 29 Figure 14: Change in the Sundarbans boundary over last two centuries ..................................... 34 Figure 15: Change in land Use in Bangladesh .............................................................................. 35 Figure 16: Proposed Urban Growth Boundary ............................................................................. 47 Figure 17: Proposed Buffer Zone along the boundary.................................................................. 48 Figure 18: Proposed Targeted Growth Strategy to direct growth away from the SRF................. 48 Figure 19: Proposed Implementation Process for ISMP............................................................... 49 Figure 20: Proposed Organogram ................................................................................................. 50 Figure 21: Proposed Timeline for the Plan Implementation, the numbers refer to the Objectives of the Plan. .................................................................................................................................... 52 Figure 22: Population growth in Indian Sundarbans .................................................................... 55 Figure 23 Land cover Change in the Indian part of Sundarbans. ................................................. 56 Figure 24: Soil Map of Bangladesh with Sundarbans .................................................................. 57

5

List of Tables Table 1: Sundarbans Wildlife Sanctuaries Plan (BD)................................................................... 15 Table 2: Major forest types according to the predominant species (BD) ..................................... 18 Table 3: Floral diversity in the SRF (India). ................................................................................. 19 Table 4: List of species in the SRF (India). .................................................................................. 20 Table 5: Threatened fauna in the SRF (India) .............................................................................. 22 Table 6: Comparison of the Pollutant levels in the Sundarbans ................................................... 31 Table 7: Statistics of mangrove cover change over last 2.5 centuries, India. .............................. 33 Table 8: Change statistics for land loss and gain, and mangroves area between 1968 and 2014 . 33 Table 9: Threats to the Sundarbans:.............................................................................................. 36 Table 10: Goals and Objectives are based on the following SWOT analysis .............................. 40 Table 11:Proposed Inventory ........................................................................................................ 52 Table 12: Change statistics for land loss/gain and mangrove area between 1968 and 2014 ........ 56 Table 13: Sundarbans Biodiversity Threat Matrix........................................................................ 58

6

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Figure 1: Location and Boundary of the Sundarbans

https://easyvivek.files.wordpress.com/2011/06/sundarban-map.jpg

1. 1 Location The Sundarbans ecoregion is the world's largest mangrove ecosystem and UNESCO world heritage site. It is located in the Bay of Bengal which lies 40% in India and 60% in Bangladesh (WWF, year). It is situated between latitude 21° 27′ 30″ and 22° 30′ 00″ North and longitude 89° 02′ 00″ and 90° 00′ 00″ East (UNESCO, n.d.). It is part of Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna (GBM) Delta spanning about 220 miles in width in Southern Bangladesh and West Bengal, the state in India (refer Fig 1). Within this geographical area, forests cover around 3,850 sq. miles, of which about 2,300 sq. miles are in Bangladesh (land Area: 1600 sq. miles; water area of 700 sq. miles) (CSE, 2012).

7

The Sundarbans delta has region has formed over past 300 years. The low, marshy islands are still under the process of being formed through siltation and tidal currents. Some land is eroded away as part of natural process while some new ones are added naturally.

1.2 Importance of Sundarbans Sundarbans is both unique and fragile in nature. Apart from its rich and internationally recognized mangrove flora and fauna, Sundarbans is bestowed with other magnificent natural resources. The area is known for its rich fauna which includes the royal Bengal tiger, an endangered species, 400 species of fish, 334 species of plants, 49 species of mammals, 53 species of reptiles, 320 species of birds, and 11 amphibian species (UNESCO, n.d).

260 bird species and various threatened and endangered species (detailed in chapter 2) (UNESOC, n.d.). The three wildlife sanctuaries located in the south cover an area of 540 sq. miles. They are considered core breeding areas for numerous endangered species. The mangrove forms a natural buffer against coastal erosion and entrance of seawater into one of the most densely populated regions of the world.

1.3 Population The Sundarbans is also home to large human population. 4.5 million in India and 7.5 million people in Bangladesh reside in this delta region (WWF, 2015). However, there is one major difference between the two countries. In India, most of these 4.5 million people live close to the forest (fringe villages), however, in Bangladesh, there are quite few settlements inside or near the forest.

1.4 Geo-Climatic Conditions 1.4.1 Climate: As the forest is located south of the Tropic of Cancer, and is bounded by Bay of Bengal, therefore it is tropical moist. The average maximum and minimum temperature in the region hovers between 30º and 21ºC. In Bangladesh, mean annual rainfall varies from about 1,800 mm (north of the Sundarbans) to 2,790 mm on the coast (Pradeep, 2012). The average annual rainfall in the Indian region is just 1,661.6 mm. It decreases from 1,805 mm in the south towards north. Most of the rainfall (around 74 % of the total) occurs during the southwest monsoon period (June–September).

8

1.4.2 Wind: The winds here are usually light to moderate though slightly strong during the summer and monsoons. However, near the coast of the southern Sundarbans winds are stronger.

The storms here sometimes turn into cyclones, especially during the months of May and October.

Also, these are usually accompanied by tidal waves of up to 7.5 m high.

1.4.3 Rainfall: It experiences heavy rainfall along with high humidity (around 80%) as it lies near Bay of Bengal. The monsoon begins from mid-June and ends around mid-September. The mean annual rainfall varies between 1,800 mm at north and 2,790mm on the coast.

1.4.4 Soil: The Sundarbans region is covered solely by quaternary sediments, which is carried and deposited by the rivers Ganges, Bidyadhari and Matla. The soil pH varies from 6.8 to 8.4, but throughout the SRF most of the soils fall on the alkaline pH range between 7.0 and 8.0 (Gopal et al., 2006). Soil salinity in April and May is 5.2 to 16 mmhos/cm in dry season and during the monsoon it is 0.65 to 8.97 mmhos/cm.

1.4.5 Hydrology and River Systems: The Sundarbans receives volumes of freshwater from the inland rivers, which flows from the north. Also, it receives saline water from the sea, which flourishes the mangrove forest. At a recent period all rivers were connected with the Ganges. The Sundarbans mangrove wetland is intersected by a complex network of rivers, channels and creeks (Chaffey et al., 1985). Some of the big rivers are several miles in width (Siddiqi, 2001) which sometime extends to about 6 miles. Generally, the rivers flow from north to south and are connected with a numerous side channels. These side channels connect the rivers and facilitate water exchange between them.

9

CHAPTER 2: FACTUAL BASE 2. 1 Habitat Five essential habitat types have been identified in the SRF: a) shore, b) low mangrove forests, c) high mangrove forests, d) open land/grassland, and e) estuarine-riverine areas. The shore habitat shelters the uncluttered sandy to murky areas along the edges of the Bay of Bengal that typically houses numerous bird species (IRG, 2010). High and low mangrove forests are separated based on crop height. The rest of the SRF covers the sporadic grasslands housing the herbivore such as deer and almost one third of the area is under rivers and estuaries (IRG, 2010). Among these five habitats, mangrove forests and wetlands deserve the most attention and they are discussed below:

Figure 2: Major Forest Types of the Sundarbans Reserved Forests (BD)

(IRG, 2010)

10

2.1.1 Mangrove forests: Being the world’s single largest mangrove forest with 3.5 percent of the world’s mangroves, the Sundarbans has unique forest patches in highly variable size and combinations that form a mosaic pattern of vegetation (Islam and Gnauck, 2009). The dominating species in the patches mostly occupy a flat deltaic swamp that extends over an area more than 4,000 sq.km (IRG, 2010). These forests experience high spring tides during monsoon and 90% of these trees are able to withstand the brackish to saline tides by producing profuse pneumatophores or breathing roots that overhang from ground resembling spikes (IRG, 2010). The water level is hardly more than five feet above the mean high tide level but these breathing roots take oxygen from the air to the roots of trees which may grow up to 1.5 meters with an average of about 30cm (IRG, 2010).

