Progressive Crop Consultant - May - June 2017 by JCS Marketing, Inc.

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Crop Consultant The Leading Magazine For Ag Professionals

May - June 2017 Preparing for the Season: Worker Safety & Heat Illness Prevention Techniques for a More Uniform Fertigation Using Drip Wiser Water: Precision Irrigation in Orchard Crops Mating Disruption: An Effective Tool for Navel Orangeworm

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PUBLICATION

Volume 2 : Issue 3

PUBLISHER: Jason Scott Email: jason@jcsmarketinginc.com EDITOR: Kathy Coatney Email: article@jcsmarketinginc.com DESIGN: Hannah Reilly Email: design@jcsmarketinginc.com Phone: 559.352.4456 Fax: 559.472.3113 Web: www.progressivecrop.com

IN THIS ISSUE 6

Preparing for the Season:

Rogues That Became Vogue:

Nematicide Screening Shows Promise for Perennial & Row Crops

Techniques for a More Uniform Fertigation Using Drip

Wiser Water: Precision Irrigation in

Worker Safety & Heat Illness Prevention

CONTRIBUTING WRITERS & INDUSTRY SUPPORT Michael Cahn Irrigation and Water Resources Advisor, UC Cooperative Extension, Monterey County

Amy Wolfe MPPA, CFRE President & CEO, AgSafe

Jhalendra Rijal, Ph.D. Area Integrated Pest Management AdvisorNorthern San Joaquin Valley, UC Cooperative Extension and Statewide IPM Program Shrini K. Upadhyaya, Professor, Bio and Agr. Eng. Dept., University of California Davis

AAIE & Pioneering the History of IPM

Orchard Crops Based on Plant Water Status

UC Cooperative Extension Advisory Board Kevin Day

County Director and UCCE Pomology Farm Advisor, Tulare/Kings County

Steven Koike

UCCE Plant Pathology Farm Advisor, Monterey & Santa Cruz Counties

David Doll

Emily J. Symmes

Dr. Brent Holtz

Kris Tollerup

UCCE Farm Advisor, Merced County County Director and UCCE Pomology Farm Advisor, San Joaquin County

Tool for Navel Orangeworm Management in Nut Crops

UCCE IPM Advisor, Sacramento Valley UCCE Integrated Pest Management Advisor, Parlier, CA

The articles, research, industry updates, company profiles, and advertisements in this publication are the professional opinions of writers and advertisers. Progressive Crop Consultant does not assume any responsibility for the opinions given in the publication.

Mating Disruption: An Effective IPM

Progressive Crop Consultant

May/June 2017

EDITOR’S NOTE: In the March/April issue of Progressive Crop Consultant, this photo of a navel orangeworm in “Trapping In and Near Mating Disruption Orchards” should have been credited to Kathy Keatley Garvey.

10 6

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WORKER SAFETY

P re pa rin g for the Season By Amy Wolfe, MPPA, CFRE President & CEO, AgSafe

Wo r ke r Sa fet y & H ea t I l l ne ss Pre v en t io n

he busy season is now upon us and it is that time of year when we need to be vigilant in our efforts to keep our workers safe. The incident trends from the summer of 2016 are a great indicator of where we saw our greatest issues, as is feedback from the industry about the challenges they faced in protecting our workforce. While some of these issues are emerging, many are the same struggles we have each year. Regardless, it is critical that employers take the time now to evaluate their impending peak-season needs and

plan accordingly to mitigate workers’ risk exposure. Heat Illness Prevention Each year we make continued strides towards managing the stress associated with working in the heat. As noted in our February 2017 article, over half of the Cal/OSHA heat illness prevention standard citations during the 2016 season were associated with paperwork, with failing to have copies of your heat illness prevention plan in the field being the most notable. In preparing for the impending heat, ensure that your plan is still accurate, in particular the emergency action elements. If there have been any changes, make sure those are updated in your worker training materials and the new version of the plan is widely distributed across your entire team. General Worker Safety The citation data from 2016 also indicated that agriculture continues to struggle with having an overall workplace safety program in place, known in the CCR, Title 8, Section 3203 as an Injury and Illness Prevention Program (IIPP). The requirement to have an IIPP in every business in California, regardless of the number of employees, has been in place since 1991 and we still have companies out of compliance. An IIPP

Right: An overview of the core elements outlined in CCR, Title 8, Section 3395. For complete details on the standard, including more specific information on each of the items listed, visit https://www.dir.ca.gov/title8/3395.html.

is the foundation of any safety program and, from this, other programs, like the Heat Illness Prevention Plan, are built. In review, the IIPP should include the following elements: 1. Identification of the individual(s) responsible for the safety program 2. Ways to ensure employee compliance with safe and healthy workplace practices 3. A system for communicating with employees 4. Procedures to identify and evaluate workplace hazards 5. A process to investigate workplace injuries and illnesses 6. Procedures for correcting unsafe/ unhealthy conditions, work practices and/or procedures 7. Complete safety training system 8. A system for thorough record keeping and document retention relative to the implementation of the safety program As with the Heat Illness Prevention Plan, now is the time to review these eight elements of the IIPP and make any pertinent changes. That new information needs to be shared with the entire team through new hire and start-of-season training, as well as in an on-going capacity throughout the year. Also consider making the plan readily and easily available to all employees. The IIPP should be treated as a living, breathing document that all workers are responsible for implementing. To help achieve that cultural mentality, including ownership and buy-in from all people within the organization, you need to make accessing the plan simple and create multiple channels for input on Continued on page 8

Ti tl e 8 , S e cti o n 339 5

C o de o f Regul ation s

Heat Illness Prevention Program Overview

COOL D OWN

WAT ER Access to fresh, pure, suitably cool potable drinking water Free of charge to employees Provide one (1) quart of water per person per hour available at the start of the shift and have a water replenishment system in place Provide single use drinking cups Located as close as practicable to where employees are working

Require that an employee taking a preventative cool-down rest be encouraged to remain in the shade until symptoms have abated Break shall be no less than 5 minutes, not including the time needed to access the shade Supervise the employee during their preventative cool-down rest period to determine if symptoms are abating or getting worse If the signs and symptoms do not improve, the employer shall provide appropriate first aid and/ or contact emergency services

= 1 HOUR

Shade

REST PERIODS

1 quart

S uperv i s or T r a in in g |

Needs to include:

