Organic Farmer - June/July 2021

June/July 2021 Anaerobic Soil Disinfestation as an Organic Systems-Based Approach Seed Production Basics Identification, Mitigation and Management Saline and Sodic Soils Challenges of Managing Fusarium in Strawberries

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PUBLISHER: Jason Scott Email: jason@jcsmarketinginc.com EDITOR: Marni Katz ASSOCIATE EDITOR: Cecilia Parsons Email: article@jcsmarketinginc.com PRODUCTION: design@jcsmarketinginc.com Phone: 559.352.4456 Fax: 559.472.3113 Web: www.organicfarmingmag.com

IN THIS ISSUE 4

Anaerobic Soil Disinfestation as an Organic Systems-Based Approach

CONTRIBUTING WRITERS & INDUSTRY SUPPORT

10

Seed Production Basics

22

David M. Butler

University of Tennessee, Knoxville

Danita Cahill

16

Taylor Chalstrom

Joji Muramoto

UC Cooperative Extension

Francesco Di Gioia Pennsylvania State University

22

26

30

36

40

UC Cooperative Extension, UC Santa Cruz

Omar Rodriguez

Sustainable Agriculture Specialist, NCAT/ATTRA

Erin Rosskopf

Rex Dufour,

USDA-ARS, Fort Pierce, Fla.

Sabrina Halvorson

Jeannette E. Warnert

Sustainable Agriculture Specialist, NCAT/ Carol Shennan ATTRA UC Santa Cruz Contributing Writer

University of California Hemp Research to Address Water, N issues in 2021

Frank J. Louws

North Carolina State University

Oleg Daugovish

Challenges of Managing Fusarium in Strawberries

CCA, CPAg.

Contributing Writer Assistant Editor

Identification, Mitigation and Management Saline and Sodic Soils

J.W. Lemons

Neal Kinsey

Communications Specialist, UC ANR

Kinsey Ag Services

26

UC COOPERATIVE EXTENSION ADVISORY BOARD Surendra Dara UCCE Entomology and Biologicals Advisor, San Luis Obispo and Santa Barbara Counties

Copper Requirements for Organic Growing

Kevin Day County Director/UCCE Pomology Farm Advisor, Tulare/Kings Counties Elizabeth Fichtner UCCE Farm Advisor, Tulare County

Carbon Credits in Organic Farming

Katherine Jarvis-Shean UCCE Area Orchard Systems Advisor, Sacramento, Solano and Yolo Counties

Growing Vegetables YearRound Under Cover

40 June/July 2021

Steven Koike Tri-Cal Diagnostics Jhalendra Rijal UCCE Integrated Pest Management Advisor, Stanislaus County Kris Tollerup UCCE Integrated Pest Management Advisor, Parlier Mohammad Yaghmour UCCE Area Orchard Systems Advisor, Kern County

The articles, research, industry updates, company profiles, and advertisements in this publication are the professional opinions of writers and advertisers. Organic Farmer does not assume any responsibility for the opinions given in the publication.

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ANAEROBIC SOIL DISINFESTATION AS AN ORGANIC SYSTEMS-BASED APPROACH Part 1: Biological Method Suppresses Soilborne Pathogens and Pests and Improves Crop Health

By JOJI MURAMOTO | University of California Cooperative Extension, University of California Santa Cruz FRANCESCO DI GIOIA | Pennsylvania State University DAVID M. BUTLER | University of Tennessee, Knoxville OLEG DAUGOVISH| University of California Cooperative Extension FRANK J. LOUWS | North Carolina State University ERIN ROSSKOPF | USDA-ARS, Fort Pierce, Fla. and CAROL SHENNAN | University of California Santa Cruz

S

oilborne pathogens and pests, such as insects and weeds, are a frequent threat in most organic cropping systems. Organic farmers manage soilborne pathogens and pests by applying organic amendments such as composts, growing certain cover crops, using crop rotations and planting resistant varieties.

Studies show organically managed fields tend to be more suppressive to soilborne pathogens than conventional counterparts. Yet, organic crops can experience mild to devastating damage by soilborne pathogens and pests, resulting in lower yields. Organic farmers continuously seek systems-based approaches to address soil problems, especially for high-value crops such as vegetables and fruits.

This article, the first in a two-part series, temperature of 110 degrees F or above discusses anaerobic soil disinfestation at six inches depth, has been limited (ASD), an organically acceptable meth- due to insufficient solar radiation. od within an integrated management system to reduce losses due to pathoASD was developed by integrating the gens and other pests. principles of flooding (i.e., anaerobic decomposition) and solarization (i.e., What is ASD? How Was use of plastic mulch) combined with it Developed? the application of carbon-rich organic ASD is a biological method to suppress amendments. A key aspect of the ASD a range of soilborne pests and pathotreatment is the selection of labile (easgens. It was developed as an alternative ily decomposable) carbon (C), which to fumigants in the Netherlands and may depend upon the availability of Japan independently around 2000. In agricultural byproducts in different both countries, flooding is a common regions (Figure 1). Cover crops and practice in agricultural fields and has crop residues can also be used as C been known to suppress soilborne sources for ASD (Figure 2, see page pathogens (e.g., Verticillium dahliae) for 5, and Figure 3, see page 6). With this vegetables grown after draining water. approach, ASD can be applied in areas Also, the use of solarization, which with lower soil temperatures where sotypically requires a daily maximum soil larization would not be effective and in

Figure 1. Anaerobic soil disinfestation (ASD) experiment conducted to test byproducts of the local agri-food industry such as wheat middlings, spent mushroom compost and brewer’s spent grain as carbon sources in Pennsylvania using a movable high tunnel structure (photo by F. Di Gioia.)

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areas where limited water availability, topography or soil properties do not allow the use of flooding.

How Does ASD Work?

ASD controls soilborne pests and pathogens by creating temporary anaerobic conditions which enable a series of fermentation processes to occur as microbes feed on the added C. During this process, volatile organic compounds, organic acids, sulfur-containing compounds and Fe2+ and Mn2+ ions are produced, and shifts in the soil microbial community occur that alter the microbial ecology of the soil and have direct and indirect activity against soilborne pathogens.

At the same time, a sequence of microbial groups starts feeding on the labile C provided and then feeds on metabolites derived from the fermentation process. The soil is never sterilized or left void, but there is a shift of activity from one group to the next, leading to

Figure 2. Buckwheat biomass produced in a cover crop ASD trial in Pennsylvania (photo by F. Di Gioia.)

the generation of pest and pathogen suppressive soils. Finally, as the source of labile C is depleted, the soil returns to aerobic conditions and a crop can be established.

Aside from suppressing soilborne pests and pathogens, ASD with common C

sources modifies the soil environment to benefit the following crop (Figure 4, see page 6). ASD results in some of the same benefits that organic amendments in general provide, including increasing soil organic matter and cation exchange capacity and improved soil

Continued on Page 6

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and composts, are not effective. Any locally available labile C source can be used (see Part 2 of this article in the next issue for typical C sources for different regions in the U.S.)

Figure 3. Harvested (left, cut) sunn hemp for incorporation in another location and standing sunn hemp to be mowed and incorporated where it grew. Both sunn hemp were used as the carbon source for ASD, with or without combination with molasses, applied with composted litter for organic production of bok choy in Alachua County, Fla. (photo by E. Rosskopf.)

Second, as quickly as possible, cover the soil with plastic mulch to limit oxygen supply and gas exchange. Third, drip-irrigate 1.5 to 2 acre-inches of water to start and maintain the threeweek fermentation process. The first irrigation should saturate bedded soil uniformly as much as possible without collapsing the bed structure. Then maintain at or above field capacity during the treatment. In sandy soils, adding water in repeated increments can help maintain adequate soil moisture for anaerobic conditions.

The stronger the anaerobic condition and the higher the soil temperature, the more suppressive the ASD treatment tends to be. Measuring soil redox potential (Eh) using oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) sensors allows researchers and growers to monitor the level of the anaerobic condition in the soil during ASD (Fig. 5f). The pungent odor of soil cores is also indicative of anaerobic fermentation.

Figure 4. Charcoal rot disease suppression and growth promotion by ASD in organic strawberries in Oxnard, Calif. Left: ASD using rice bran at nine tons/acre. Right: untreated control (photos by J. Muramoto.)