Also known as littoral forests, mangroves usually form in subtropical seas, particularly on even muddy shores with relatively calm water as seen in lagoons, inlets and estuaries. The forest canopy partly permits direct sunlight to reach the forest floor with a height of around 10m above the ground level and openness (IRG, 2010).

Threats to Mangrove Forests: Although the mangrove forests are shared by Bangladesh and India, India doesn’t go through a change in mangrove land cover as much as Bangladesh did during last 50 years. The Figure. 14 reveals that the Indian part of the mangrove has been steady since 1968 but unfortunately, the NDVI difference map shows that the Bangladesh part experienced deforestation from 1989-2000 in 23% of the forest, but having no data after 2000. In nearly 75% of the study area less than a 10% change was seen in NDVI value (Figure 15) and the remaining 25% experienced more severe changes with a greater than 10% increase or decrease (Emch and Peterson, 2006). This occurred especially in the southeastern corner and western edge of the study area (Figure 15) reveals that. Three reasons behind the change in this area have been detected, a) proximity to the port city Khulna with many raw material extraction industries like newsprint mills, match factories, and packing box industries, b) commissioning of Farakka Barrage in India that diverts the water from river Ganges water in dry season resulting into higher soil salinities and c) northern part of India-Bangladesh border area having a dramatic growth in shrimp farming (Emch and Peterson, 2006). Although satellite remote sensing is an appropriate methodology to measure changes in the Sundarbans forest but only a few studies have covered small parts of the mangrove forests with this technology. This results into an 11

incomplete data source of the land cover change of the mangrove forest (Emch and Peterson, 2006).

Figure 3: Shared mangrove forest by India and Bangladesh. Dark hatched parts are reclaimed areas and the stippled areas are reserved forests

(Gopal and Chauhan, 2006)

2.1.2 Wetlands Almost one-third of the Sundarbans consists of a complex network of tidal and fluvial waterways of various width and length carrying substantial amount of sediment. This network of wetlands springs out of different sources: freshwater discharge from the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna rivers fed by snowmelts in the Himalayas and monsoon rains making a counter-clockwise gyre during monsoon producing freshwater inflow (June-September) and a clockwise gyre during the rest of the year producing saline water inflow (December-May) in the Bay of Bengal (Emch and Peterson, 2006). These gyres allows for an upsurge of nutrients transported back and forth during the two seasons resulting into a high concentration of nutrients in the water. This continuous process of accretion and erosion in the Sundarbans form unique conditions for the wetlands and estuaries (IRG, 2010).

12

Threats to Wetlands: The wetlands are a great source of coastal fisheries that supply the essential protein to local community and beyond but results into overfishing (IRG, 2010). The oil spill from fishermen’s boats and ships on the way to port Mongla are threats to the health of these wetlands (Emch and Peterson, 2006). The influx of salinity in the wetlands due to the Farakka Barrage in upstream is another threat (Islam and Gnauck, 2009).

Figure 4: Ecological Zones in the Sundarbans Reserved Forests (BD)

(IRG, 2010)

2.1.3 Polders As a response to control the saline intrusion into the agricultural fields, more than 125 polders have been built in the south-west region along the upper catchment area of the Sundarbans rivers but this polderization has contributed to the siltation of several rivers, e.g. Bhadra river, Kharma 13

canal. Due to this siltation, these water channels can’t connect themselves with the main river Pasur. Many of the polders have been converted into shrimp cultivation that has more adverse effect on the salinity (IRG, 2010). Major interventions including excavation are needed to reconnect some of these streams and rivers. Some of these embankments can be brought under comanagement through benefit sharing by involving local community in raising embankments plantations that will stabilize the polders and also provide benefits to local community.

2.1.4 Protected areas The British colonial government in undivided Indian subcontinent had declared the Sundarbans as ‘protected area’ in December 1878 (Danda et al., 2011). But the Forest Department had the authority to reclaim and convert these lands for timber production and management, thus these areas were reclassified as ‘reserved area’ in May 1943 and all of the ISD was declared as Biosphere Reserve in March 1989 (Danda et al., 2011). Within this SRF as a whole reserved area, the Tiger Reserve was declared as a World Heritage Site in 1987 and there lie three wildlife sanctuaries (the Sundarbans, East, West and South, totaling 139,698 ha and gazette in 1996) in Bangladesh (IRG, 2010).

Figure 5: Wildlife Sanctuaries and Forest Ranges in the SRF (BD)

(IRG, 2010)

14

Figure 6: Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve (India)

(Danda et al., 2011)

Table 1: Sundarbans Wildlife Sanctuaries Plan (BD)

(IRG, 2010)

15

2.1.5 Critical habitats The northern and eastern boundaries of the SRF with a width of 10-km and 175,000 hectares of area was declared as Ecologically Critical Area (ECA) on 30 August 1999 by the Ministry of Environment and Forest, ref no. pa ba ma/ 4/7/87/99/263 (IRG, 2010). The main objective was to provide ‘protection to the SRF and conservation of its biodiversity’ as well as limit the access the local people to extract the natural resources.

2.1.6 Threats to ECA The land use pattern around the critical habitats has changed a great deal during recent years that mostly converted land into gher (confined waterbody for pisciculture) for fish and shrimp cultivation. The shrimp cultivation especially needs saline water and this water goes down polluting the ECA water bodies. Most of the local people residing in the fringe area of the Sundarbans are financially destitute with little education, drinking water scarcity, and little income opportunities and disaster-prone lifestyle. All of this is responsible for forcing them to make high biotic pressure on the natural resources of the SRF and the ECA (IRG, 2010). The ECAs in Bangladesh are covered by 5 separate districts that creates a problem in managing the areas (IRG, 2010). The Indian part also suffers from the same issues with a number of 52 inhabited islands separated by different creeks and rivers making it hard to manage the whole system (Vyas, 2012).

2.2 Biodiversity The great diversity in the SRF due to the spatial and temporal variability of freshwater and saline water inflows, topography and the interaction create a large heterogeneity in habitats resulting into a highly diverse biodiversity (Gopal and Chauhan, 2006). Overall the species composition in Bangladesh and India is same with very little difference as the ecosystem follows same process.

16

Figure 7: Habitat boundary in the SRF (BD).

(IRG, 2010)

17

2.2.1 Flora Mangrove plants are generally divided into ‘true mangrove’ and ‘mangrove associates’ where the ISD recorded 96 true mangrove species including 34 true mangrove (Vyas, 2012). The Bangladesh part mainly differs in the abundance of various species but unlike other mangrove forests, Rhizophoraceae species are of little importance and the dominant species are sundari, gewa, keora and goran, singra, dhundal, amur, passur and kankra and patches of grassland (IRG, 2010). But the total flora in two countries are different, Bangladesh having 334 plant species representing 245 genera and India with 100 species representing 57 genera (Gopal and Chauhan, 2006). Shrubs like Hargoza, Ora and Hudo function as stream bank protection species predominantly growing along riverbanks (IRG, 2010). The biogeochemical process involving the twigs, small branches and fruits as litter on forest floor is an important part of the SRF. But in general, the northern and eastern parts are better supplied with fresh water and are floristically richer than the other part.

Threats to flora: Many of these plants are used as thatching materials and in constructing small huts as roof rafter and frame of walls, cheap fencing, the rest main fodder species for deer that deplete these floral resources (IRG, 2010).

Table 2: Major forest types according to the predominant species (BD)

(IRG, 2010)

18

Table 3: Floral diversity in the SRF (India).