+ + + ++

⊲ Information required to be presented to employees

⊲ Procedures to follow when implementing the HIPP provisions

Erected when temperatures are 80 degrees Fahrenheit or warmer Provide timely access to shade upon an employee’s request regardless of temperature Employees should be able to sit in a normal posture fully in the shade without having to be in physical contact with each other Sufficient to accommodate all employees on break Located as close as practicable to where employees are working

/////////

High heat proce du re s

⊲ Procedures for when an employee exhibits symptoms of possible heat illness, including emergency response

95 F or above

⊲ How to monitor weather reports and how to respond to hot weather advisories

Employer will observe employees for signs and symptoms of heat illness using one of the following options:

Em ploy e e T r a i n in g |

Needs to include:

⊲ Environmental and personal risk factors

⊲ Employer response plan and procedures for compliance ⊲ Importance of frequent water consumption ⊲ Importance of acclimatization ⊲ Types of heat illness signs and symptoms ⊲ immediate reporting of signs and symptoms

Heat illness prevention plan required elements

Procedures for:

Written documentation in English and the language commonly understood by the majoristy of workers

High heat

Procedures for providing access to water and shade

⊲ Supervisor or designee shall observe 20 or fewer employees ⊲ Mandatory buddy system ⊲ Regular communication with sole employee such as by radio or cell phone ⊲ Other effective means of observation

Employee observation Emergency May/June response 2017

Employer will provide a paid net 10-minute preventative cool-down rest period every 2 hours that an employee works continuously in temperatures equal to or exceeding 95 Fahrenheit. www.progressivecrop.com Page 00

Continued from page 6

Below: State law requires agricultural employers to provide shade, such as this re-purposed cotton trailer, once temperatures reach 80 degrees Fahrenheit or warmer or when requested by an employee, regardless of the temperature. Photo courtesy: AgSafe

Progressive Crop Consultant

how the plan can be improved. As part of the hazard assessment process within the IIPP, employers should be identifying where other written safety programs with specific worker training are needed. Within production agriculture, the following are some of the most common additional worker safety programs in place given the nature of our work: • Worker Protection Standard– pesticide safety for farmworker

May/June 2017

and pesticide handlers • Respiratory Protection–for pesticides and other airborne hazard exposure • Field Sanitation–restrooms, handwashing, potable drinking water, and waste management in the field • Electrical Hazards–overhead and below ground • Agricultural Equipment–tractors, including personnel transport carriers, forklifts, ATVs, and UTVs • Machine Guarding–mitigating exposure to the dangerous moving

parts on machines • Personal Protective Equipment– the equipment needed to protect workers from job hazards • Control of Hazardous Energy– commonly referred to as “Lock Out-Tag Out-Block Out” • Emergency Action Plan–how your employees will respond to a health emergency or natural disaster, including having the required First Aid/CPR training to assist appropriately ...............

While this list is by no means exhaustive, these topics represent some of the most commonly cited worker safety issues inherent in production agriculture. Each merits its own written program that includes the core eight tenants of the IIPP. As with the IIPP, engaging workers at all levels in the implementation of these programs, including actively soliciting their feedback on what’s effective, only further deepens a workplace where safety is priority. It’s also a good idea to conduct a self-audit each year of all of your various safety programs, including conducting a test of your Emergency Action Plan. Simulating a few different workplace crises, whether they be injury-related or Mother Nature wreaking havoc, will help you to see the gaps within your program and help prevent failures in real time. There is also value in having neutral thirdparties conduct voluntary assessments of your organization’s programs. For example, Cal/OSHA Consultation

Services will conduct a review of all your legally required safety programs and provide a prioritized corrective action plan. These staff are in no way connected to the Cal/ OSHA Enforcement Team and their findings remain confidential. For more information on these services, visit https://www.dir.ca.gov/dosh/agmore. htm. As always, agricultural employers need to ensure they remain vigilant about protecting their workers from the hazards in our industry. Whether working in the heat, or in any other environment, it is essential to develop realistic written programs, provide training specific to the hazards on the job, ensure proper documentation of protocol, and correct issues when found. For more information about these or any worker safety related issues, please visit www.agsafe.org, call us at (209) 526-4400 or via email at safeinfo@agsafe.org. AgSafe is a 501c3 nonprofit providing training, education, outreach and tools in the areas of safety, labor relations, food safety and human resources for the food and farming industries. Since 1991, AgSafe has educated nearly 75,000 employers, supervisors, and workers about these critical issues.

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IPM

Rogues that Became

Vogue AAIE & Pioneering the History of Integrated Pest Management By Kathy Coatney, Editor

he Association of Applied IPM Ecologists (AAIE) is an association of independent IPM (Integrated Pest Management) and PCAs (Pest Control Advisors), according to Bill Rothfuss, executive director of AAIE. The organization started about 50 years ago, and they were looking for an IPM strategy to handle pest control management issues, Rothfuss said. AAIE’s objectives are: • Enhance the professional adviser’s role in the pest management community • Provide a forum for philosophical and technical exchange between practitioners of IPM • Maximize food and fiber production with a minimum pesticide load on the environment • Promote professionalism of PCAs • Further the development of IPM by providing research implementation and feedback to private consultants, universities,

Progressive Crop Consultant

state colleges, and other industry groups involved in basic pest management research • Educate government bodies, consumer groups, the public at large, and potential clients about the benefits of IPM A History of Trailblazing Rothfuss describes AAIE as rogues that became vogue. In the late 60s, 70s, and 80s IPM was virtually unheard, especially with the other chemical options that were easily accessible to eradicate any pest issue, he said. “Yeah, you can clean house, kill a pest, but at the end of the day, you’re also harming and killing the other environment beneficials,” Rothfuss said. “So, with all of that said and done, where they (AAIE) has been is really to trend set the industry to where it is today,” Rothfuss said, adding with options like softer chemicals and other alternatives to just chemical applications.