Continued from Page 5 physicochemical properties. Increases in beneficial microorganisms, such as non-pathogenic nematodes, fungi and bacteria associated with disease suppression and growth promotion,

have been documented with ASD. Many consider this approach to be good for soil regeneration, decreasing allelochemicals and increasing microbial activity.

What Are the Steps to Implement ASD?

ASD is performed in three steps (Figure 5, see page 8). First, incorporate a labile C source into the soil to feed indigenous soil microbes. A labile form of C is necessary for bacteria to quickly initiate the fermentation process.

Non-labile C, such as bark, wood chips

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After the treatment period, holes are punched into the plastic mulch for planting, facilitating aeration of the treated soil. Typically, it is safe to plant transplants within one week of punching holes.

How Widely has ASD Been Used?

Research has been done in multiple areas of the U.S., including California, Florida, Tennessee, North Carolina, Washington, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Michigan and Ohio, among others, both in field and high tunnel production systems. Crop types tested include berries, vegetables, tree fruits and cut flowers (Figure 6, see page 9) (See Part 2 of this article for ASD-applied crops and target pests in different regions of the U.S.)

Continued on Page 8

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trum efficacy of ASD, which results in the simultaneous management of several soilborne pests and pathogens, is due to multiple mechanisms, which provides a multi-tactic approach that is easy to apply.

An approach alternative to ASD is biosolarization developed by combining soil solarization with the application of organic amendments. This approach relies mainly on developing high soil temperatures through the solarization effect obtained using transparent mulching film. Therefore, its application is limited in regions where solarization is effectively used.

Does ASD Control Weeds?

Figure 5. A typical process of ASD in California strawberry fields: a) broadcast rice bran at a rate of six to nine tons/acre to feed indigenous soil microbes that will create the fermentation process during ASD; b) incorporate rice bran into the soil; c) list beds; d) lay drip tapes and cover beds with plastic mulch as soon as the incorporation is completed; e) saturate and then maintain field capacity soil moisture in bed soil by drip irrigation and allow three weeks for the ASD treatment; and f) monitor soil redox potential (Eh mV) during the ASD treatment and apply additional water when the soil is getting aerobic (photos by J. Muramoto.)

Continued from Page 6 ASD has been used at commercial scale in California berry fields since 2011, but it is just starting in other regions and crops. There is research on ASD being conducted worldwide, including continued study in the Netherlands, Japan, China, Nepal, Spain and Italy.

Many producers in these regions utilize ASD commercially, particularly on small farms and protected cultivation systems that offer limited opportunities for adequate crop rotation.

Different Names for this Practice

ASD was originally described as biological soil disinfestation (BSD) or reductive soil disinfestation (RSD).

Work in the U.S. on this topic has more 8

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consistently been referred to as ASD as the need for anaerobic conditions is a principal difference between this approach and other methods. Each name emphasizes the component that each research group considered to be a vital characteristic of the approach.

At this stage, all would agree that this is a biologically based method for which the achievement of anaerobic conditions to a certain level is critical for the efficacy in controlling soilborne pests and pathogens. Regardless of the names used by each group, research continues to characterize the physical, chemical and biological transformations that take place during the treatment. It is likely that the broad-spec-

When properly applied, especially in warmer regions, ASD significantly reduces weed pressure. In some studies, broadleaf weed germination was reduced 40% to 60%, and perennial weeds such as nutsedges were reduced by more than 75% compared to totally impermeable film without ASD treatment. Grass weeds are consistently suppressed under ASD treatments, preventing grass weed emergence in planting holes through the season. Anaerobic conditions and changes in soil chemistry may be responsible for inhibiting the growth of germinated weeds, which can be influenced by the type of C source used and its application rate.

Does ASD Affect Nutrient Availability?

The amendments that are used for ASD application strongly influence nutrient dynamics. Increased availability of potassium, calcium, magnesium and micronutrients is common with many different organic amendments used for ASD. It largely depends on the composition and application rate of the amendment used. In defining the application rates for every source of C, it is important to consider the composition of the organic amendment to avoid an excess of nutrients.

The inputs definitely influence nitrogen dynamics under ASD, and the C:N

ratio of the C sources can affect the subsequent release and availability of N and other nutrients for the crop. For example, when composted broiler litter is used for ASD, soil ammonium and nitrate are lowered by the combined application of litter and molasses.

Generally, plant nutrient uptake is improved with ASD. In some cases, this has also been reflected by higher concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, boron and zinc in fruit.

See next month’s issue for more information on working with ASD in organic cropping systems.

Comments about this article? We want to hear from you. Feel free to email us at article@jcsmarketinginc.com

Figure 6. ASD can be used to start new citrus plantings for organic or conventional production and results in larger crowns and stem diameters and earlier fruit set than trees started without ASD (photo by E. Rosskopf.)

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SEED PRODUCTION

BASICS

Some tips for Growers Looking to Produce Their Own Seed

By TAYLOR CHALSTROM | Assistant Editor

For a majority of the season, growing seed crops is similar to growing market crops (photo courtesy J. Zystro.)

T

he boom in sustainable food production during the COVID-19 pandemic has created a higher demand for seed, resulting in low supply and a need for increased seed production.

Seed Crop Characteristics

In a presentation during the 2021 California Small Farm Conference, Zystro explained the basics of seed production, noting important characteristics of seed crops.

The organic food market has grown at “A basic difference between various a consistent, increasing rate every year seed crops is flower arrangement. This for the past two decades, and this past is relevant to how plants are able to year has been no exception. Having reproduce and how to manage plants a close or direct connection to food when you’re growing them for seed,” he sources and information has been more said. important than ever to consumers.

However, there are not enough seed Types of flower arrangements include producers or seed to keep up with curperfect, monoecious and dioecious rent demand. flowers. Perfect flowers have pollen-bearing and seed-bearing parts on “Seed companies had two to 10 times the same flower, are found in self-polthe sales than usual in 2020, using up linating crops and often produce relaall of their inventory. 2021 sees this tively few yet large seeds per plant. trend continuing,” said Research and Education Assistant Director Jared Tomatoes, beans, peas, broccoli, Zystro of Organic Seed Alliance. “It’s cabbage, carrots, sunflowers, leta good time to be considering growing tuce and ornamental flowers are seed for yourself so that you don’t end examples of crops with perfect up in a situation where you’re looking flowers. “Many of the crops you through the catalogs or finding your varieties out of stock at the seed companies,” he added.

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Jared Zystro of Organic Seed Alliance recommends these general tips for beginning seed growers: Start small and with a crop you like Consider your climate Try annuals first Make sure the crop works in your system Have infrastructure for drying (shed, barn space, high tunnel, cleaning tools) Meet other seed savers and share information How-to publications and webinars on seed production are available for free

download at seedalliance.org.

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Continued from Page 10 know have these flowers, but they may not all be self-pollinating plants themselves,” Zystro noted.

Monoecious flowers have either seed-bearing or pollen-bearing parts.

Monoecious crops, such as corn, squash, cucumber, melon and watermelon, have both types of flowers on the same plant.

Dioecious flowers have either seed-bearing or pollen-bearing parts as well, but a dioecious plant, such as spinach, asparagus, ginkgo and hemp, will only have one type of flower. Both monoecious and dioecious flowers, along with perfect flowers, make up cross-pollinating crops that often have large numbers of small flowers that produce many seeds.

According to Zystro, it isn’t cut and dry as to whether or not a plant is self-pollinating or cross-pollinating. “There is a spectrum,” he said. “Crops that are more Drying postharvest allows the seeds to complete maturity and makes extraction easier.

Drying can be done in a number of ways, but plant material shouldn’t be dried on a self-pollinating have different requirenon-permeable surface as this allows moisture to build up (photo courtesy J. Zystro.) ments for population size and isolation distance, typically requiring smaller populations and minimum isolation. Crops that are more cross-pollinating require much greater isolation and larger populations.” ®

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Population size, Zystro said, is the amount of plants needed to save seed from in order to maintain a healthy, vigorous variety year after year. Isolation distance is the distance a crop needs to be from other flowering varieties of the same species.