(Barik and Chowdhury, 2014)

2.2.2 Fauna A total of over 1692 species has been documented as faunal diversity of the Sundarbans, including 481 species of vertebrates and 1104 of invertebrates. The others include 15 species of mammals, 8 species of birds and 17 species of reptiles. The most predominant and important mammal species include the Royal Bengal tiger, spotted deer, macaque monkey, wild Boar, jackel, jungle and Indian fishing cats, small and large civets, small mongoose, common ottter, smooth coated otter, bats, Irrawady squirrel, crestless Malay porcupine, large bandicot rat and others. The main reptile species include the estuarine crocodile, python, common cobra, gecko, sea snakes, monitor lizard, turtles and others. Among the bird species, the aquatic ones include the adjutants, storks, herons, egrets, little cormorant and others and the semi aquatic ones include the Plovers, red-wattled lapwing, avocet, stint, curlew, sandpiper, common greenshank, gulls, terns and others. There are also raptorial birds including the falcons, eagles, vultures, kites, 19

Table 4: List of species in the SRF (India).

harriers and other terrestrial birds including the kingfishers, doves, pigeons, flycatchers, oriental magpie robin, red jungle fouls, woodpeckers, owls, rose-winged parakeet and others. Another important aspect of the avifauna of the SRF and the surrounding landscape is the 84 species of migratory birds that makes the SRF a valuable location of passage of migrant and seasonal birds (IRG, 2010).

Among the aquatic animals, the Cetaceans is a scientific grouping of dolphins, whales and porpoises and the wetlands in the SRF and coastal waters are suitable habitats for a large number of Ganges River dolphins (or Shushuks), Irrawady dolphins and finless porpoises. An abundant number of aquatic resources like fishes and crabs are also available in the SRF (IRG, 2010).

Threats to Fauna: Over a number of animals became extinct in Indian Sundarbans due to ecological changes, habitat dilapidation, and related anthropogenic activities (Vyas, 2012).

Figure (Gopal and Chauhan, 2006)

20

Keystone species: The Royal Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris) is the most important species in the terrestrial domain of SRF being at the apex of the food chain. Having almost an amphibious life, the tigers have adapted themselves to the difficult terrain characterized by sharp pneumatophores, muddy substratum, innumerable rivers and creeks with tidal rhythm, variable salinity and lack of freshwater source (IRG, 2010). The principal prey species of the tigers are spotted deer (Axis axis), wild boar (Sus scrofa), and macaque monkeys (Rhesus macaque) which is well distributed in the entire forest and honey bee (Apis dorsata) as the responsible species for responsible for 80% of the pollination. These bees also build their honeycomb inside the forest in large numbers. Apart from the tiger the secondary predator is the fishing cat (Felis viverrina).

For the most part, crabs are also integral parts of mangrove ecosystems keeping up energy in the forests by burying and eating leaf litter, and serving as a major food source for the fish in the delta. Furthermore, their feces also form the basis of the mangrove food chain (Schipani, 2015).

Threats to keystone species: Due to the destruction of habitats and disruption in the food chain of the Royal Bengal Tigers, there has been instances of man-eating trait of the tigers. In the last 25 years, apart from one case where the tiger had accidently killed a girl, all the deaths have occurred inside the forest when men encroached their hunting grounds (Vyas, 2012).

Exotic Species: All the plant species found in the SRF are indigenous and there is neither endemic nor exotic species and so far none is considered as rare (IRG, 2010).

Extinct Species: Some of the species in the SRF have already become extinct including Javan Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus), Wild Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis), Swamp Deer (Cervus duvaucelli), Barking Deer (Muntiacus muntjak) and Indian Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) and the Hog Deer (Axis porcinus). (Gopal and Chauhan, 2006). The instance of the extinct species in the SRF reveals the vulnerability of the species.

Endangered and threatened species: The tree Sundari is considered as threatened because of the top-dying and selective removals for commercial value and the increase of salinity in the water. But the Forestry Department of Bangladesh finds only 106 tigers and India finds 74 using hidden cameras in 2015, showing a sharp decline from 440 in total ten years ago (BBC, 2015).

21

Similar to tiger, the other most important mammal species, the spotted deer (Axis axis) lives on the verge of extinction due to illegal hunting and disruption in their food chain. The rock python (Python morulus) is also listed as a valuable yet vulnerable species by IUCN that declined over recent years and is rarely encountered. Minimum 30 species of snakes were reported to have found in the SRF but there has been a steady decline in densities, especially over the last 15 years (IFMP, 1998). A detailed list of threatened species is presented in Table 5 but only for India. As the only remaining habitat within the lower Bengal basin that shelters the wildlife, the success of managing the mangrove forests and wetlands in the SRF sustainably depend greatly upon adequate site information, understanding of plant and animal communities, co-management with local community, nutrient availability, natural regeneration, eco-restoration and ecological succession (IRG, 2010).

Table 5: Threatened fauna in the SRF (India)

(Gopal and Chauhan, 2006)

22

Ecosystems: The ecosystem of the SRF requires a broad and profound understanding of the importance of the interdependency of the flora, fauna, aquatic and water resources which makes up the unique conditions in the SRF. The hydrological systems and their characteristics primarily determine the ecology of the Sundarbans where the amount of nutrients and sediments contribute to the productivity of the watersheds. The boundaries of the ECAs are dynamic and constantly changing with the natural courses of tide and season (rainy season versus dry season) and the temporal alteration due to human interventions (IRG, 2010). Historically the ecosystem of the SRF withstood certain level of disturbance including climate change thanks to its inbuilt resilience. But given the growing anthropogenic pressure on the ecosystem, the biodiversity might be dilapidated to a point of no-return.

2.3 Water Quality in Sundarbans The Ganges River originates in the Himalayas (India) and flows through India. On its was it merges with many huge rivers like Ramganga, Yamuna, Son etc. and accumulates a huge flow before outflowing into the Padma River (Bangladesh). It is about 2510 km long and has a drainage area of about 907000 km2. The average discharge of the river is about 16648 m3/s, while the dry season flow is only 5400 m3/s.

The Padma joins with Jamuna and flows towards the southeast and joins with Meghna and eventually discharges into the Bay of Bengal. Mathabhanga, Kobadak, Gorai are major distributaries that carry water from the Padma to the southwestern region of the country, i.e. the Sundarbans. The various human activities along with effect of climate change has had effect on the water quality of the Sundarbans region from the upstream and coast area (sea level rise) respectively. These conditions have severely affected the natural habitat and biodiversity in the region. This sections aims to look deeper into this aspect.

2.3.1 Bangladesh Sundarbans The Farakka Barrage was constructed (about 17 km from the border of Bangladesh) for the revitalization of the Hoogly river of India at the beginning of 1975 (Figure 8) It has a maximum discharge capacity of 227000 cusecs and has a regulator for diversion capacity of 40000 cusecs.

It was essentially created to share water only in the dry season (January 01 to 31 may) and the 23

diversion was to be limited to 11000-16000 cusecs, but in a later treaty in 1996 it was changed to 30000-35000 cusecs (Tabassum 2003). The creation of the barrage has severely reduced water flow in the lower Ganges and its distributaries in Bangladesh (Ahmad 2015). This has eventually lead to siltation and high salinity in these rivers. Since the diversion of upstream freshwater, the salinity in the southwest of Bangladesh, namely Sundarbans area has penetrated up to more than 240 km north from the coast (Islam and Gnauck, 2009).

One of the major distributaries of Ganges is Gorai, which used to supply a huge portion of water to the south-west region of Bangladesh has been most significantly impacted by this barrage. The flow of this river has supposedly decreased by 50-73% in the dry seasons and as a result is experiencing even more siltation over the years (Hanasz, 2014).

Figure 8: Farakka Barrage in India

http://india-wris.nrsc.gov.in/wrpinfo/images/c/ce/Farraka.JPG

24

Figure 9: Flow levels at Harding Bridge before and after Farakka Barrage construction

(Islam and Gnauck, 2009) The Mathabhanga and Kobadak are two rivers that have lost their connection with the Ganges due to siltation, this contributes to the salinity problem in the Sundarbans even more (Islam and Gnauck, 2009). The diversion of water at Farakka has also caused severe damage to the breeding and raising grounds for 109 species of Gangetic fishes and other aquatic species and amphibians (Ahmad 2015). Figure 9 shows the water flows at Harding Bridge and figure 10 shows the salinity levels in Sundarbans region (Islam and Gnauck, 2009) before and after Farakka Barrage construction. Figure 11 shows the predictions of what the scenario would be with low flow in Gorai, e climate change impacts (sea level rise and zero-flow in Gorai (Palash 2015). It is hoped that the scenario never comes to that.