May/June 2017

“I think that as a society we have become more aware of the damaging affects that different products have had over the years, into the soil, and into the environment,” Rothfuss said. Membership Membership has declined over the years, and there are currently 100-150 members, Rothfuss said. Growing membership is under discussion with the board—what attracts a new member, what kind of services

A Strong Foundation: To commemorate the 50th anniversary of AAIE, the 2016 conference featured a founders’ panel. From left to right: Dale DeShane, Jim Stewart, Richard Clevenger, Jim Gordon, Jon Jesson and Louie Ruud Photo courtesy: WJMedia

do they want, and what do they want the organization to be, Rothfuss said. “Part of that is bringing in that new perspective and some of the, as we call it, the next generation,” Rothfuss said, adding then the organization can be turned over to the next generation. Current members are 35 years old and up, and many are retiring, Rothfuss said. But the needs of the emerging younger PCAs—the 25-40 age group—have different needs and expectations from AAIE. Erin Amaral, past president of AAIE and vineyard manager for Pacific Vineyard Company in San Louis Obispo, California, agreed with Rothfuss that it’s important for the board to try and figure out what the next generation needs. “They’re definitely a different generation, and their needs are different,” Amaral said. There are several benefits to an AAIE membership. Members receive reduced costs to all AAIE educational

a response from college professors or opportunities, Rothfuss said. people who have been out in the field, Belonging to a professional orgaand they can offer a strategy, or be able nization with the credentialing and credibility behind it like AAIE has, and to mitigate those situations instantly,” it’s long standing history of respect and Rothfuss said. “I think it (membership) is a huge knowledge, is also a benefit, Rothfuss benefit,” Rothfuss said. said. New PCAs may have questions, and as a member of AAIE, they will be able to access the AAIE list serve and get information from some of the greatest minds in the industry, and often receive a response within minutes, Rothfuss said. “People say you can get that Go online to learn information online, but it about AAIE membership, isn’t the same as receiving conferences, and

everything else at aaie.net

Amaral anticipates there will be more interest in becoming an AAIE member from the next generation of PCAs. “I think AAIE has a really good mission statement, and I really think it’s something that speaks to people,” Amaral said. “Being such a small group, we’re definitely resource challenged in that area, so it’s hard to reach out when your resources are limited,” Amaral said. AAIE is also looking to expand their annual conference, and they are searching for other ways to help individuals become involved, Rothfuss said. “One of the unique things is AAIE has always been a volunteerdriven organization,” Rothfuss said, “and I’m the only contracted employee. They really began as a grassroots organization, and they still maintain that grassroots mentality.” Challenges “The primary challenge going forward is to attract new membership. Right now the organization has been a historically older membership, and I think the challenge is to get new faces

in this organization,” Amaral said. One of the challenges Rothfuss sees is there aren’t enough people going into the industry to replace those that are leaving it. “Many farms are merging, corporations are merging and bringing PCAs in-house,” Rothfuss said. How to maintain the independent PCA becomes a really important challenge for the industry. And Rothfuss thinks it’s essential to keep independent PCAs. The independent PCAs have a stronger voice compared to the PCAs working for a singular operation that is really more revenue-focused, instead of result-focused on long term sustainability, he said. “We’re definitely competing with other organizations like CAPCA, which is a huge organization. AAIE was kind of the pioneers in IPM, and becoming an organized group prior to CAPCA, but CAPCA actually found a way to do it, and do it well,” Amaral said.

mentally friendly solutions that PCAs can turn to with confidence. Taking it a step further, Amaral said, “I’d like us to be able to be at the table when DPR (Department of Pesticide Regulation) makes decisions on pesticides, and I see this group building relationships with all of the chemical companies—all of the bio-chemical companies.” Amaral sees AAIE as being the educational funnel to disseminate information to independent PCAs in the industry. “Basically, a pest control advisors toolbox when he’s making decisions out in the field,” Amaral said. Comments about this article? We want to hear from you. Feel free to email us at article@jcsmarketinginc.com

The Future When Amaral looks to the future, she envisions the group as the premier educational organization for environ-

ABOUT AAIE The Association of Applied IPM Ecologists (AAIE) was established in 1967 to allow practitioners of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) to exchange philosophical ideas and technical information. Today, AAIE’s 200-plus members lead the development, adoption and implementation of IPM. Under the guidance of AAIE, professionals, agriculturalists and horticulturalists are better informed and equipped to raise plants within sound environmental principals. Control of destructive insects is vital for the production of the bountiful harvests needed today. Pesticides have done their job well, allowing the U.S. to produce the highest quality and quantity of food and fiber in the world. Since the 1950s, many entomologists have suspected that pesticides could negatively impact the environment. These practitioners believe that farmers can produce high quality crops using fewer pesticides and working with the natural balance of nature. This concept came to be known as Integrated Pest Management or IPM. IPM practices integrate the use of natural predators, economic thresholds, crop monitoring and cultural practices with or without the use of pesticides. The result of a successful IPM program is effective pest control with a minimum impact to the environment, crop or people. Excerpt taken from aaie.net/about-aaie/

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May/June 2017

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Page 00

ROW CROPS

Left: Carrots in the control group with root knot nematode injury Below: Carrots treated with a nematicide show significant improvements in root knot injury over the control group Photos by: Joe Nunez

Nematicide Screening Shows Promise for Perennial and Row Crops By Kathy Coatney, Editor

oe Nunez, University of California Cooperative Extension, farm advisor for Kern County has been screening nematicides for several years. At a small research farm, Nunez has a nematode nursery, and he maintains a high population of nematodes where he screens various nematicides on carrots and tomatoes. Research The research is ongoing, and Nunez will be starting this years trials (2017) in a few weeks. Nunez looked at various chemical applications. “[I

Progressive Crop Consultant

applied] single applications, pre-plant and at planting, followed by post-plant applications. And then I also used it in conjunction with other nematicides as a post-plant application,” Nunez said. The nematicide products were applied through a somewhat unconventional buried drip system. “We used PVC pipe with small holes drilled into it, because in previous years, a lot of buried drip tape had been chewed on by gophers,” Nunez said. To avoid this issue, a drip tubing was made out of PVC pipe. The tubing was buried eight inches into the center of 60-inch shaped beds

May/June 2017

at the research farm, Nunez said. “A manifold was constructed so that the nematicides to be tested could be injected into separate ports by use of a CO2 pressurized tank. Each of the products were applied pre-plant on 4/20/16 and a post-plant application on 5/30/16 for Velum and DP-1,” Nunez said. The Halley 3155 tomato variety was planted 4/21/16 and each plot was on a 18 inch row spacing. The plots were 25 feet in length by one bed. Each treatment was repeated five times in a randomized complete block design.