Another important difference between various seed crops is the crop’s life cycle, according to Zystro. “Annuals produce seed in one year provided there is a long enough season for full maturity, while biennials take two years to produce seed and require overwintering and/or vernalization to set seed.”

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Zystro said that, for a majority of the season, growing seed crops is similar to growing market crops. Growing practices for seed crops, like market crops, include timing, spacing, staking, irrigation and fertility and weed management.

Timing Seed crops typically take much longer to mature than the market equivalent, according to Zystro. For example, lettuce crops will require several more months in the ground than market crops for seed. Some crops, like tomato or winter squash, require timing that is about the same.

Spacing The amount of space needed for seed crops is often much larger. Since the crop stays in the ground longer, they will grow larger; thus, greater spacing is needed to provide airflow between rows, which helps to mitigate disease. It might be beneficial to grow at normal spacing first and harvest the market crop every other row, leaving adequate spacing for remaining plants to continue to grow for seed production, Zystro advised.

One technique for cleaning seeds from dry-seeded crops is screening, which includes screens large enough to allow seed to fall through while the non-seed, or chaff, stays on top, or screens small enough to allow seeds to stay on top while dust and fine chaff fall through (photo courtesy J. Zystro.)

Staking Staking may only be necessary for some seed crops depending on how large they are at maturity.

Irrigation Once crops begin to flower and seed, overhead irrigation should be avoided as it can cause sprouting and diseases when the plant flowers, Zystro said.

Drip or furrow irrigation works best in the seed stage.

Fertility Management Management will be mostly the same for seed and market crops. Zystro said to keep in mind that the growing season is longer for seed production and will require more fertility and water until the crop matures.

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Weed Management Weeds that otherwise could be ignored during the regular season where harvest occurs earlier cannot be ignored for seed production’s longer season.

Remove weeds throughout the season so that there aren’t any tangled up with the plants.

Continued on Page 14

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IEND

Continued from Page 13

Seed Saving

Harvest and postharvest practices for seed production, known as seed saving, include harvesting, drying, threshing, cleaning and storing seed.

Harvesting There are multiple techniques for harvesting seed, Zystro said, including cutting or hand harvesting plants, pulling plants, the bucket method (bending plant into a bucket so seeds shatter into it,) hand collecting seeds and mechanical tools.

“I don’t recommend [pulling plants] because you want to avoid having dirt mixed in with seeds,” Zystro said.

Drying Drying postharvest allows the seeds to complete maturity and makes extraction easier. Drying can be done in a number of ways, but plant material

shouldn’t be dried on a non-permeable surface as this allows moisture to build up, according to Zystro.

Threshing Threshing involves separating seeds from plant matter/stems and can occur in different ways, including stomping and driving over the seed with a vehicle. Only use a vehicle for threshing on a soft surface like grass and with a small-seeded crop, Zystro said. Large-seeded crops may experience damage to seed with driving in the form of cracks, reducing the quality and vigor of the seed.

Cleaning “Cleaning method depends on whether the crop is dry-seeded or wet-seeded,” Zystro said. Dry-seeded crops, such as lettuce, have dry seed and fruit when they reach maturity. Wet-seeded crops, such as tomatoes, have wet seeds at maturity.

One technique for cleaning seeds from dry-seeded crops is screening, which includes screens large enough to allow seed to fall through while the non-seed, or chaff, stays on top, or screens small enough to allow seeds to stay on top while dust and fine chaff fall through.

Often, both methods should be used to remove the bulk of the non-seed material, Zystro said. Another technique for dry-seed screening is winnowing.

Winnowing uses wind to separate seeds from the chaff.

“Basically, pour seeds and chaffs into a wind stream, and the seeds being denser than the chaffs will fall faster into a closer container while chaffs being lighter fall farther into a separate container,” Zystro said.

A technique for cleaning seeds from wet-seeded crops is fermentation, which helps to control disease. Fermentation dissolves the slimy, mucilaginous

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Making the Transition to Seed Producer

K

alan Redwood, owner of Redwood Seeds, said growers making the transition from vegetable market to seed production need to keep in mind some important considerations.

“Seed production is all about letting the plants complete their natural life cycle,” Redwood said.

“Plants become tall, rangy and inedible as they mature and produce seeds. A market gardener harvests fruits and veggies at peak edibility while a seed farmer allows plants to ‘go to seed’.”

Seed production is a different take on farming, she said, adding that most market producers will pull out their lettuce, for example, when it starts to bolt to make way for a new crop.

Kalan Redwood, owner of Redwood Seeds, said a market gardener harvests fruits and veggies at peak edibility while a seed farmer allows plants to ‘go to seed’ (photo by Abby Lawless.)

layer around tomato or cucumber seeds and stringy placenta on squash seeds. Fermentation temperatures should be regulated between 75 to 90 degrees F and seeds should be stirred twice per day.

“Once fermentation has occurred, rinse and decant seed by filling the seed container up with water and streaming out any seed or pulp until the good seeds, which are settled to the bottom, are left,” Zystro said. “Then, spread seed out in a thin layer and apply air so they dry quickly and don’t sprout from leftover moisture.”

Storage The final stage of seed production process before sale, saving or shipment is proper storage. Seed should be stored in a cool, dry, dark place with little to no fluctuation in storage conditions. A general rule, according to Zystro, is that the heat (in degrees F) and relative humidity values added together should not be more than 100 for optimal conditions. Seeds should be well labeled and protected from any rodent or insect pests as well.

Comments about this article? We want to hear from you. Feel free to email us at article@jcsmarketinginc.com

“The seed farmer eats from their seed crops, but the real harvest comes in the fall when plants are laden with seed.”

When asked what she believes to be the most difficult aspect of seed production, Redwood noted that the high standards for cleaning seed are particularly challenging. “Over the years, we have acquired tools to help us with this process, including air columns, screens and, most recently, a Winnow Wizard,” she said. “It is the job of the seed grower to learn the process for each seed type with whatever tools you may have, often by trial and error.”

Although aspects of seed production may be difficult and/or niche, Redwood recommends getting educated as the most important thing a grower can do if they’re looking to produce seed.

“It is important to learn the basics of plant reproduction and know which crops will easily cross pollinate,” she said. “There are many strategies to grow true-to-type seeds, including isolation through distance and time and knowing your scientific names. Many resources and books are available on this subject. We learned the basics from a book called Seed to Seed by Suzanne Ashworth. Another great resource is the Organic Seed Alliance.”

June/July 2021

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15

Identification Mitigation and Management of

Saline and Sodic Soils

By OMAR RODRIGUEZ and REX DUFOUR | Sustainable Agriculture Specialists, NCAT/ATTRA

T

he presence of excess salts in the ground is a far-reaching and expanding threat to agriculture across the globe. Increases in soil salinity are considered to be the primary stress to global crop production (Laidero 2012).

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1% to 2% of all irrigated acreage is taken out of production every year due to excessive salt loads. Addressing these issues before it is too late has become imperative to maintaining the contin-

ued productivity of certain regions.

The destruction of arable land has had some profound and lasting social and economic effects. In their Assessment Report on Land Degradation and Restoration, the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Service (IPBES) says that 190 million acres of primarily irrigated land have been permanently lost to salinity. Furthermore, there are currently 150 million acres of arable land damaged by salinization (Mon-

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Soils and plants impacted by excess salts can exhibit detrimental effects on their physical, chemical and biological properties. (Photo: R. Dufour, NCAT)

tanarella et al. 2018). Within the U.S., the most affected areas are located in the arid western portion of the country. The Colorado River Basin, which includes parts of California, Colorado, Arizona, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah and Wyoming, has seen particularly concentrated effects (LaHue 2017).

Cadillac Desert, by Marc Reisner (1993), provides a warning to all who plough forward untempered into the American desert: Desert, semidesert, call it what you will.

The point is that despite heroic efforts and many billions of dollars, all we have managed to do in the arid west is turn a Missouri-size section green – and that conversion has been wrought mainly with nonrenewable groundwater. But a goal of many … has long been to double, triple, quadruple the amount of desert that has been civilized and farmed, and now these same people say that the future of a hungry world depends on it, even if it means importing water from as far away as Alaska. What they seem not to understand is how difficult it will be just to hang on to the beachhead they have made. Such a surfeit of ambition stems, of course, from the remarkable record of success we have had in reclaiming the American desert. But the same could have been said about any number of desert civilizations throughout history – Assyria, Carthage, Mesopotamia; the Inca, the Aztec, the Hohokam – before they collapsed. And it may not have even been drought that did them in. It may have been salt.