Figure 10: Water salinity density at Passur-Mongla River Site

(Islam and Gnauck, 2009) 25

Figure 11: shows the predictions of what the scenario would be with low flow in Gorai, the climate change impacts (sea level rise and zero-flow in Gorai

(Palash, 2015).

26

Shrimp Cultivation – Growing shrimp cultivation operations has increased salinity and this regions and almost 45% of the mangrove wetlands were destroyed (Islam and Gnauck, 2009). A lot of natural vegetation is also dying out due to this (Islam and Gnauck, 2009).

Industrial – About 165 industries upstream to the Sundarbans, in Khulna district. Industrial activities (paper and pulp industries, textile and dyeing industries, and rayon mills located in the Bhairab-Rupsa-Passur belt) contribute to increase of salinity, heavy metal, hardness and alkalinity in the water and soil in the region (Awal, 2014).

Domestic – Discharge municipal waste (sewage and solid domestic waste) is very high, almost 2.2 tons of BOD/day (Rahman, 2013).

Agricultural – Increase of irrigation in agriculture also contributes to salinity and siltation in the area. Runoff carrying potassium, nitrates from the fertilizers and pesticide cladded fields also add to chemical pollution in the wetlands (Rahman 2013).

Oil Pollution – Caused from the nearby ports and upstream industries. Also a tanker named “OT Southern Star 7” carrying 350 thousand liters of furnace oil, sank in the river of Shela on December 09, 2014, causing severe water pollution there (Figure 12) Pollution from Tourists –Tourist who come to the Sundarbans create a lot of pollution in the area due do improper management (Sundarbans Delta Vision 2050).

Figure 12: Oil Spill in Sundarbans, Bangladesh

http://www.dw.com/image/0,,18126948_303,00.jpg 27

2.3.2 Indian Sundarbans It was found from study that existing landuse in West Bengal are – agriculture which constitutes about 1348 square km, mud flats and beach covers about 200 square kms., coastal aquaculture impoundment covers 267 square km, saltpans and salt marshes of 28.6 and 22.13 square km respectively (ICZM 2012). The Sundarbans mangrove forest area covers 1952 square km of the coastal area. Water in this area is severely polluted by some sources which are mainly wastewater generated from domestic, agricultural and industrial activities. These are detailed below: Pollution sources: Domestic – The domestic waste is generated mainly from coastal town and tourist resorts, such as - Digha, Haldia, Kakdwip, Bakkhali, Diamond Harbour, Canning and Basanti. Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) of India found that the cities in West Bengal generated about 785.4 MLD (Million Liters a Day) sewage, of which only approximately 141.7 MLD is treated. The rest is dumped into nearby creeks and water bodies untreated, which ultimately finds its way to the rivers of Sundarbans and the coastal waters. These leads to a very high concentration of BOD (146 ton per day) and COD (378 ton per day) in the coastal waters (ICZM 2012).

Agricultural – According to the Integrated Coastal Zone Management Project (ICZMP) of India, the average fertilizer use in the state of West Bengal is about 1261450 tons and for pesticide it was about around 3000 tons per year. If even just 1% is assumed to end up as run off in the coastal water bodies, it would mean an annual fertilizer load around 5213 tons per year of nitrogen, 2574 tons per year of phosphorus and 4815 tons per year of potassium. While the pollution load for pesticides would be 4 kg/day of organic chlorine and 32 kg/day of organic phosphorus (ICZM 2012).

Industrial – There is no direct impact of industrial waste on the coastal waters. Maybe from the wastewater discharged in the upstream industries (62 large and medium industries) about 22 MLD reach the coastal waters (CPCB).

Oil Pollution – Activities at the Haldia port, discharge from ships and mechanized fishing and cargo boats and discharge from major fish centers at Sankarpur and Namkhana, all form some kind of oil/grease substance which pollutes the waters in Sundarbans (ICZM 2012).

28

Pollution from tourists – Tourist resorts in Digha region are major, and Bakkhali (Fraserganj) are minor pollution sources. The CPCB reports that water sample analysis of water in these areas show a high concentration of biological pollution.

Farakka on Hoogly River – The construction of Farakka increased flow in the river aand has affected the entire river ecology, particularly its fishery resources, fishing patterns and fish production in the region. According to a study done by the Central Inland Capture Fisheries Research Institute in West Bengal, the freshwater zone has been pushed towards the sea thus leading to a decrease in marine and neritic fish in the upper estuary. On the contrary there has been a marked increase of Tenualosa ilisha in the zone (Ahmad 2015).

2.3.3 Pollutants in Sundarbans: Salinity - The change in salinity has affected the water and soil quality in the region which eventually lead to degraded growth and regeneration of the forest plants and animals in that area (Islam and Gnauck, 2009). The plants more tolerant toward saline water/soil are growing more and the others are fading away gradually (Karim 1994). The top-dying disease and die-back disease of Heritiera fomes and Cariops decandra is associated with salinity increase (Islam and Gnauck, 2009). The salinity increase in the soil and water has led to alteration farming in the region and lack of fresh drinking water, the overall socio-economic prospects of the locals and the nation (Figure 33) is suffering (Islam and Gnauck, 2009).

Figure 13: Reduced fresh water flow and impacts on the Sundarbans

(Islam and Gnauck, 2009) 29

Turbidity – This is a condition resulting from suspended solids in the water, including silts, clays, industrial wastes, sewage and plankton. Such particles absorb heat in the sunlight, thus raises the water temperature, which in turn lowers dissolved oxygen (DO) levels (Wilson 2015).

Temperature – The rise of the water temperature beyond normal levels can negatively affect the native species and increase DO, BOD, COD, which could lead to eutrophication (Wilson 2015).

Dissolved Oxygen (DO) – High DO in the surface waters attributes to increase in chorophyll and phytoplankton, which could have negative impacts on water quality (Manna 2010). pH value - Denotes the buffering capacity of medium water and thus plays an important role in many chemical and biological processes. Too much variation could be harmful for species. pH is the most important factor which controls the growth of the green algae (Rahman et al).

Alkalinity - Alkalinity is a measure of the acid-neutralizing capacity of water. It is an aggregate measure of the sum of all titratable bases in the sample. Alkalinity in most natural waters is due to the presence of carbonate (CO3=), bicarbonate (HCO3-), and hydroxyl (OH-) anions.

However, borates, phosphates, silicates, and other bases also contribute to alkalinity if present.

Alkalinity is important because it buffers the pH of water within the system. Without this buffering capacity, small additions of acids or bases would result in significant changes of pH, which could be deleterious for aquatic life. Alkalinity also influences the distribution of some organisms within aquatic systems.

Hardness - Chemically, hardness is often defined as the sum of polyvalent cation concentrations dissolved in the water. The most common polyvalent cations in fresh water are calcium (Ca++) and magnesium (Mg++) and also iron (Fe++), strontium (Sr++), and manganese (Mn++). It has been found that hardness is needed to support some ecological functions and biological processes (Timmons et al. 2002) Heavy Metals - Heavy metals are natural constituents of the earth's crust, and accumulation of heavy metals in soil is responsible for pharmacological activity in plants. Prolonged exposure to heavy metals can cause deleterious health effects in humans & plants (Awal 2014). This has been found as one of the major reasons behind the ‘top (upper part) dying disease’ of the Shundori trees (Heritiera fomes) in the Bangladesh part of Sundarbans (Awal 2014).