Table 1. Average Root Knot Nematode Injury Rating for Tomato Conventional Nematicide Trial

Trial Treatment

The treatments were as follows: • Control • Velum 6.5 fl oz/A pre and 21 DAP post • Nimitz 5 pints/A as a 24 band • Nimitz 5 pints/A as a full 60 inch bed • DP pre at 30.7 fl oz/A and 1 post at 15.4 fl oz/A On 7/21/16, about five roots per plot were harvested and evaluated for root knot nematode injury. The roots were graded on a scale of 1 to 10 with 1 having no galling present and 10 having the entire root system galled. The results of the evaluation are listed in Table 1 on the right. Significant differences were found in the treatment means. The Continued on page 16

Nematode Root Rating

1. Control

4.8 A

2. Velum 6.5 fl oz/A pre & 21 DAP post

1.8 A

3. Nimitz 5 pints/A as a 24 band

2.2 B

4. Nimitz 5 pints/A as a full 60” bed

1.7 B

5. DP pre at 30.7 fl oz/A & 1 post at 15.4 fl oz/A

3.0 AB

Probability: 0.0238 % Coefficient of Variation: 52.16% LSD P=0.05: 1.910%

May/June 2017

www.progressivecrop.com

Page 00

Continued from page 15

non-treated control had much higher root knot nematode injury than the Velum and Nimitz treatments, Nunez said. To date, early results have found an application at pre-plant or at planting, followed by one or two post-plant applications, has been the most effective, Nunez said. This looks promising for nematode control for growers, which is currently really lacking, Nunez said. Softer Chemicals “Right now the only thing that’s available is essentially fumigation, which is highly restrictive,” Nunez said, but with these new products, it will make it much easier to treat nematodes. “These chemicals are much softer,” Nunez continued. “These are not fumigants. These are actual nematicides that are applied through the soil either by chemigation or mechanically incorporated into

“The non-treated control had much higher root knot nematode injury than the Velum and Nimitz treatments” the soil, and it’s a really soft chemistry,” Nunez said. These chemicals were used at extremely low rates, too, Nunez said. “Only in ounces per acre, not gallons or pounds per acre.” Nunez is working on how to best apply the chemicals, especially with Velum, he said. “The issue with Velum is that it doesn’t move in the soil very well with water, so there might be some kind of shank injection involved or mechanical incorporation into the soil,” Nunez said, but that’s the only issue with Velum right now. “We’re still trying to figure out how to best use this product,” Nunez said. More Research Dave Cheetham, technical marketing and research and development manager for the Western Business Unit for Helena Chemical Company, has also been doing research in various horticultural crops in California, from tree nuts and fruits to wine and table grapes, as well as some row crops. “We’ve been placing our work in situations where we have had native or indigenous nematode populations,” Cheetham said, then he used chemical applications to control the nematodes. “I’ve worked on a host of different products, some still experimental,” Cheetham said. These products include: •

Vydate • Nimitz • Velum one Improved Growth Fumigants are a little more difficult to work with whereas

these newer, softer nematicides are very safe to work with and very safe to the crop, Cheetham said. “I’ve got some work that I’m doing in perennial crop situation, particularly vines, where I’ve been looking at it’s repeated use year-over-year in a sequence of applications,” Cheetham said, and that research has been ongoing for the last four years. Cheetham’s wine grape site has had issues with root knot and lesion nematodes, he said. “The crop just wasn’t getting growth, and thereby it wasn’t able to sustain a good quality of crop, and it was yield inhibiting,” Cheetham said. “We’ve been able to turn that crop around with a sequence of nematicide applications to remove the nematodes and control them in the soil environment,” Cheetham said. Many times, growers are doing nematode control before planting, but the nematicides Cheetham is researching allows for treatment after planting. This is especially beneficial in a situation with a perennial crop that may have been planted with some dirty plant material, Cheetham said. “If fumigation is just not available, then we’re able to help deal with the pest in the soil as the plant is growing,” Cheetham said, which is a big plus for agriculture. Cheetham has seen good control with his research, he’s seen improved yields, and he will continue his research for the foreseeable future. Comments about this article? We want to hear from you. Feel free to email us at article@jcsmarketinginc.com · · · · PCC

May/June 2017

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Page 00

FERTIGATION

TECHNIQUES FOR A MORE

Uniform Fertigation USING

D R I P

By Michael Cahn, Irrigation and Water Resources Advisor, UC Cooperative Extension, Monterey County

he use of drip for irrigating horticultural crops, such as vegetables, strawberries, and caneberries, has greatly increased during the last few decades. One of the many benefits of drip has been the ability to fertigate nutrients directly to the root zone of a crop. Unlike with tractor applications in which a limited number of side dress applications can be made during a crop cycle, fertilizer can be frequently injected through drip, allowing growers to dose nutrients at rates that match crop requirements. This flexibility reduces the need to apply large amounts of nitrogen fertilizer early in the season when it potentially could be lost by leaching. Fertigation also permits growers to adjust nutrient concentrations midseason if soil or plant tissue tests indicate a deficiency. Though fertigation can potentially improve the efficiency with which crops utilize nitrogen and other nutrients, in practice many commercial vegetable and berry operations may not be fully achieving the potential benefits of fertigation. Poor application uniformity of injected fertilizers can limit the advantages of fertigation. A recent study that we conducted in commercial lettuce revealed that, in many

Figure 2: Pressure regulators should be used to maintain optimal pressure in the drip tape.

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May/June 2017

Figure 1: Splices in drip tape often leak as the tape ages. Photos by: Michael Cahn

cases, fertigation resulted in uneven distribution of fertilizer in the field. Application uniformity of N fertilizer was measured during single fertigation events in 11 lettuce fields ranging in size from eight to 20 acres. Average application uniformity of injected fertilizer was 67 percent, and ranged from 32 percent to 82 percent among fields. An application uniformity of 32 percent means that a quarter of the field received only 32 percent of the average amount of fertilizer applied to the entire field. This can result in under-fertilizing a large portion of the crop and over-fertilizing in other areas of the field. Yield and quality may suffer if a significant percentage of the crop is deficient in nitrogen or other nutrients. To compensate for uneven distribution of fertilizer through drip, some growers have learned by experience to apply extra fertilizer to assure that all areas of their fields have a sufficient supply of nutrients. This practice reduces the potential benefits of fertigating.