Arid and semi-arid environments are

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Figure 1. Type and severity levels of salt-affected soils around the world. Wicke et al. 2011. The global technical and economic potential of bioenergy from salt-affected soils. Energy & Environmental Science - ENERGY EN

most at-risk due to a dependence on irrigation water that tends to contain higher levels of salt. Once on the surface, water evaporates, leaving salts behind. Notice the correlation between arid regions of the world and the distribution of saline, sodic and saline-sodic soils in Figure 1.

It doesn’t take many years for salt deposits to build up to levels that are toxic to many species of plants. Soils and plants impacted by excess salts can exhibit detrimental effects on their physical, chemical and biological properties. Land-use options and productivity are adversely affected by excess salts, which can lead to drops in productivity and property value. Depending on the amount and type of salt in the soil, impacts will differ (McCauley and Jones 2005).

Sources and Causes

The vast majority of salts come from the natural weathering of parent material, which includes minerals from bedrock and ancient sea beds (Cardon et al. 2007). Water-soluble salts are flushed from the parent material and flow downward into subterranean water basins, which are a primary source of irrigation water. Other sources of salts include damming of rivers, excessive use of agricultural fertilizers, municipal runoff and water treatment with “softeners”. In coastal areas, excessive pumping of groundwater can create intrusion zones where salty sea water penetrates freshwater aquifers. Sea water intrusion of groundwater pump-

ing sites occurs most prominently when there is insufficient groundwater recharge from rain and rivers to offset the amount being pumped out.

Arid and semi-arid regions are characterized in part by their limited annual precipitation. During dry periods, groundwater recharge slows and pumping and evaporation from the soil increases. These combined factors cause groundwater levels to drop and salt deposition on the soil surface to increase. Droughts in these regions further exacerbate the issue. To take an example from California’s Central Valley, “…salt in the San Joaquin Valley continues to increase, especially during drought years. That’s because during droughts, California’s farms and cities rely on groundwater for up to 60% of their freshwater supply, up from 35% in non-drought years, and groundwater tends to be saltier than river water. People have been using groundwater faster than it naturally replenishes, dropping water levels deeper underground” (Gies 2017).

Salinity Impact on Plant Growth and Yield

Stress in the form of salinity is the most limiting environmental factor affecting plant growth in regions where rainfall is limited (Parida and Das 2005). Salts limit plant growth via several pathways. First, saline soils reduce a plant’s ability to absorb water. “Osmotic stress symptoms are very similar to those of drought stress, and include stunted growth, poor germination, leaf burn, June/July 2021

wilting and possibly death” (McCauley and Jones, 2005). These symptoms, similar to drought stress, occur even when water is present in the soil. In addition to affecting a plant’s ability to take up water, excess salinity can affect nutrient availability and uptake, and it can cause toxicity issues from sodium and chlorine (Evelin et al. 2009).

The effects that salt have on plants vary depending on the type of crop being grown, the amount of salt, and the type of salts in the soil. The presence of salts in the shallow layers of the soil profile will have a greater negative impact than those at layers further down in the profile due to their proximity to plant roots.

Salt tolerance varies greatly from crop to crop. Carrots and strawberries, for example, are sensitive enough to suffer yield and growth losses in soils considered to be “very slightly saline,” while asparagus and chard are tolerant to much higher levels of salts. Each crop species has a corresponding level of tolerance to salinity, and beyond this level, growth and yield begin to diminish (see Table 1 on page 18, for more information on crop-specific tolerance levels.) Many plants will not display negative effects of salinity stress; thus, observational analysis may not be sufficient to determine if salts are affecting the yield of a particular crop. In order to be certain and establish an appropriate management plan, soil and irrigation water testing are essential.

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Table 1. The Effect of Electrical Conductivity on Plant Yield (Ayers and Westcot 1985). Top row of numbers represents percentage of potential yield. Numbers in table represent soil EC (measured using saturated paste method).

Continued from Page 17 Example from Table 1: Sweet potato grown in soil where EC measures 3.8 can be expected to yield around 75% of maximum. Note: These numbers represent rough guidelines that will be influenced by a number of factors, including cultivar chosen, soil temperature, cultural practices and use of rootstocks, to name a few.

Salinity and the Soil

Salinity and sodicity are the two salt-related problems that impact land managers around the globe. They are similar in many of their characteristics but should be managed differently due to the chemical differences in their composition. Saline-sodic soil is the third possibility. These soils exhibit traits of both types and require a management approach similar to that for sodic soils.

The most common salts include sodium (Na+ ), magnesium (Mg2+) and calcium (Ca2+ ). Other salts present to a lesser extent include potassium (K+), chloride (Cl-), bicarbonate (HCO3-) and sulfate (SO42-).

Soil structure is one of the fundamental aspects of a soil that can help us understand whether it is functioning properly. Soils are composed of varying proportions of sand, silt and clay.

Structure relates to the way these particles aggregate, or clump together, on a chemical level. Well aggregated soils 18

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allow for healthy soil function, which includes the soil’s ability to circulate air and percolate water down into the profile. Changes observed in soil structure or function may be indicative of certain salinity issues.

Soils characterized as saline or saline-sodic can be a wolf in sheep’s clothing because they can appear to have good structure while negatively impacting other biological and chemical properties. Sodicity, on the other hand, is a specific salinity issue in which excess sodium can contribute to the breakdown of soil structure. Sodic soils will facilitate the development of surface crusts, which hamper the germination and emergence of seedlings.

These crusts form dense layers that inhibit root growth and make tillage more difficult. The destruction of soil aggregates also reduces pore structure and causes a settling of soil particles that are loosely or not at all associated to their neighboring particles (Abrol et al. 1988).

The physical structure of sodic soils, as described above, also leads to topsoil that is highly susceptible to the erosive forces of wind and water. Another distinguishing characteristic of sodic soils is that they have a high pH, usually 8.5 or higher. It is the tendency of highpH soils to decrease the availability of essential nutrients, including calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, iron, manganese and zinc, which is cause for concern.

Remediating Saline Soils

Aside from a few very expensive management options, flushing salts further down into the soil profile with clean (low-salt) water is the only way to directly lower salt concentrations in managed soils. Limiting the use of inputs that have high concentrations of salt, such as saline irrigation water, chemical fertilizers or dairy manure, will serve as a good first step in reducing salt loads. Because good drainage is important to the leaching of salts, employing soil-management practices that improve soil structure and hydraulic flow through your farm’s soil will aid in moving salts away from sensitive crop-growing areas.

Measuring Salinity and Sodicity

Three factors typically examined in order to determine a soils classification in terms of salinity are Electrical Conductivity (EC), Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR) and pH. Electrical Conductivity (EC), sometimes referred to as specific conductance, measures the ease with which current can pass through an object. In this case, the object is the soil (ECe) or irrigation water (ECw). The more salt in a sample, the more easily a current will pass through that sample. Lab test results will provide measurements in the form of millimhos per cm (mmhos/cm) or decisiemens per meter (dS/m). These units are equivalent to one another: 1 mmho/cm = 1 dS/m.

Continued on Page 20

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with gypsum, will reduce salinity to a greater degree than gypsum or organic components alone (Chaganti et al.

2015).

Management for Soil Remediation

Bare soil, exposed to both the sun and wind, loses moisture more rapidly than mulched soil. Water evaporates, leaving a crust of salts behind. (Photo: R. Dufour, NCAT)

Continued from Page 18 The most reliable test for sodicity of soil or water is the sodium absorption ratio (SAR), which compares the concentration of sodium to calcium and magnesium. An alternate test that is also used to determine sodicity is the exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP). This test compares the amount of sodium relative to the cation exchange capacity (CEC) of the soil sample. CEC is a term that describes the ability of a soil particle (negatively charged) to bind to positively charged molecules or elements like salt (Hazelton and Murphy 2016).