30

Table 6: Comparison of the Pollutant levels in the Sundarbans

Pollutant

Concentrations in waters Concentrations in of Bangladesh waters of India Sundarbans * Sundarbans **

Standards ***

Total Suspended Solids (TSS) Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

10.8 -19.7 g/L

Not available (N/A)

0.150 g/L

3.5-53.3 g/L

(N/A)

1g/L

Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

6.0-7.33 mg/L

greater than 4.0 mg L-1

6 mg/L

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

20.2-28.0 mg/L

(N/A)

10 mg/L

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

19.0-38.0 mg/L

114.8 mg L-1

4-8 mg/L

Hardness (Ca+2, Mg +2, Sr+2) Na+

98.47-2900 mg/L (rainy to summer)

(N/A)

329-8839 mg/L

(N/A)

For fresh water 6.3 mg/L , drinking water 50mg/L

K+

45.15-992.0 mg/L

Not available (N/A)

fresh water should be 2.3 mg/L

ClAlkalinity pH Water Temperature

12.5-4672 mg/L… 100-203.3 mg/L 7.0- 8.4 19 – 31 C

(N/A) (N/A) 8.13 – 8.74 21-33 C

7.8 mg/L 100 7.4

Salinity

4.11-33.2 mS/cm (rainy to summer)

10.6-24.6 PSU (rainy to summer)

* Awal (2014), Rahman et al (2013) **Sarkar and Bhattacharya (2010), Manna et al 2010 *** Standards by WHO and Environment Quality Standard (EQS)

31

2.4 Socio-Economic 2.4.1 Livelihood Activities The Sundarbans plays an important part in the national economy of Bangladesh as compared to India, as it is the single largest source of forest and raw material for them. However, it is equally important in both the countries for the local inhabitants in the vicinity of the forests. The main economic activity in the delta region is that of agriculture.

In both the countries, the inhabited villages are primarily located outside the forests limits. Those who live on the periphery of the forests are mainly farmers and fishermen, however, a certain small part of the population are working as honey-collectors, woodcutters, etc.

The Sundarbans provides livelihood and employment to an estimated 2 million people in both the countries. The contribution of biodiversity in the primary sector is huge, because a large share of the employment and rural livelihoods in the formal and informal industries.

The Sundarbans forests is also a source of fuelwood, timber which are used by the nearby villagers for the construction of huts, boats and packaging. Moreover, the forest produce and fishes not only feed the local population but also neighboring cities and industrial towns.

The honey produced is mostly exported because both the countries are not much of a honey consumer. The honey collecting season lasts for only 2.5 months from April to June. The honey collectors first obtain a permit from the Forest Department and then enter the forest to collect and crush the nests for honey and wax. Around 2000 people are engaged in beekeeping in the Indian part of the Sundarbans, producing approx. 90% of the total production of natural honey in India 2.4.2 Tourism Though tourism, especially eco-tourism, has a great potential in Sundarbans, but it is not being utilized. Not many tourists visit the Sundarbans as there is difficulty in arranging transport, therefore, expensive. Also, there is lack of suitable accommodation and other facilities.

Moreover, since the area is so sensitive and fragile, it doesn’t have the potential for mass tourism but it does offer possibilities for limited tourism from October to April or May.

32

2.5 Anthropogenic Impacts: 2.5.1 Loss of Natural Habitat Apart from the natural threats (or indirect human impacts) to the mangroves like rising sea level and other disasters, there are direct human impacts as well. The two most serious anthropogenic impacts on the forest are from wastewater pollution from large cities and industries, and a reduction in freshwater supply owing to the construction of upstream embankments like the Farakka Barrage. The barrage was constructed in 1975 and has altered the regional hydrological balance of the Sundarbans. It is one of the main culprits of the increased salinization of the soils.

There has been five percent loss of cover in the 10 years between 1989 and 2009 (WWF, 2011).

The overall land area has been continuously decreasing since 1776 (refer Fig. 8, Table 6&7).

There has been loss of 44 sq. km since 2001, in India. If the current trend continues, there shall we no mangrove by the end of the 21st century (WWF, 2011).

Table 7: Statistics of mangrove cover change over last 2.5 centuries, India.

Table 8: Change statistics for land loss and gain, and mangroves area between 1968 and 2014

(Ghosh et al., 2015) 33

Figure 14: Change in the Sundarbans boundary over last two centuries

(Ghosh et al, 2015) 34

Figure 15: Change in land Use in Bangladesh

(Emch and Peterson, 2006) 2.5.2 Loss of Biodiversity Pollution, sediment and salinity triggers negative impacts on the fauna growth. In the more saline part of the Sundarbans, trash fish have increased significantly, while the important taxa decreased.

35

However, over a period of time a number of animals became extinct in the Sundarbans due to ecological changes as well as anthropogenic activities. Few of the animals which have been lost include Javan Rhinoceros, Wild Buffalo, Swamp Deer, Barking Deer, and Indian Rhinoceros.

The population of Bengal Tigers has been dwindling in the Sundarbans, especially in Bangladesh part. The population of tigers in the Sundarbans is approximately 170. Poaching is one of the biggest problem in the area Threats: The damaging effects of sewage and industrial pollution coupled with continuing deforestation is threatening the integrity of the Sundarbans. Another issue is the expanding agriculture as to accommodate that mangrove forests are being cleared and irrigation canals are constructed in their place (WWF, n.d. ). Furthermore, there is heavy pressure on the fisheries.

The threat from offshore oil spills is also a serious one.

Table 9: Threats to the Sundarbans:

http://image.slidesharecdn.com/ensuringecosystemsintegrityinindiansundarbans-150520092933-lva1-app6892/95/ensuring-ecosystem-integrityin-indian-sundarbans-19-638.jpg?cb=1432115218

36

2.6 Role of Stakeholders The role of the local stakeholders who would be the part of Implementation and Public Advisory Committee (IPAC) is as follows: 2.6.1 Local Government Organizations Ministry of Environment and Forestry (GoB) – Managing the Ecosystem and biodiversity to ensure the sustainability of forests and the wildlife, control environmental pollution by humans; conduct survey and research on flora and fauna and development of forest resources and effects of climate change in the Sundarbans.

Ministry of Fishery and Livestock (GoB) – Increasing fishery resources and production while maintaining ecological balance, conserve bio-diversity and improve public health.

Ministry of Water Resources – formulates policies, plans, strategies, guidelines, instructions and acts, rules, regulations, etc. relating to the development and management of water resources.

Works on flood control, drainage and irrigation (FCDI); riverbank erosion control; delta development and land reclamation; salinity control etc. and provides irrigation, drainage, flood protection, bank erosion protection, land reclamation facilities by constructing barrages, regulators, sluices, canals, cross-dams, embankments and sea-dykes along the banks of the rivers and the coast, etc. Ensure financial sustainability, social justice, gender equity and the environment by ensuring that the knowledge and ability of its people in order to increase the participation of the people themselves through the appropriate use of water resources planning and management could. Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB) is one of its implementing agencies.

Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (GoI) - Implementation of policies and programs relating to conservation of the country's natural resources including its lakes and rivers, its biodiversity, forests and wildlife, ensuring the welfare of animals, and the prevention and abatement of pollution. While implementing these policies and programs, the Ministry is guided by the principle of sustainable development and enhancement of human well-being.

Ministry of Water Resources (GoI) – Manages overall planning, policy formulation, coordination and guidance in the water resources sector. Provides technical guidance, scrutiny and monitoring of the irrigation, flood control and multi-purpose projects. Formulation of national water development perspective and the determination of the water balance of different basins/subbasins for consideration of possibilities of inter-basin transfers. Coordination, mediation and 37

facilitation in regard to the resolution of differences or disputes relating to international water sharing.

Ministry of Agriculture (GoI) - Ensure food security, sustaining higher levels of production, promoting conservation agriculture in the high production areas.

Ministry of Agriculture (GoB) – Address sustainable agricultural development and food sufficiency, management of agricultural inputs such as fertilizers and pesticides, provide administrative and policy support, funding and technical assistance with development partners and donor agencies to coordinate.