Poor Irrigation System Uniformity Translates into Poor Distribution of Fertilizer A major cause of poor distribution of fertilizer through drip was related to the application uniformity of the irrigation system. Fertilizer was applied at higher rates in areas of the field that received more water and at lower rates

in areas that received less water. The application uniformity of an irrigation system, also referred to as the distribution uniformity, can be assessed by comparing the average depth of water applied in a field with average depth of water applied to the area representing the driest 25 percent of the field area. A distribution uniformity (DU) of 100 percent represents an irrigation system that applies water with maximum uniformity. The application uniformity of many drip systems in commercial fields is often lower than is theoretically possible for a well-designed and managed drip system. Most well-designed drip systems can achieve a DU greater than 90 percent. Of more than 90 drip irrigation systems evaluated in vegetables and berries from 2009-2015 on the central coast of California, less than half had DU’s greater than 85 percent. The major causes for poor distribution uniformity were leaks in drip tape, poor pressure management, and clogged emitters. Because much of the drip tape used for vegetable production on the central coast of California is reused for eight to 12 crop cycles, the tape often develops leaks. Most farming operations patch the

leaks using a splicing machine during the winter, but often the splices weaken with time and begin to leak again (Figure 1, left). Irrigators have a number of strategies to minimize leaks in drip tape which include repairing leaks with couplers, applying duct tape over leaks, and lowering the pressure of the tape. Most drip tape manufacturers recommend that water pressure in drip tape is maintained between eight to 12 pounds per square inch (psi) to optimize application uniformity. We observed that the average pressure in many drip vegetable fields was less than eight psi, with some tape at pressures as low as four psi. Low pressure can greatly reduce the distribution uniformity of drip systems. In addition, many vegetable and berry farms do not use pressure regulators (Figure 2, opposite) to assure that a consistent pressure is maintained in the drip lines, nor do they have gauges to monitor the pressure at the irrigation block. Plugging of emitters may occur for several reasons. Frequently, irrigators inject fertilizer downstream from the filter. This may be because they are injecting fertilizer at the irrigation block rather than at the pump where the filter is located, or because the fertilizer is not sufficiently soluble to pass through the filter. This is particularly a common problem with organic

Figure 3: The distance between the injection port and the branches in the submain is too short to adequately mix fertilizer with the irrigation water.

fertilizers. Many liquid organic fertilizers contain a substantial percentage of large particles that do not pass through fine mesh filters. Injecting these materials without filtration frequently leads to the plugging of drip emitters and poor distribution of water and fertilizer. It may be wise to side-dress fertilizers that cannot pass through filters. Injected fertilizer can also form precipitates that clog drip emitters. For example, calcium-containing fertilizers, such as calcium nitrate, may precipitate with bicarbonate in water to form calcium carbonate. Biological material such as algae and bacterial films can also clog emitters. Regular treatment with acid can remove chemical precipitates, and bleach can prevent bacterial and algal build-up in drip lines. Note that acid and bleach should never be injected together into a drip system due to the potential release of toxic chlorine gas. Periodic flushing at the end of the drip lines can also help remove material that accumulates at the end of the tape.

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Other Issues Besides Irrigation System Uniformity Even when the drip system distributes water evenly throughout a field, fertilizer is not always evenly distributed. Injection strategy can have a large effect on how uniformly fertilizer is distributed. First, consider that the velocity that fertilizer moves through the drip tape depends on the flow rate in the tape. The flow rate at any location in a drip line depends on the number of downstream emitters discharging water. Water flows quickly at the beginning of a drip line, but flows slowly near the end of the tape, because relatively few emitters are discharging water. Some irrigators that we interviewed injected fertilizer near the end of an irrigation set to prevent nitrate from leaching below the root zone but did not consider that the fertilizer had not reached the end of the tape before the water was turned off. Not allowing fertilizer to completely flush from the drip system

May/June 2017

resulted in poor application uniformity. To determine the appropriate time to allow fertilizer to flush from a drip system, one needs to measure the time required for injected fertilizer to travel to the furthest point in the irrigation system. The travel time can be determined by injecting food dye and collecting water from an emitter at the furthest point of the drip system. The travel time represents the minimal time needed for fertilizer to be flushed out of the drip system after a fertilizer injection is completed.

Injecting at the Pump vs. the Field In practice, a longer period may be needed than the travel time for complete flushing of the fertilizer. This is especially true when injecting at a pump located a significant distance Continued on page 22

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Page 00

Continued from page 20

from the field. Pipes that transport water from a pump often branch underground to different fields and can have dead-end pockets with little flow where closed valves trap injected fertilizer. A longer flush time may be needed to ensure that fertilizer is removed from these pockets. Growers who desire to irrigate for short periods and minimize the flush time will often choose to inject fertilizer at the field or irrigation block. Though fertilizer injected at the irrigation block will flush from drip tape more quickly compared to injecting at the pump, other challenges may limit application uniformity when fertigating at the field. Many growers have filters at the pump but do not use filters at the field. As mentioned above, injecting fertilizer after the filter can clog drip tape emitters. The other challenge with injecting at the field is that the fertilizer needs to thoroughly mix with the irrigation water before it branches through the irrigation system. Irrigators frequently inject fertilizer at the submain valve of an irrigation block which does not provide sufficient distance for mixing before water flows into different drip lines (Figure 3, page 20). Even with a highly uniform drip system, this practice can result in uneven fertilizer applications. One solution is to add a small filter system at the submain valve to both provide filtration and sufficient mixing before the water flows in different directions in the system (Figure 4).

When and How Long to Fertigate Irrigators have different approaches about when to start fertigating and how long to inject fertilizer. The choice may depend on mobility of the fertilizer. For example, irrigators may want to inject nitrate-containing fertilizers near the end of an irrigation cycle to prevent nitrate, which is very mobile in soil, from leaching below the root zone. Urea is also mobile in the soil, and

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Figure 4: Portable filter stations allow injected fertilizer to be properly filtrated and mixed with the irrigation water before reaching the submain.

may be applied near the end of a long irrigation set. However, ammonium, which is positively-charged and attracted to the negatively-charged exchange sites on clay minerals, may move slowly in the soil. It may be desirable to inject ammonium containing fertilizers over a longer period. In all cases, injection should begin after the irrigation system is fully pressurized and leaks are repaired, and should end to allow time for fertilizer to completely flush from drip tape. Many textbooks recommend fertigating during the middle third or half of the irrigation cycle. While this is a desirable approach, it is not always practical for very short or long irrigations.