Particular management practices and related factors can increase the likelihood that salts will deposit on the soil surface. Poor management of irrigation water and excess tillage can exacerbate salinity problems. Excessive tillage, for example, can create a hardpan under the soil surface. This is a layer through which water percolates very slowly or not at all. Also, saline water sitting just below the soil surface can rise to the surface through capillary action.

Capillary action describes the ability of water to move through narrow spaces regardless of external forces, including gravity. If you have ever left a paper towel to soak up water and watched the water spread across its fibers, you were observing capillary action. This is the same process that occurs in the soil when water is able to migrate upward through the soil profile. In this case, the water, with its load of salt, migrates to the surface, and as the water evaporates continually, it leaves ever-increasing amounts of salt behind.

The above-listed remediation techniques will do little to improve soil salinity conditions when hardpan Remediating Sodic and layers or excessive soil compaction are Saline-Sodic Soils present on the farm. In these situations, Due to low permeability, soils classified it may be advisable to break up imperas saline-sodic or sodic require an admeable layers mechanically (“ripping” ditional step in order to effectively flush the soil with deep ploughing or subsalts down into the soil profile while soiler) followed by a reduction in soil maintaining or improving soil function. management practices that create these Some form of calcium, usually gypadverse conditions (Abrol et al. 1988). sum, is used to replace excess sodium The reduction in salinity-enhancing present in the soil. Due to its stronger management practices must be accomcharge, calcium can replace the sodium panied by implementation of practices attached to soil particles. Freed sodithat can help mitigate saline conditions. um then converts to salt in the form of Na2SO4, which is more easily leached Role of Organic Matter from the soil. Some organic amendAdding organic amendments is a viable ments have been shown to be excellent method of addressing the negative options when remediating alkaline impacts of salinity in the soil. Saline soils (sodic soils tend to be alkaline). soils have been shown to benefit from Whether biochar, biosolids, compost compost, manure, green wastes and or green waste compost is applied, other organic amendments, which each will reduce EC, ESP and SAR to reduce the impact of erosive forces and varying degrees, and when combined improve soil structure and soil func20

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tion (Diacono and Montemurro 2015).

Additionally, organic matter aids in jump-starting biological and chemical processes, which can buffer the negative effects imposed by salt and help to increase nutrient cycling and availability (Rao and Pathak 1996).

Adding organic matter helps maintain the soil ecosystem, which can improve soil physical properties through the stabilization of aggregates. Bacteria and fungi release various glue-like substances through their metabolic processes that contribute to the adhesion of soil particles, creating soil aggregates. Increases in organic matter in soils impacted by excess salts have been shown to increase soil porosity and aeration (organic matter has much the same effect in non-saline soils), resulting in greater infiltration rates and reduction in soil salt content when flushed with water that is low in soluble salts (Diacono and Montemurro 2015).

In other experiments, under saline conditions, the addition of poultry manure and compost has been shown to increase available potassium. The addition of soluble and exchangeable potassium (K+) acts in a similar capacity to calcium and magnesium; that is to say, under sodic conditions, potassium will compete with sodium for space on the soil particles. What’s more, K plays an important role in the physiological function of plants, which can buffer some of the detrimental effects of salt stress (Diacono and Montemurro 2015).

Mulching is another practice that effectively limits the amount of salt accumulation on the soil surface because it reduces evaporation from the soil surface by 50% to 80%. Mulches can take various forms and can be used in a number of ways. Plastic cover and organic mulches are both effective options. Although both plastic and organic mulches are viable options for the reduction of salt accumulation, there are associated costs and benefits to both. Plastic mulches may require lower management and labor cost than organic mulches, but they are less effective than organic mulches when it comes to reducing salt accumulation

(on average, 32% less salt accumulation on organic mulches) (Aragues et al. 2014). Plastic mulches can intercept precipitation, which reduces any potential leaching effect from rainfall.

Plastic mulches also deteriorate over time and require disposal (Aragues et al. 2014). Organic mulches, on the other hand, may decompose rapidly and need to be replaced more often. They also benefit the soil ecosystem by feeding it and promoting earthworm populations (Jodaugiene et al. 2010)

Concluding Thoughts

American agriculture is facing increasing challenges and experiencing severe climate events more often. Farmers are having to deal with unprecedented droughts, flooding, and fires, as well as more erratic and extreme precipitation and temperatures. If we are to avoid the fates of the civilizations Marc Reisner noted in the introduction—Assyria, Carthage, Mesopotamia, the Inca, the Aztec, the Hohokam—we, as a society, must pay more attention to the way

we manage our soils and learn to treat them as the complex ecosystems that they are. Fortunately, we have more knowledge than ever before about how soils should be managed for soil health, and about the impacts of irrigation in arid environments.

Resources

To learn more about related topics, please visit the ATTRA website (www. attra.ncat.org) If you would like to learn more about testing for salinity, salt mitigating management practices and a complete resource list, please check out the full publication Saline and Sodic Soils: Identification, Mitigation, and Management Considerations at attra.ncat.org/product/saline-and-sodic-soils-identification-mitigation-and-management-considerations/.

Practices that increase soil health and promote beneficial microbial species can mitigate many of the challenges

June/July 2021

presented by salty soils. Management practices that encourage the presence of beneficial microbes are discussed further in the following ATTRA publications that may be found at https:// attra.ncat.org/topics/soils-compost/: • Sustainable Soil Management • Drought Resistant Soil • Overview of Cover Crops and Green Manures • Managing Soils for Water: How Five Principles of Soil Health Support Water Infiltration and Storage Omar and Rex can be contacted via email (omarr@ncat.org, rexd@ncat.org) or via phone (530) 530-7338.

Comments about this article? We want to hear from you. Feel free to email us at article@jcsmarketinginc.com

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Challenges of Managing Fusarium in Strawberries

By SABRINA HALVORSON | Contributing Writer

A

threat to California’s strawfound in southern California in 2006, berries for 15 years now, Fusarthe fungus fragariae was first found in ium wilt is challenging to conthe Central Coast growing area about trol. Organic growers face even more six years ago in a single field. difficulties in eradicating the underlying fungus.

“Now, it’s 10, maybe even 100 fields that are infected with this pathogen, and Fusarium wilt is caused by the fungus it’s continuing to move,” he said. It was Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. fragariae. It found first in the sandy soil of Watsoncauses wilting of foliage, plant stunting ville. “That’s been kind of the epicenter and drying and death of older leaves; for the whole thing. Most growers have however, the younger leaves in the it and they have it heavy.” center of the plant often remain alive.

The plants can eventually die from the Treatment Options infection. According to the University Treatment of the pathogen is difficult, of California, plants bearing heavy even for conventional growers. Tradifruit loads or subjected to stress often tionally, growers would fumigate with show the most severe symptoms. products such as methyl bromide and chloropicrin. Bolda said anecdotal UCCE Strawberry and Caneberry Farm evidence showed those treatments Advisor in Santa Cruz County Mark were containing the fungus. However, Bolda explains there are several types California law changed and phased out of Fusarium, but only one that is of real methyl bromide in 2016. concern to strawberry growers.

“But, I’ve been talking with some grow“What was very important for people, ers who have used methyl bromide and they get a soil report back that says chloropicrin recently because they have ‘Fusarium’ on it. Well, there’s tens of a research exemption or some kind thousands of Fusarium. There’s actually of special permit and they’re getting some that are beneficial. Most of them [fragariae] too,” Bolda said. “So, we are don’t do anything,” Bolda explained. now in the post-methyl bromide era “Then for strawberries, there’s fragariand now it’s just chloropicrin, which ae. It is host-specific, meaning it only is fine because it was always doing the infects strawberries. And that’s the heavy lifting in controlling soil pathoone that’s been expanding by leaps and gens, but those soils get [fragariae] too.” bounds here on the Central Coast.”

He said he and researcher Dr. Peter He said while Fusarium wilt was first Henry with USDA and collaborating 22

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growers have looked at using crop termination. This method kills the pathogen by using the soil fumigant metam potassium (KPam) at the end of the season when the infection is at its heaviest. Bolda said the method can work on its own but is most effective when used with chloropicrin.

However, those fumigant options are not available for organic growers. So, what can organic growers do? Bolda said to start by knowing what you have.