Ministry of Urban Development (GoI): Regulates urban Development Ministry of Urban Development (GoB): Regulates urban Development 2.6.2 Local NGOs BANGLADESH BRAC - An international development organization based in Bangladesh. Works towards poverty alleviation through community and resource mobilization. Has extensive training programs at community level.

ASA – Microfinance regulatory organization, devote to poverty eradication.

Proshika - NGO is dedicated to training, education and action within poor districts through a broad range of programs. The programs are supported by research activities and advocacy campaigns.

Works with environment protection too.

Polli Kormo Shohayok Foundation (PKSF) – A development organization that was established by the Government of Bangladesh (GoB) for sustainable poverty reduction through employment generation. Also does disaster management and micro insurance activities.

Ahsania Mission: provides humanitarian services and educates local communities INDIA Nature Environment and Wildlife Society- Works for wildlife conservation, mangrove restoration, wetland conservation, awareness programs and community based initiative, management of ecology and environment, disaster management etc.

38

Ramakrishna Mission Lokashiksha Parishad: Provides humanitarian services and educates local communities.

Paryavaran Mitra - Is a nationwide initiative to create a network of young leaders from schools across the country, who have the awareness, knowledge, commitment, and potential to meet the challenges of environmental sustainability in their own spheres of influence.

ASIAN NGOS South Asian Forum for Environment (SAFE) – Works to build science-society interface for sustainable environment development and poverty alleviation through community based interventions in the Indian eco-region. It teaches the people at community level the sustainable agricultural practices and wise use of natural resources.

Participatory Environment Education and Community Awareness (PEECA) - Create awareness about the economic value of solid waste and how to benefit from business opportunities associated with sustainable solid waste management.

39

Chapter 3: Goals and Objectives

Internal

Table 10: Goals and Objectives are based on the following SWOT analysis

HELPFUL

HARMFUL

Strength

Weakness

Availability of local labor

Lack of Environmental Awareness

Mangroves act as a barrier from

Lack of literacy and education

coastal hazards

Lack of Sense of Place

External

Lack of Collaboration

Opportunities

Threats

Ecotourism

Poaching Farakka Barrage Encroachment Dumping of waste/sewage

Goal 1: Establish a common organisation/authority called Integrated Sundarbans Management Committee (ISMC) between Bangladesh and India to manage the Sundarbans as single ecosystem

Objective 1.1: Identify the local organisations and stakeholders along with their available resources and responsibilities.

Policy 1.1.1: The ISMC shall have managerial body which shall include ten members from both the government Policy 1.1.2: The managerial body shall be accountable to an international body UNESCO Policy 1.1.3: The TAC and local municipal bodies shall act as mediators between the local people and managerial body.

40

Policy 1.1.4: The NGOs and local municipal bodies shall be responsible for the local implementation.

Objective 1.2: Form a common budget to execute the management strategies to achieve the goals.

Policy 1.2.2: Specify the amount in percentage to be allocated for the conservation and management of the SRF by the Government of India (GoI) and Government of Bangladesh (GoB).

Policy 1.2.3: Allocate funds to the local organisations sanctioned by the ISMC. Policy 1.2.4: The ISMC must ensure transparency of funds by maintaining online database and publishing annual reports of allocation and transactions of the funds.

Objective 1.3: The local bodies shall be accountable to the ISMC Policy 1.3.1: The TAC shall have specific project plans to address the following policies (Goal 2-7) Policy 1.3.2: The implementation committee shall report to the ISMC with bi-annual updates of their jurisdiction Policy 1.3.3: The technical and implementation committee shall collaborate and come up with local level plans

Objective 1.4: The ISMC shall have a common data base of both the countries which shall be available to the public Policy 1.4.1: The TAC shall collaborate with the public outreach committee to complete the factual base of both the countries. (Figure 20) Policy 1.4.2: The TAC shall collaborate with the public outreach committee to regularly (quarterly) monitor the sites and report to the ISMC Policy 1.4.2: The common shall regularly (quarterly) update the database which shall be available to the public through web.

Objective 1.5: Annual meeting must be held among the members with concerned stakeholders incorporate in (inter)national legislation.

41

Policy 1.5.1: The meeting shall we reported and the proposals need to include in the plan amendments

Goal 2: Protect and maintain mangrove and wetland habitats

Objective 2.1: Limit the infringement of human activities by providing a buffer Policy 2.1.1: Identify the boundary of the buffer zone across both countries (Figure 17) Policy 2.1.2: The buffer width shall vary according to the site conditions (density of settlements, width of the river, etc.) between 5km to 10 km.

Policy 2.1.4: Enforce clearing of the encroached areas

Objective 2.2: Direct growth away from the SRF Policy 2.2.1: The development falling on the identified buffer area, shall be directed away from the critical areas by relocating them in the vicinity (Figure 18) Policy 2.2.2: Apply transfer development rights to acquire agricultural land Policy: Prohibit any human activity or encroachment on the silted islands

Objective 2.3: Monitor regularly to track the human infringement in SRF Policy 2.3.1 TAC must update land cover change data by using remote sensing and field survey Policy 2.3.2 TAC must report quarterly to the ISMC Policy 2.3.3 The local forestry department of both the countries must penalize any non conforming activities inside the SRF

Goal 3: Preserve and restore surface water quality in the Sundarbans

Objective 3.1: Reducing salinity of the water to 40% by 2025 Policy 3.1.1: Revision of Farakka Barrage treaty of 1972 prioritizing the ecological impacts rather than economic impacts. Guarantee 2800 m3/s of flow throughout the year in both the countries to minimise salinity in the Sundarbans. To reduce the salinity level, Bangladesh must ensure a flow of 2000 m3/s in the streams and not use it. (Mirza et al, 2008).

42

Policy 3.1.2: Regulate shrimp cultivation in the upstream water bodies

Objective 3.2: Increase capacity of the major rivers to avoid flooding Policy 3.2.1: Dredge the Padma and Gorai rivers to ensure the flow of river towards the Sundarbans Policy 3.2.2: Involve local labor in the management process Policy 3.2.3: Ensure afforestation to reduce river erosion

Objective 3.3: Minimize the anthropogenic activities on the water quality Policy 3.3.1: Must regulate the water routes of the boats and ships to prevent oil spills and other pollutants in the rivers in SRF Policy 3.3.2: Must ensure quality standards of boats laid out by BIWTA and IWAI. Eg: Age of boats, type of fuel used by these boats, etc.

Policy 3.3.3: The boats/ships must have appropriate sanitation and waste management facilities Policy 3.3.4: Strict enforcement and penalty on the water transport which do not comply with above stated norms Policy 3.3.5: Enforce strict regulations on the port activities as listed by the port authorities and upstream townsof both the countries

Goal 4: Sustainable management of the natural resources in the Sundarbans

Objective 4.1: Improving regenerative capacity of the Sundarbans Policy 4.1.1: The government must set an annual allowable amount for the extraction of various resources like timber, honey, plants and fishes.

Policy 4.2.2: After the extraction of resources, the area must remain untouched for twenty years to regain its original capacity.

Objective 4.2: Restore the lost patches or encroached areas (Figure 18) Policy 4.2.1: Identify the lost patches and clear the encroachment, if any.

Policy 4.2.2: Afforest the identified lost patches with the indigenous species 43

Policy 4.2.3: Involve the local people in the afforestation process

Objective 4.3: Co-management of natural resources with the local people Policy 4.3.1: The workshops organised by public outreach program must train local people about social forestry Policy 4.3.2: Identify and develop technical, organisational, communication or dispute resolution skills and capabilities of the local people Policy 4.3.3: Identify their roles in management of the natural resources accordingly Policy 4.3.4: Introduce innovative and alternate technologies such as improved natural fertilizers, cooking stoves, pond-sand filter device for drinking water, rainwater harvesting, biomass, etc.