May/June 2017

Tips for Achieving a Uniform Fertilizer Application Using Drip Many of the recommendations for fertigating can be summarized in a few rules of thumb: 1. Ensure that the drip system applies water evenly throughout the field. 2. Confirm that the irrigation system has back-flow prevention equipment to avoid contaminating the water source with fertilizer. 3. Fix leaks before fertigating. 4. Begin injecting fertilizer after the drip system is fully pressurized, and maintain a consistent pressure throughout the irrigation. 5. Do not turn off the irrigation water

6. 7.

before the fertilizer is flushed from the drip tape. Even turning the water off for a short time during a fertigation event can cause an uneven distribution of fertilizer. Inject fertilizer before a filter to prevent clogging of emitters. Check that there is adequate distance for the fertilizer to completely mix with the irrigation water before reaching branches in the drip system. Inject as slowly as practical to assure that fertilizer distributes evenly in the soil, but allow sufficient time to flush fertilizer from the drip tape. The flush time needs to be longer than the travel time (time for fer-

tilizer to reach the furthest point in the irrigation system). When injecting at the field, a flush time of at least 50 percent longer than the travel time is recommended. Longer flush times may be needed when injecting at the pump.

Final Thoughts on Fertigation Fertigation can be a valuable tool for using nutrients more efficiently to produce vegetables and berries, but all tools must be used in the correct manner to achieve optimal results. Fertigating in a drip system with poor distribution uniformity or many leaks will not result in an even application

of fertilizer. Filtration is critical to preventing injected fertilizers from plugging drip emitters. Likewise, not flushing the drip system an adequate time after injecting fertilizer will lead to uneven applications. Finally, injected fertilizers need to completely mix with the irrigation water before branches in the drip system. Following these basic guidelines should help optimize fertigation through drip. Comments about this article? We want to hear from you. Feel free to email us at article@jcsmarketinginc.com

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PRECISION AG

Precision Irrigation in Orchard Crops Based on Plant Water Status By Shrini K. Upadhyaya, Professor, Bio and Agr. Eng. Dept. University of California Davis Contributing Researchers: Erin Kizer, Graduate Student Researcher Channing Ko-Madden, Graduate Student Researcher Francisco Rojo, Post Graduate Researcher Kelley Dreschsler, Junior Specialist Julie Meyers, Undergraduate Student Researcher

ith the world population predicted to increase to nine billion by 2050, there is an urgent need to enhance agricultural production while conserving resources. The concept of precision agriculture—applying the right amount of input (fertilizers, pesticides, soil amendments, water etc.) at the right place and time to enhance production, improve quality, and/or protect the environment—is a critical need of the time. This technique utilizes information about the soil, the plant, and the environment to make site-specific management decisions. When the focus is directed to one of our scarcest resources—water—we have the concept of precision irrigation. Increasing urban demand and recurring drought situations in the irrigated West, particularly California, are forcing growers to implement better irrigation management practices. Irrigation Scheduling Techniques Irrigation scheduling techniques that utilize soil moisture condition and

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evapo-transpiration (ET) of the crops have already been developed. However, soil moisture measurements may not represent water availability to plants in the whole root zone, especially in the case of orchard trees and grape vines that have a vast root structure. Therefore, many plant physiologists believe that a plant’s response to water status is a better indicator of plant water stress (PWS), as it responds to the integrated soil moisture status of the whole root zone. This approach is logical as it amounts to irrigating a plant “when it is thirsty”. Furthermore, irrigation scheduling techniques based on PWS are ideally suited for regulated deficit irrigation management schemes that aim to improve the quality of products. For example, plant physiologists recommend a PWS of -12 to -14 bar during pre-hull split period and -14 to -18 bars during the hull split period for almonds. This PWS based irrigation is expected to promote the hull-splitting process and reduce the incidence of hull rot. Measuring soil moisture content

May/June 2017

“Soil moisture measurements may not represent water availability to plants in the whole root zone” and estimating ET alone does not provide sufficient information to manage PWS. Plant scientists use a device called a “pressure chamber” or “pressure bomb” to measure PWS. Although this device is very good for obtaining PWS, it is tedious (measurements should be made following solar noon in a narrow time window during which the hot and dry ambient temperature can make a very unpleasant work environment, to say the least). They are also time consuming to use and are not suitable for commercial use to implement precision or variable rate irrigation. Developing a Sensing System To address this issue, researchers at the Biological and Agricultural Engineering Department at UC Davis set out to develop a sensing system for measurement of PWS. They hypothesized that if a plant is well-watered, its stomata would be open in the presence of sunlight resulting in the much desired diffusion of CO2 into the stomatal cavity so that photosynthesis can occur. However, this process leads to a decrease in stomatal resistance resulting in increased transpiration and cooling of the leaf. Therefore, this cooling of the leaf can be an indicator of plant water status. However, other environmental variables such as ambient relative humidity (RH), incident radiation (photosynthetically active radiation, PAR), and wind speed also influence the amount of transpiration and, hence, the resultant cooling of the leaf. Based on these considerations, a sensor suite consisting of a thermal infrared (IR) sensor along with air temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, and PAR sensors was developed and tested in almonds, grapes, and walnuts with promising results.

Photo by: Kathy Coatney

Leaf Monitoring System Although this sensor suite showed promising results, there were some calibration drift issues, and it required frequent visits to the field to collect data. To address these issues, UC Davis researchers developed a continuous leaf monitoring system which included the same sensors as the sensor suite (i.e. leaf and air temperatures, relative humidity, photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and wind speed) to determine PWS, but was capable of acquiring and communicating the data in real-time using a wireless mesh network. They analyzed the leaf monitor data and showed that it can provide daily PWS values for almond and walnut crops successfully. Figure 1a (upper right) shows the continuous leaf monitor (LM) developed at UC Davis as it is installed on an almond tree, and Figure 1b (lower right) shows the sensor monitoring an almond leaf.