“If you’re going into the field and you’re going to plant, you should know if you have this Fusarium or not,” he said.

And if you do have Fusarium, Bolda said, “Rotate away.”

“Fragariae is form specific to strawberries. It grows on everything else, but not very well,” he explained. “So, if you rotate away (from strawberries) for a while, two to three years, minimum, those populations of Fusarium should go down.”

Resistant Varieties

Bolda also pointed out that many of the strawberry varieties now are resistant to Fusarium.

“A lot of people are now switching to the Fusarium-resistant varieties because even in the presence of fumi-

Continued on Page 24

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According to the University of California, plants bearing heavy fruit loads or subjected to stress often show the most severe symptoms.

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A key for all strawberry growers is to remain vigilant in finding, treating and preventing Fusarium at all stages (photo courtesy M. Bolda.)

Continued from Page 22 gation, they’re losing too many plants.

But what happens is, at least within the University of California, our best, most flavorful varieties are not the resistant ones,” he said. “So if you’re a direct marketer of strawberries, you want to identify and grow the best tasting, most productive varieties, and those are not resistant. There have been some new ones that have come out which are resistant, but there have been some questions about the flavor. And we’re talking strawberries. We’re not talking spinach. It’s all about flavor.”

According to UC data, field tests have shown that cultivars such as Fronteras, Portola and San Andreas are resistant to Fusarium wilt (photo courtesy M. Bolda.)

According to UC data, field tests have shown that cultivars such as Fronteras, Portola and San Andreas are resistant to Fusarium wilt. Albion and Monterey are susceptible.

Bolda also pointed out that even though a cultivar is resistant now, it may not be resistant in the future.

“We’re not done here,” he said. “We’ve seen pathogen resistance break in other crops. It hasn’t happened in strawberries yet, but it could. As we move forward, that resistance may be overcome by just all the genetic variations within the Fusarium population.”

Additional Considerations

Another method to managing Fusarium in strawberries is to manage crop stress. Bolda explained the Fusarium affects the vascular system within the plant, which is why growers tend to see the problem expand in June and July when the plant is producing a lot of fruit and drawing a lot of water.

If a grower does have Fusarium, they must be diligent to not spread it (photo courtesy M. Bolda.)

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“So, the plumbing is getting backed up by this disease and it’s making it more difficult to draw water,” Bold explained.

“You’re not going to void the problem, but you can mitigate the problem by making sure that plant has enough water.”

Bolda and Henry are also researching the effects of soil temperature on Fusarium. Fusarium needs a warmer soil temperature to thrive, so they are researching the effects of cooling the soil down using a light-colored plastic to reflect heat away from the bed.

A critical point Bolda said he wanted to make was if a grower does have Fusarium, they must be diligent to not spread it.

“Especially if you’re an organic grower because you have no way out, if you have a tractor and you move it from a contaminated field to a field that’s clean, you are contaminating that clean field,” he said. “That’s a big mistake and it’s completely avoidable.”

He mentioned a grower in the epicenter of the Central Coast Fusarium outbreak with little or no Fusarium in his field. “Because he’s super strict about what comes in and out of his field,” Bolda said. “This is backed up by Tom Gordon and his researchers up at UC Davis. They tested people’s shoes and shovels and, sure enough, they were transferring Fusarium from one field to the other.”

Bolda said a key for all strawberry growers is to remain vigilant in finding, treating and preventing Fusarium at all stages.

Comments about this article? We want to hear from you. Feel free to email us at article@jcsmarketinginc.com

June/July 2021

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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA HEMP RESEARCH

TO ADDRESS HEMP RESEARCH TO ADDRESS WATER, N ISSUES IN 2021

By JEANNETTE E. WARNERT | Communications Specialist, UC ANR

valued for its fiber not require shortening day length to and edible seeds; flower. however, in California, producing Some of the irrigation treatments hemp primarily impose moderate to more severe deficit for essential oils, irrigation to help assess the crop reincluding medicsponses to water stress. Deficit irrigainal cannabidiol tion is a method of conserving water (CBD), is thought by applying less than what might be to offer the best considered optimum for maintaining economic outlook. rapid growth.

U.S. and California hemp acreage “This plant appears to be quite tough surged in 2019, but under deficit irrigation,” said UCCE fell in 2020.

Specialist Bob Hutmacher at the UC WSREC.

Hemp Water-Use Study Expands “We need to learn more about benefits

In a study coordiand drawbacks to stressing the plants,” nated by Jeff Stein- Hutmacher said. er of Oregon State University’s (OSU) The auto-flower cultivars tested tend Global Hemp to use less water than the photoperiResearchers found that hemp appears to be tough under deficit irrigation, a method of conserving water by applying less than what Innovation Center, od-sensitive cultivars because they can might be considered optimum for maintaining rapid growth (all photos drip irrigation tri- be grown in a shorter season. In the courtesy B. Hutmacher.) als are underway San Joaquin Valley, auto-flower culin California, Ore- tivars in these studies were ready for gon and Colorado. harvest in 75 to 90 days after seeding.

CCE and UC Davis research efResearch was conducted in 2020 at the forts to understand the opportuUC West Side Research and Extension “Water use is very variety-specific” nities and challenges for industrial Center in Five Points and at the UC Hutmacher said. “Auto-flower varieties hemp production in California are Davis campus in addition to three sites may have potential to be grown in the growing. in Oregon, with an additional site in spring and harvested by early summer, Colorado added in 2021. These studies or planted in late summer and harvestAs a crop relatively new to California were set up to determine water use of ed before winter. With a short-season growers and researchers, there is still industrial hemp for CBD production crop, and with a decent water supply, much to learn about variety choices, under irrigation regimes ranging from farmers could consider double-crophow varieties and crop responses differ about 40% to 100% of estimated crop ping with such varieties, potentially across regions with different soils and water requirements, with comparisons increasing profits.” climates, best practices for nutrient of responses observed across the five management, and pest and disease sites with different soils, climate and Yields were variable, but showed promissues. other environmental conditions. ise for auto-flower varieties.

U

Industrial hemp field research efforts began at the University in 2019 after the previous year’s Farm Bill declared the crop should no longer be considered a controlled substance, but rather an agricultural commodity. Hemp is 26

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The study, funded by USDA and OSU, includes photoperiod-sensitive cultivars, where the flowering response is triggered by shortening day lengths in mid- to late summer in central California, and auto-flower varieties that do

“In our studies, the highest-yielding auto-flower cultivars have produced 80% to 90% of yields of the much larger full-season, photoperiod-sensitive plants, and some varieties may be equal,” he said.

Hemp Planting Density Studies

In cooperation with Kayagene Company of Salinas, Dan Putnam, UCCE forage crops specialist at UC Davis, and Hutmacher have conducted studies in 2019 and 2020 with two auto-flower varieties to determine the effect of plant density on crop growth, yield and chemical concentrations. Since some of the auto-flower varieties are smaller and earlier maturing than many photoperiod-sensitive cultivars, data in these studies will help determine the tradeoff between higher densities needed to increase yields versus increases in the cost of higher seeding rates.

A key concern for growers is producing a crop with economic levels of CBD or other compounds of commercial interest, while staying within regulatory limits for THC (tetrahydrocannabinol), the psychoactive compound found in marijuana, a related plant. According to CDFA, an industrial hemp crop grown in the state may have no more

than 0.3% THC when plant samples are analyzed.

es in Portland and Front Range Biosciences in Salinas.

“This is a challenge for growers. You don’t want to risk too high a THC level,” Hutmacher said. “Farmers must test to make sure THC is at a level to meet regulations. If it’s too high, CDFA regulations would require the crop be destroyed.”

“There are a lot of challenges when it comes to estimating maturity with these varieties,” Putnam said. “Each variety will mature at different times, and deciding when is the best time is a key decision. We’re still learning about this issue”

The studies provide opportunities for the scientists to assess plant-to-plant variation and impacts of flower bud position on THC and CBD concentrations. The data collected across a range of cultivars differing in plant growth habit may help better inform both researchers and regulatory groups in decisions regarding how to monitor plant chemical composition.

In 2021, in variety trials also coordinated by OSU’s Global Hemp Initiative Center, data will be collected from studies at up to 12 locations ranging from Oregon, Washington and California in the West to New York, Vermont and Kentucky in the eastern U.S. to compare varieties grown for CBD and other essential oils.