Goal 5: Safeguard the threatened and endangered biodiversity

Objective 5.1: Improve and strictly implement the existing policies pertaining to wildlife conservation and reduction of poaching activities Policy 5.1.1: The programs must include measurable goals and timeline Policy 5.1.2: Regular monitoring of the organisations accountable for these policies

Goal 6: Create environmental awareness among the local people

Objective 6.1: Educate people about biodiversity, resource, ecosystems and landscape environment Policy 6.1.1: Use of visual media (pictures, videos, street theater, etc.) to educate those who are illiterate Policy 6.1.2: Educate children at school level regarding the importance and sensitiveness of the Sundarbans area by including it in their curriculum Policy 6.1.3: Sensitize people about importance of the proposed policies like buffer zone, annual allowable cut, etc

44

Objective 6.2: Create a sense of place among the local people to sensitize them towards the environmental issues of the SRF Policy 6.2.1: Name the newly planted trees after the children born in the same year to increase their attachment and protective instinct towards the natural resources Policy 6.2.2: Introduce programs to educate the adults regarding the importance of conserving the area

Goal 7: Promote eco-tourism in the Sundarbans area

Objective 7.1: Create low impact nature based outdoor recreation in the SRF Policy 7.1.1: Introduce forestry related activities which must not disrupt the natural cycle of SRF and have no net loss of the forest Policy 7.1.2: Accommodation for the tourist must be provided on the boats/ships, not on the land Policy 7.1.3: Plan and provide suitable waste management and sanitation facilities for the tourist, so that there is zero impact Policy 7.1.4: Specify the trails and water routes and limit the access points for tourists

Objective 7.2: Control the number of business operators in the ecotourism business in the SRF

Policy 7.2.1 : Assess and monitor the quality of the service that they provide to check if they confirm with the above mentioned policies are followed

Objective 7.3: Involve local people in ecotourism

Policy 7.3.1: Train the local people so as to provide alternate livelihood, however, maximization of economic outcome shouldn’t be a priority

45

Chapter 4: Policy Tools and Implementation 4.1 SRF Management Planning Policies, Tools and Strategies: Rationale: While applying the planning tools, it was understood that the SRF was already a protected area declared by both countries but many of its areas were gradually encroached upon and exploited by human activities. The lands are already owned by the states and the hard part is to clear these intrusions and introduce alternate livelihood to the people. That is why the planning tools will be focusing on restricting the human impacts, conserving the habitats and creating eco-friendly awareness, all with the help of transboundary collaboration.

Urban Growth Boundary: Delineating the urban growth boundary and restricting any sort of human development beyond this boundary will help to conserve the integrity of the biodiversity and habitats (Figure 16). This tool limits environmental impacts, keeps growth within urban core and away from critical habitats. This tool is also applicable to the silted islands that pop up in the rivers by gathering sedimentation over time.

Buffer Zone: The rivers, creeks and waterways along the boundary already function as natural boundary but they will be supplemented by shrubs and trees creating the buffer (Figure 17). But creating a buffer zone with a varying width of 5km-10km along the SRF boundary, depending upon the width of the water bodies, e.g. thicker buffer for thinner water bodies, will protect the ecosystem from being infringed upon. These buffers will also protect the rivers from erosion and planting them will be carried out by local bodies with the help of local communities.

Transfer Development Rights (TDR): The agricultural and residential lands along the proposed buffer zone will be bought by the use of TDR to protect the buffer from being developed. This acts as an incentive for the owners of those lands as they are still able to own them but prevents them from building on it.

46

Targeted Growth Strategy (TGS): The people whose lands will be acquired by TDR will be rehabilitated in the existing urban developments by using TGS (Figure 18). These urban growths will fall under regional planning and will require collaboration among the local bodies within the respective states.

Educational Programs: Educating the local communities of and around the SRF will not only work as a tool to increase ecological protection, but also as a tool to create co-management groups for the sustainable management of the landscape of the SRF and involve people in collecting data.

Inter-governmental Agreement: The ISMP requires collaboration among different levels of jurisdictions: international, national and local. This will help protect the SRF as an individual unit by reducing the cost of management and resolving disputes.

Figure 16: Proposed Urban Growth Boundary

47

Figure 17: Proposed Buffer Zone along the boundary

Figure 18: Proposed Targeted Growth Strategy to direct growth away from the SRF

48

4.2 Implementation Figure 19: Proposed Implementation Process for ISMP

While implementing a plan, three general principal difficulties have been identified: 1) lack of systematic evaluation of the plan implementation, 2) lack of examination process of planning impacts over large time frames and 3) the ambiguous meaning of a successful plan implementation (Brody, 2003). For the implementation of a plan of both global and local importance like the Integrated Sundarbans Management Plan will depend largely on the accomplishment of enforcing the plan in both local, regional and international level (See Figure 20).

49

4.2.1 Structure of the Plan Implementation:

Figure 20: Proposed Organogram

As the first goal in the plan is to treat the Sundarbans as a single ecosystem without the limitation of trans-national jurisdiction, forming the combined body of the Integrated Sundarbans Management Committee (ISMC) will be the first step. This management body will consist of 40 people in total representing 10 people from GoB, 10 from GoI, 10 from international organizations and the rest 10 combined from the NGOs in both countries. The ISMC will have 3 committees that will be accountable to the ISMC: 1) The Sponsoring Committee (SC), 2) The Technical Assistance Committee (TAC) and 3) Implementation and Public Advisory Committee (IPAC). The SC will be composed of the sponsoring for collecting and allocating funds to the other two committees. The SRF having the international significance and affected by global warming mostly contributed by the developed countries, these countries must take the responsibility of providing financial and technical assistance to the plan. SC will carry out annual meetings to assess the progress and plan implementation. The TAC will consist of research institutes and universities from both international and national levels with the primary objective 50

of creating and updating a common data base for the SRF. TAC will collaborate with IPAC to include the local students, NGOs and local communities in the research process for data collection and possible implementation. TAC will carry out combined research focusing on 5 themes in 5 subcommittees: 1) Habitat, 2) Water Resources, 3) Biodiversity, 4) Sustainable Landscape Management and 5) Climate Change. Every member of these subcommittees will be a member of at least two subcommittees to prevent fragmented research practices. The subcommittees will have monthly meetings for the exchange of information and have a holistic view of the plan. The IPAC will have 2 subcommittees incorporating the local NGOs, local municipalities and community: 1) Implementation and 2) Public Outreach. The Implementation group will be responsible for executing the programs formed by the collaboration between TAC and IPAC. 7 programs have been proposed in the plan by revising the existing programs proposed by USAID and the goals proposed in this plan (IRG, 2010): 1) Habitat Protection Program, 2) Water Quality Restoration Program, 3) Sustainable Landscape Management Program, 4) Wildlife Sanctuaries Management Program, 5) Conservation Outreach and Research, Participatory Monitoring and Capacity Building Program, 6) Eco-Tourism Program and 7) Data Collection and Monitoring Program. Each program will have its own implementation process laid out with specific timelines complying with the overall goals, objectives and timeline. These programs have the objectives of implementation at local level and creating environmental awareness among local people. They must be carried out as a collaboration between TAC and IPAC with public engagement that will also serve as opportunities for co-management and alternative livelihood for local people.

51

4.2.2 Planning Schedule

Figure 21: Proposed Timeline for the Plan Implementation, the numbers refer to the Objectives of the Plan.

4.2.3 Proposed Inventory for Data Collection One of the obstacles while writing the plan was the lack of data that needs to be collected and updated as a common database.