Top: Figure 1a - Installation of the leaf monitor on an almond tree at Nickel’s Soil Laboratory, Arbuckle, CA Left: Figure 1b - Internal components of the leaf monitor

Monitoring for PWS In principle, every tree can be monitored for PWS and its environment and irrigation can be controlled on a tree-specific basis. Such an approach, besides being very expensive at this point in time, may also be unnecessary. Depending on the field condition, when water is applied to one tree, its effect may be felt by nearby trees, especially if the digital elevation map of the site reveals rolling terrain. One cost effective way to proceed is to create relatively homogeneous management zones based on soil and plant characteristics. In principle, the response of a plant depends on three

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Below: Figure 2 - From left to right: krigged maps of (a) digital elevation, (b) shallow EC, (c) sand, (d) silt, (e) leaf temperature and (f) canopy cover, and (g) two management zones created using these soil and plant characteristics.

distinct classes of inputs. These inputs are: (i) Nonmanageable, static, or stable characteristics of soil, such as its texture and digital elevation

May/June 2017

(ii) Manageable soil properties, such as nutrient level (iii) Stochastic inputs, such as weather conditions. Continued on page 28

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Continued from page 26

The challenge in precision agriculture is to apply the right amount of manageable inputs at the right place and right time, taking into account the static and stochastic inputs. Creating Management Zones One very effective way of dealing with static or stable soil properties is to create management zones based on these characteristics. The UC Davis researchers established management zones in an almond orchard at Nickels Soil Laboratory, in Arbuckle, California, as described below. Figure 2 (bottom of page 26) shows spatial variability maps of digital elevation, shallow EC, sand and silt contents of soil, leaf temperature, and canopy cover in a five acre plot at Nickels Soil Laboratory. Two distinct management zones were delineated based on the spatial variability patterns found in these maps. It is very interesting to see that soil characteristics of digital elevation, texture (both sand and silt content) and shallow EC showed similar spatial variability patterns and greatly influenced the creation of management zones. It is important to make sure that the management zones created are based on static characteristics of soil so that the zones created are stable from one year to the next. Based on these management zones, the drip irrigation system installed in this orchard was modified so that water applied to each zone could be independently controlled. Within each zone, two treatments were implemented—(i) grower practice, and (ii) plant water stress based irrigation management. The grower practice was based on the measurement of soil moisture content at a selected location in the orchard. Three leaf monitors were installed within each zone to monitor PWS-based treatments. Each grower zone was also monitored by three leaf monitors. In addition to these twelve leaf monitors, there were two additional units, which were used to monitor the “saturated”

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and “dry” conditions. The saturated condition was created by applying 50 percent extra water to three trees, and the dry condition was simulated by breaking the stem of the leaf being monitored. Crop Water Stress Index (CWSI) was computed by comparing the responses of the leaf monitor on the tree being monitored with that of the leaf monitors installed in the saturated and simulated dry conditions. CWSI is defined as:

CWSI =

DT! - DTsat DTdry - DTsat

where,

∆Tℓ = temperature difference between the monitored leaf and air ∆Tsat = temperature difference be-

tween the saturated leaf and air

May/June 2017

∆Tdry = temperature difference between the simulated dry leaf and air During the 2015 growing season the management-zone-based precision irrigation system was installed and attempts were made to manage irrigation based on plant water status within each zone. Typical response from leaf monitors and resultant CWSI variations are shown in Figures 3 and 4 (below). These figures clearly show the high stress conditions that were present on Julian days 208, 209 and 210. Moreover, it shows the recovery of this tree due to the irrigation water applied on Julian day number 209. The preliminary results indicated that PWS based irrigation management required about 70 percent of what the grower applied in zone #1 and 90 percent in zone #2. Based on these encouraging results, management-zone-based precision irrigation was implemented throughout the 2016 growing season. Attempts

Time (Julian days)

Harvest Preparation

Top: Figure 3 - Typical plot of continuous leaf monitor temperature difference (between leaf and air temperature) data for the saturated (green-top curve), monitored (blue-middle curve), and simulated dry (red-bottom curve) trees with respect to time in Julian days. Middle: Figure 4 - Resultant variation in daily CWSI values over time (in Julian days) corresponding to the leaf monitor response shown in figure 3.

Zone 1 (bar)

Zone 2 (bar)

Bottom: Figure 5 - Managing PWS during the growing season. Note the couple of low stress values observed during the hullsplit period are the result of SWP measurements taken immediately following irrigation events.

were made to control PWS level at -13 bar during the pre- as well as post- hull split period, and -16 bar during the hull split period as shown in Figure 5 (bottom of page 28). Throughout the season, CWSI values were used as the indicators for stress management. However, when CWSI values indicated high stress levels, actual SWP measurements were taken (just to be sure) before irrigation management decisions were implemented. In the early part of the experiment, SWP measurements were collected both before and after irrigation events. Once we were comfortable that following an irrigation event the plant water stress reduced significantly, we discontinued SWP measurements following irrigation events. Figure 6 (upper right) shows the cumulative amount of water applied to each zone in PWS based treatments and in the grower treatment. This PWS-based variable rate irrigation management practice resulted in

Left: Figure 6 Amount of water applied during the 2016 growing season in plant water stress based treatments in zones # 1 and 2, and grower treatment.

Grower

Zone 1

Zone 2

75 percent and 86 percent of water applied, respectively, compared to the amount applied by the grower. The crop yield and quality attributes such as mass per 50 kernels, size (length, width, and height), and percentage mold were not significantly different between PWS-based precision irrigation and grower practice. Additional

data will be collected during the 2017 growing season to verify 2016 results. Comments about this article? We want to hear from you. Feel free to email us at article@jcsmarketinginc.com · · · · PCC

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Improve the retention of fruit and help to increase the kernel size.

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NAVEL ORANGEWORM

Mating Disruption: An Effective IPM Tool for Navel Orangeworm Management in Nut Crops

By Jhalendra Rijal, Ph.D. Area Integrated Pest Management Advisor-Northern San Joaquin Valley UC Cooperative Extension and Statewide IPM Program

avel orangeworm (Amyelois transitella) has been a very important insect pest in California nut production, inflicting considerable economic damage to major nut crops, like almonds, pistachios, and walnuts. In addition to the direct yield and quality reduction, feeding by navel orangeworm on nuts increases the risk of aflatoxin contamination in marketed nuts. Current management practices for navel orangeworm primarily depend on insecticide spray and removal of mummy nuts from the trees and ground before navel orangeworm adults begin their flight in the spring time. Based on previous studies and experiences, the sole use of insecticide does not provide a desirable control for navel orangeworm. Also, the increased evidence of navel orangeworm gaining resistance to some of the commonly used pyrethroids in the southern San Joaquin Valley has added complexity in pest management programs. Research and demonstration trials in the recent decade have shown that pheromone-based mating disruption can effectively be implemented as part of the IPM program to reduce navel orangeworm and crop damage, and this evidence led to the development and registration of mating disruption products to use in nut crops.