Hutmacher and Putnam are also working with commercial companies to test lines in the field, including Arcadia Biosciences in Davis, Phylos Bioscienc-

June/July 2021

“Our participation in these multi-site trials is important in efforts to identify across very diverse environments and

Continued on Page 28

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Another study is using data from 2019 and 2020 to help determine the tradeoff between higher densities needed to increase yields versus increases in the cost of higher seeding rates.

Continued from Page 27 latitudes the plant response in terms of attained levels of CBD and THC,” Hutmacher said.

Launch of Hemp Fertilizer Project in 2021

As a new crop in California, little is known about crop nitrogen needs and application optimization to prevent environmental problems related to overuse. In 2021, a team of UC Davis researchers are launching a three-year nitrogen management trial supported by the CDFA Fertilizer Research Education Program (FREP). An important part of the project is THC and CBD analysis, a costly enterprise.

Three companies are providing seeds or clones for the project: Cultivaris Hemp

“Our participation in these multi-site trials is important in efforts to identify across very diverse environments and latitudes the plant response in terms of attained levels of CBD and THC.”

—Bob Hutmacher, UCCE

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of Encinitas, Kayagene of Salinas and Phylos Biosciences of Portland. Alkemist Labs of Garden Grove is donating services for analyzing crop samples.

“These are incredibly valuable donations to assist with this project, certainly in excess of $50,000 in donated materials and services from each of those companies,” Hutmacher said. The

collaboration with the donors makes the development of environmentally sound nitrogen optimization information for growers possible together with the money provided by CDFA-FREP for the trials.

Comments about this article? We want to hear from you. Feel free to email us at article@jcsmarketinginc.com

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COPPER REQUIREMENTS FOR ORGANIC GROWING

By NEAL KINSEY | Kinsey Ag Services

In winegrapes, keeping copper levels above 2 ppm will prevent losses from skins splitting at the stem of each grape (all photos courtesy N. Kinsey.)

E

very organically farmed soil requires adequate copper to produce the most nutritious food from organically grown plants. Consequently, each soil sample received for analysis and recommendations to be used for organic production should be tested for copper availability. Considering soils analyzed from thousands of growers in over 75 countries and all continents except Antarctica, the great majority of them are deficient in copper. In fact, on almost half of the soils that are tested, the copper content could be doubled and they would still be deficient in copper. And many are found to be far worse than that.

So, if copper levels are that bad and the crops are still growing, why worry about trying to build up copper levels in organic production? What does copper do for the soil and the crops and how does that translate to beneficial results for livestock, people in general and organic growers in particular?

And while keeping all the points above in mind, how much copper should be considered as adequate on a soil test?

There are many useful indicators of copper deficiency in growing organic 30

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crops. This article will point out some of those as good reasons to consider testing for copper when soils have not been sufficiently analyzed to correctly determine whether copper is adequate or not. Especially note that the reported desired level can vary greatly depending on the testing procedures used and how those tests are expressed in terms of numbers on each soil test.

Copper is necessary to grow stronger and more resilient plants. And along with adequate boron, copper is needed to naturally ward off rust and fungus diseases. For nutrition, sufficient copper is needed for the proper conversion of protein in livestock. And as needed in the same way for people, nutrient dense food will not be continually assured until copper deficiency in the soil is correctly eliminated. Furthermore, combined with adequate boron it helps the body fight against all types of inflammation.

Plants need copper, combined with enough potassium and manganese, to build strong stalks. Copper also provides more resilience so stalks and limbs can bend and straighten back up instead of breaking. For green snap in

corn or broken limbs on windy days in newly planted tree crops, correcting the copper level in the soil is a vital part of putting an end to such problems.

Copper Deficiency

Tomatoes are a good indicator crop regarding whether a soil test is measuring the minimum amount of copper needed by each soil. When tomatoes have cracks near the stem, this indicates they are not able to acquire enough copper.

Specifically based on the laboratory analysis still being used that was developed by Dr. William A. Albrecht in the mid-1900s, when the soil analysis shows 2 ppm, the copper level is sufficient to solve this problem. This is also the minimum amount any soil should have based on Dr. Albrecht’s work. That required amount may be represented as a quite different number on soil tests done by other soil laboratories.

But even when nutrient-available copper is sufficiently supplied to the soil, tomatoes can still have a copper deficiency as indicated by splits around the stem. That is because just making sure enough copper in an available

Continued on Page 32

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2021

Don't miss out on our Virtual Event Continued from Page 30 form is there is not all that is required.

Soils that do not contain at least 60% base saturation of calcium (which can even include soils with a high pH) can still cause plants to be deficient in copper as well as any other of the needed nutrient under such conditions. This is one reason why so much “research” done on copper and other micronutrients conclude that adding them is not necessary.

Another similar example of copper deficiency is when gray spots can be seen on boiled potatoes as the peeling is being removed. Some believe that this problem is due to a calcium deficiency, and if calcium is too low in the soil and there is sufficient copper there, then adding the needed calcium will solve the problem. But if copper is barely sufficient or deficient where more calcium is added, it does not solve the problem until the true Albrecht test measures enough available copper, which is at least 2 ppm for potatoes grown in such soils.

Using this test, where the soil contains sufficient calcium and the copper level is barely above 2 ppm, potatoes from some areas may still have the gray spots while those from other parts of the field do not. Check the copper levels from both areas and notice the difference between sufficient (no gray spots in the potatoes) versus deficient (gray spots are still evident) levels of copper.

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only moderately below 2 ppm, just applying five pounds per acre of 26% pure copper sulfate the previous autumn can be expected to control rust in wheat, again considering that there must be sufficient calcium in the soil for the plants to take it in. When that is the case, experimental field applications show no rust right to the line if copper has been sufficiently applied on some portion of the field.

Just like lettuce mentioned above, not all types of plants are able to take up enough copper for resistance to rust and fungal disease when a soil analysis shows the soil is just above the minimum requirement of 2 ppm. Soybeans need close to 2.5 times that much along with adequate boron to ward off sudden death syndrome and Brazilian soybean rust. For the more perishable fruits, such as blackberries and raspberries, the copper levels in the soil should be between 12 to 15 ppm for maximum resistance to rust type diseases.

There are those who maintain that since copper sulfate is a powerful fungicide, it should not be used on the soil. Before making such a judgment, consider what tends to be the end result. In their book, Soil and the Microbe, Dr. Selman Waksman and Dr. Robert Starkey, both at the time being professor and assistant professor of soil microbiology at Rutgers University, studied the effects of soil sterilization on microbes. The bacteria recover quickly, but the fungi and protozoa are frequently almost all destroyed and require an “extended interval of time” to recover (pages 224225).

Some vegetable crops that are considered as most susceptible to copper deficiency include carrots and onions.

Lettuce also suffers when copper is too Initially, when copper sulfate is applied, low, but it can require much higher depending on how that is done, it can amounts to be successful in the control be a powerful fungicide. When liquiof troublesome rust and fungal diseases. fied and sprayed uniformly on plants and soils, copper sulfate can be highly Common Applications effective for that purpose. A safer form Wheat is a good example of how imof foliar copper for soil organisms is portant copper is and responds well copper chelate, which is not harmful to at the minimum level shown to be the fungi in the soil. required for any soil. When levels are 32

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June/July 2021

But even though highly effective as a foliar, chelates do not contain enough copper at such rates to correct any significant amount of measurable copper needed in the soil. However, to encourage and maximize beneficial organisms in the soil and allow the crops being grown there to properly fight off rust and fungal diseases, the needed copper level must be attained.

Therefore, the recommended form of material application for building copper in the soil is to use an available form of copper as part of a dry broadcast application. And the only form of copper that will work well enough to do this is pure copper sulfate.

Consider a dry blend of materials such as 10 pounds per acre of copper sulfate (2.3 pounds of actual copper per acre) blended with enough other fertilizers to be accurately spread over the soil, such as potassium sulfate. Though easily seen in the mix due to its bluegreen color, one can readily observe that, accordingly, there are very few of those particles in the mix. How much soil would each of those particles have to cover to adversely affect the fungi on a per acre basis? Even at three times the 10 pounds per acre rate mentioned above, when shown to be needed to reach necessary levels to provide for crops on organic farms, that does not happen.