Table 11:Proposed Inventory

Inventory of Existing Resources Habitat corridors

Neither mapped nor explained anywhere

Exotic species

It is stated in few documents that there’s no exotic species, however the case is unlikely. Need more information on that

Wetlands

There are numerous watersheds in the Sundarbans, however they are not mapped

Climate

Nil 52

Groundwater

No data

resources Representation of

Data of both the countries are fragmented, need to have one

transboundary

data base which would specify the transboundary resources

resources Habitat Loss and Pollution Fragmentation of

The ecosystem is naturally fragmented by water bodies, human

habitat

intervention and fragmentation doesn’t look pose much problem

Wetlands Decline

No mention of land decline in wetlands in percentage or mapped

Loss of marine

No data in either countries

habitat Water Quality

The water quality data in India needs to be more researched and converted into simple language Ownership Patterns/ Key Stakeholders

Ownership of Lands

No data in either countries

53

Chapter 5: Conclusions The major issues in Sundarbans is that of collaboration between India and Bangladesh. There is a need of a new body (Integrated Sundarbans Management Committee) which would be responsible for the collaboration and monitor the appropriate organisation and render them accountable. The immediate steps that the committee would take shall be to rescue the ecosystem from excessive salinity. The collaboration is needed to avoid the stoppage of water flow by the Farakka Barrage, which results in salinity and is significantly impacting the flora and fauna of the ecosystem. Secondly, to stop the reduction of the mangrove area and the change in the ecosystem boundary, we need to make a buffer to stop the encroachment. This would relocate some farmers. The acquisition would be done through TDR and the farmers would be compensated equally, if not more. Lastly, there is a need to introduce alternate livelihoods to reduce the dependency of the locals on the natural resources. Eco-tourism would be the way to not only increase revenue sustainably, but also create a livelihood which would not deplete the natural resources.

54

APPENDIX

Figure 22: Population growth in Indian Sundarbans

(Ghosh et al., 2015)

55

Table 12: Change statistics for land loss/gain and mangrove area between 1968 and 2014

(Ghosh et al., 2015) Figure 23 Land cover Change in the Indian part of Sundarbans.

56

Figure 24: Soil Map of Bangladesh with Sundarbans

57

Table 13: Sundarbans Biodiversity Threat Matrix

http://image.slidesharecdn.com/ensuringecosystemsintegrityinindiansundarbans-150520092933-lva1-app6892/95/ensuring-ecosystem-integrityin-indian-sundarbans-18-638.jpg?cb=1432115218

58

References Barik, Jyotiskona and Chowdhury, Soumyajit (2014), “True Mangrove Species of Sundarbans Delta, West Bengal, Eastern India”, Check List Journal of Species Lists and Distribution, Vol. 10(2), pp. 329–334.

Danda, Anamita et al. (2011), “Indian Sundarbans Delta: A vision”, WWF Policy Document India, New Delhi, World Wide Fund for Nature-India.

Dasgupta, Sanjay (2015), “Bangladesh finds only 100 Bengal tigers in Sunderbans”, BBC News, accessed on December 14 2015, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-33672602 Emch, Michael and Peterson, Marc (2006), “Mangrove Forest Cover Change in the Bangladesh Sundarbans from 1989-2000: A Remote Sensing Approach”, Geocarto International, 21:1, pp.512.

Giri, C., et al., Distribution and dynamics of mangrove forests of South Asia, Journal of Environmental Management (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2014.01.020 Gopal, Brij and Chauhan, Malavika (2006), “Biodiversity and its conservation in the Sundarban Mangrove Ecosystem, Aquatic Sciences, Vol. 68, pp. 338-354.

Integrated Coastal Management Project (ICZM) (2012), Department of Environment, Government of West Bengal. http://www.iczmpwb.org/main/water_pollution.php , Accessed on 12.09.2015 Islam, M. Shafi N. and Gnauck, Albrecht (2009), “Threats to the Sundarbans Mangrove Wetland Ecosystems from Transboundary Water Allocation in the Ganges Basin: A Preliminary Problem Analysis”, International Journal of Ecological Economics & Statistics (IJEES), Vol. 13, No. W09, pp.64-78.

Michael Emch & Marc Peterson (2006) Mangrove Forest Cover Change in the Bangladesh Sundarbans from 1989-2000: A Remote Sensing International, 21:1, 5-12, DOI: 10.1080/10106040608542368

59

Schipani, Samnatha (2015), “Feeling crabby: Crustaceans of the Sundarbans”, accessed on Dec 14 2015, https://mw3032.wordpress.com/2015/03/02/feeling-crabby-crustaceans-of-thesundarbans/ Vyas, Pradeep, 2012, “Biodiversity Conservation in Indian Sundarban in the Context of Anthropogenic Pressures and Strategies for Impact Mitigation”, thesis PhD, Saurashtra University WWF (2015) Trans-boundary media workshop on Challenges and Management of Sundarbans Landscape, WWF. Ahmad M. (Farakkar Barrage: The river is sometimes drier on the other side. (http://www.mtholyoke.edu/~ahmad20m/politics/impact.html) Accessed on 12.09.2015 Hanasz P. (2014) Sharing waters vs. Sharing Rivers: the 1996 Ganges Treaty. July 28, 2014 in Transboundary. Global Water Forum. UNESCO. http://www.globalwaterforum.org/2014/07/28/sharing-waters-vs-sharing-rivers-the-1996-gangestreaty/ , Accessed on 12.09.2015 Jabbar, M.A., 1995, Farakka Barrage and its Impact on the Environment of Southwest Region of Bangladesh, In Hasna, J.M. (ed.), Women for Water Sharing, Academic Publishers, Dhaka, pp 65-70 Nishat, A., 2006, Water at Farakka Barrage http:// www.ajkerkagoj.com/2006/April 08/ Dhaka Islam M. S. N. and Gnauck A. (2009). Threats to the Sundarbans Mangrove Wetland Ecosystems from Transboundary Water Allocation in the Ganges Basin: A Preliminary Problem Analysis.

International Journal of Ecological Economics & Statistics (IJEES) Winter 2009, Vol. 13, No. W09; Int. J. Ecol. Econ. Stat.; 64-78 Karim, A., 1994, Vegetation in Mangrove of the Sundarbans Volume Two: Bangladesh, In Hussain, Z. and Acharya, G., (eds.), IUCN – The World Conservation Union, Dyna Print, Bangkok, Thailand.

Rahman M. M. , Rahman M. T. , Rahman S. , Rahman F. , Ahmand J. , Shakera B., Halim M. (2013). Water Quality of the World’s Largest Mangrove Forest. Canadian Chemical

60

Transactions. Year 2013, Volume 1, Issue 2, Page 141-156.

DOI:10.13179/canchemtrans.2013.01.02.0018 Awal M. A. Analysis of Environmental Pollution in Sundarbans. American Journal of Biomedical and Life Sciences. Vol. 2, No. 5, 2014, pp. 98-107. DOI: 10.11648/j.ajbls.20140205.11 Sarkar S. K. and Bhattacharya B. D. (2010). Water Quality Analysis of the Coastal Regions of Sundarban Mangrove Wetland, India Using Multivariate Statistical Techniques. Environmental Management, Book edited by: Santosh Kumar Sarkar, ISBN 978-953-307-133-6, pp. 258, September 2010, Sciyo, Croatia (https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ss540).

Tabassum S. (2003). Indo-Bangladesh Treaty on Farakka Barrage and International Law Application. Pakistan Horizon. Vol. 56, No. 3 (July 2003), pp. 47-62. Published by: Pakistan Institute of International Affairs Palash W. (2015) Salinity in the South West Region of Bangladesh and the Impact of Climate Change. Water Diplomacy Graduate Programs at Tuft University.

Manna S. Chaudhuri K. Bhattacharya S. and Bhattacharya M. (2010). Dynamics of Sundarban estuarine ecosystem: eutrophication induced threat to mangroves. DOI: 10.1186/1746-1448-6-8 Websites: http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/798 accessed on December 10 http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/ecoregions/sundarbans_mangroves.cfm accessed on December 10 Cover Page Images: Image 1: https://prithulmahmud.files.wordpress.com/2014/03/img_0335.jpg Image 2: http://www.abohomanbangla.com/admin/gallery_img/Mangrove1.jpg Image 3: http://www.rupantareco-tourism.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/slider-tiger.jpg

61