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May/June 2017

Currently, there are two aerosol-based mating disruption products (NOW Puffers® by Suterra, and Semios NOW Plus® by Semios) available in the market; however, more products, including different formulations, are under development and in the process of registration. In aerosol products, the pheromone-filled can dispenses its contents at a fixed time interval into the orchard to disrupt the mating behavior of navel orangeworm. The pheromone that is utilized in the navel orangeworm mating disruption product is a non-attractive component of the pheromone blend. The advantages of using mating disruption products are: 1) highly selective to control the target insect pest, 2) negligible health and environment-related effects with no residues, 3) minimal interference with other orchard practices such as irrigation scheduling, re-entry interval, etc., and 4) well-fit into the integrated approach of pest management.

What is pheromone mating disruption? Pheromone is the chemical produced (secreted by the external glands) by a species of insect that is used to communicate with the members of the same species. There are several types of pheromone, but the particular one involved in reproduction and mating is the sex pheromone. By utilizing an exact copy of or a portion of the insect pheromone blend, the regular intra-species communication can be manipulated and exploited to our benefit (e.g., pest management). In mating disruption, scientists use this strategy to disrupt

Right: Placing a mating disruption trap in an almond tree (Photo by: Emma Buerer) Below: Navel orangeworm can cause significant damage to nut crops (Photo courtesy: UC IPM)

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male-female communication. Thus, normal mate-finding is prevented or delayed, which results in a reduction in overall insect pest population and crop damage. The female-produced pheromone has been exploited for the development of a mating disruption strategy for several insect pests; most them are a variety of lepidopteran insects.

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There are several schools of thought about how mating disruption actually works. The mechanism for mating disruption is a complex phenomenon, and it varies with the insect species under test, their physiological and behavContinued on page 32

May/June 2017

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ioral conditions, and other external factors. Under normal circumstances, female moths release pheromones as the indicator of their reproduction receptivity. Male moths pick up the signal from the pheromone plume and follow the trail to find the source (in this case, a female moth) and mating occurs. Under mating disruption, due to the presence and abundance of synthetic pheromones coming out from the dispensers/products, the mate-finding process is disrupted. Broadly, there are two modes of action (i.e. principles) of mating disruption. The first one is the ‘non-competitive attraction’ in which the sensory system of male moths is impaired by the pheromone released from the mating disruption dispenser. Consequently, males are no longer able to find females at all (i.e., no mating) or early enough (i.e., delayed mating) for mating. The other mechanism of mating disruption is called ‘competitive attraction’ in which male moths compete with the pheromone plumes generated by the mating disruption dispensers during the mate-finding process. In this case, the sensory system of the male moth is not impaired, and thus they are readily capable of responding to the pheromones. Under the competitive mechanism, there are female-produced and dispensergenerated pheromone trails in the orchard, and male moths will likely follows the false trails (because there are so many of them) that are not actually produced by female moths. These two broad mechanisms may occur simultaneously, or they can be mutually exclusive depending on the insect species and other conditions.

TRE-1034, 1/17

1. Size of the orchard: the bigger the orchard, the better the performance of the mating disruption products, given other conditions are equal. This is more applicable for aerosol-based dispensers than the Continued on page 34

Continued from page 32

high-density dispenser types (i.e. twist ties, MESO). 2. Shape of the orchard block: Irregular-shaped orchards will not get uniform distribution of the pheromone within the orchard, and this will increase the chances of having areas where mating can still occur. Square or rectangular sized blocks are desirable for better effectiveness of mating disruption. 3. Topography of the land: Undulated topography (e.g. with steep slopes) may result in uneven distribution of the pheromone within the orchard, leading to insufficient amounts of pheromone in pockets of the orchard where mating disruption is not happening. 4. Intensity and direction of the wind: Since pheromone molecules are dispersed by the wind, high-velocity wind is likely to carry the pheromone a long distance. Also, wind takes pheromone to the downwind side of the orchard, leaving the upwind side without enough to prevent mating. So, wind direction should be taken into consideration during the installation of the dispensers in the orchard. More dispensers at the upwind side helps to offset the gap. 5. Neighboring orchards: There is always the chance that mated females can migrate to the disrupted orchards and lay their eggs, although the signif-

icance of that migration has not been quantified in several conditions. If possible, it is beneficial to implement areawide mating disruption especially for the insect such as navel orangeworm, which likely have a resident population in most of the orchards in the Central Valley. 6. Pest pressure: Mating disruption should not be considered as the standalone tactic in an orchard with high insect density. Under high pest pressure, despite any mating disruption, there is a great chance that mating is still occurring within the orchard. The first year or two, insecticidal control is recommended in mating disrupted plots. After that, the mating disruption itself can keep the pest populations below the desirable level. Of course, this depends on orchard conditions, the grower’s damage threshold, and other factors.

How Can Mating Disruption Be a Part of the IPM Program for Navel Orangeworm? Mating disruption has been increasingly popular, and, based on feedback from growers and PCAs, this tactic is working well in combination with other control strategies for navel orangeworm in nut crops. Despite the success and increase use of mating disruption products, this method itself should not be taken as a replacement for cultural control methods such as winter sanitation (i.e., removal and destroy of the

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Progressive Crop Consultant

May/June 2017

tree and ground mummy nuts in the winter) and early harvest that we have in place. Mating disruption does not directly kill the navel orangeworm larvae, rather help to keep the population below a certain level by preventing or delaying mating. The orchard with the history of high navel orangeworm activity and nut damage, mating disruption should be one of the components of the pest management program, at least for initial years. Also, depending on the size, shape, and proximity to other orchards, insecticide treatment in mating disrupted orchards might be necessary for areas of the orchard where mating disruption may be failing due to immigrating moths or due to other orchard-related factors. Growers and PCAs need to be vigilant about the changes in insect population in the orchard and if necessary, use insecticides to address unexpected situations. In any orchard with navel orangeworm mating disruption, use of the pheromone trap is strongly recommended to evaluate whether the mating disruption product is working or not. Negligible moth counts to complete trap shut-down is expected if the mating disruption is working. There should not be confusion about the fact that trap shut-down does not automatically translate to damage reduction. With a clear understanding of the basics of mating disruption principles and associated factors for implementation, mating disruption can serve as an effective tool for integrated management of navel orangeworm in nut crops. Comments about this article? We want to hear from you. Feel free to email us at article@jcsmarketinginc.com · · · · PCC

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