Furthermore, copper sulfate becomes stabilized when added to the soil, thus losing its toxic properties. There are several implications that this happens rather quickly when copper sulfate is added to the soil. And once there is enough stabilized copper available as shown by a proper soil analysis, no more is needed until less than the minimum desired level shows up again on the soil test.

A number of clients who have applied the needed amount of copper sulfate to reach just above 2 ppm in the late 1970s still have a sufficient amount and have

One positive indication that soils and crops contain sufficient copper is the condition of livestock on the farm. Adequate copper is needed in the feed for conversion of protein in the animals. Animals have shiny hair coat with adequate copper in grass.

not had to apply any additional copper to fight rust and fungal diseases in wheat crops since that time. So, the use of copper sulfate is not a constant need.

Once enough is there to supply what each growing crop needs, it can be years if not decades before just a small amount for maintenance is required.

Although other micronutrients such as iron, manganese and zinc provide a pound for pound response in the soil when being supplied as sulfates, this is not the case even with a pure source of copper sulfate. Like iron and manganese, the measured response should not be expected until at least 12 months after being applied. But the difference is that the maximum available copper response will only be about 25% of the total pounds of elemental copper that is applied.

In other words, applying five pounds of 26% copper sulfate should only be expected to raise the soil’s available copper by a maximum of 0.3 ppm. The other 75% never suddenly becomes available, and its slow release over time is likely the reason copper levels remain so stable for years once they have been attained.

Moderate use of manure or compost, depending on the content of the material and the total copper content of the soil, can help build copper levels

when used over a span of several years.

For example, using four tons per acre of composted turkey manure (which is normally expected to contain the highest copper levels of all animal manures for building available copper in the soil) has proven to be sufficient to build copper levels above the minimum requirement of 2 ppm.

Thoroughly decomposed organic matter, measured and reported as the soil’s colloidal humus content, when present in moderate to good amounts of 4% to 5%, can help reduce the need for copper in growing crops. But it still requires just as much to diminish any significant need, and normally there is not enough in soil organic matter content, compost or manures to do so.

As measured by laboratory tests utilized by Dr. Albrecht, 5% to 7.5% colloidal humus is considered as most beneficial for growing crops. But in that regard, especially in the case of copper availability, more is not better. When the actual measurable soil humus is above 7.5% it is detrimental to copper availability and its uptake from the soil.

Once that level is exceeded, the use of foliar copper becomes extremely important to avoid problems from copper deficiency. Just be careful when relying on a tissue or plant analysis alone to show whether there is enough.

Tissue and Soil Analyses

Many growers or their consultants rely on leaf or tissue analyses to determine if crops are getting enough copper.

Such testing can be misleading. The first rule to consider in such cases is to use a plant test to treat the plants and use a soil test to treat the soil. Even then, the two should correlate to show if there is a problem. Just be aware that plant or leaf analysis will often indicate good levels when the soil and crop are still showing that is not the case.

As an example, consider a group of clients where testing showed their soil would benefit from the extra moisture provided from higher potassium levels for growing grapes without irrigation in an area that usually tended to be quite dry. They were warned that the soil test not only indicated a need for potassium, but most of those soils also had deficient copper. An additional caution was that if the soils received more than the normal rainfall, then this would result in larger grapes. Then, in those soils with deficient copper, the grapes would split at the stem.

Note that splits can also happen when there is adequate copper if calcium saturation levels in the soil are too low.

However, this was not the case in the high-calcium soils where these European vineyards were located.

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33

Continued from Page 33 The very first year this was done, that area received an inordinate amount of rainfall. In August, calls began coming in that many of the vineyards were suffering significant losses due to the skins splitting where they added the needed potassium. Even though all had acknowledged and agreed to apply any needed copper based on the soil tests, none of them had done it. But in each case, it was because they had to have a leaf blade analysis to prove they needed to apply copper. And in each case, the leaf blade analysis came back as sufficient.

Based on actual field results, the leaf analysis was wrong because the vineyards that had above the minimum recommended requirement of 2 ppm copper on the soil test had no problem with splits, but all those below that recommended minimum level were the grapes that suffered with great losses from the skins splitting at the stem of each grape. This happened even though the leaf blade analysis indicated good levels of copper in both grapes that did have the problem and those that did not.

How soon is copper taken up by the crop when added to the soil? A potato farm of 1,250 acres of land was sampled and found to be deficient in copper.

All but 365 acres also showed a need for calcium lime. But the lime was not applied due to the grower’s fear of it causing common potato scab.

All other recommended fertilizer was applied, including 10 pounds of 23% copper sulfate just before planting, except for 40 acres that did not receive any copper sulfate and another 40 that received only five pounds per acre.

Leaf samples were taken at bloom on all fields. A lack of copper was the greatest deficiency on the 40 acres where the rest of the fertilizer was applied, but no copper sulfate. The 40 acres that received five pounds of copper sulfate showed calcium as the most limiting factor and copper as next most limiting.

On all the rest of the fields which had 34

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received the recommended amount needed, copper was not shown to be a limiting factor at all.

Based on detailed soil testing, the copper content was shown to be just as deficient on all the other fields as on the one where no copper was applied.

Yet, when applied at planting, the copper was already getting into the plants at bloom. The sooner needed micronutrients are applied, the sooner the crops can benefit. Even copper, which is considered far less soluble than the other trace element products, is able to be taken up by plants when applied in the right form at planting time.

Excess N and Copper

Excessive applications of nitrogen can cause copper deficiencies in soils that show to have enough. The results are even worse when soils are already deficient in copper. Dr. Andre Voisin, in his book Fertilizer Application: Soil, Plant, Animal, points out how exceeding the needed amount of nitrogen has been shown to cause copper deficiencies in crops.

This is one of the greatest reasons for stalk lodging in wheat and corn. Until 2 ppm of copper is achieved in the soil, even normally needed amounts of nitrogen can cause lodging. But once that level is achieved and the soil also has sufficient calcium, potassium and manganese, the problem with lodging can be overcome unless excessive amounts of nitrogen (generally 50% or greater than the yields being made requires) is being applied.

Excessive use of phosphate can also cause a copper deficiency in crops. Normally, this is only found where continued use of phosphate-containing materials is occurring and P levels there are extremely excessive. This is, at times, a problem when exorbitant amounts of compost and manure are being applied by those who feel you cannot apply too much of such materials.

One positive indication that soils and crops contain sufficient copper is the condition of livestock on the farm. Adequate copper is needed in the feed for

conversion of protein in the animals.

Adequate conversion of protein shows up quickly in the hair coat. A slick, shiny hair coat in livestock on pasture is a good indicator of at least the minimum requirement of copper in the soils producing the crops being used for feed. Once the minimum level of 2 ppm copper in the soil is reached, this type of result can be seen. Note that due to the extra time required to perform the analysis and the higher cost of the extractants used for the method of analysis, the recommended 2 ppm level for copper in the soil based on the Albrecht-type testing used here will usually be much different on those soil tests performed by other laboratories.

Adequate Micronutrients Are a Must

True nutrient-dense food production will never be achieved without adequate copper, and most soils tested, even for certified organic growers, do not even meet the very minimum level of copper needed to provide for the crops and solve the disease problems such deficiencies can cause from not enough being present in the soil.

To build the most fertile and productive soils without sacrificing top quality from the disregard of natural laws of nutrient uptake requires an understandable program for all growers in order to educate and consider the longterm outcome and expected results.

Using micro-nutrients properly will not be achieved just by adopting a supposedly simple yet deceptive plan for better looking crops and higher yields.

Resources

The Soil and the Microbe: An Introduction to the Study of the Microscopic Population of the Soil and its Role in Soil Processes and Plant Growth by Robert Lyman Starkey and Selman A. Waksman. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1931.

Fertilizer Application: Soil, Plant, Animal by Andre Voisin, published by Crosby Lockwood. 1965.

Comments about this article? We want to hear from you. Feel free to email us at article@jcsmarketinginc.com

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35

CARBON CREDITS IN ORGANIC FARMING

DON’T IGNORE THE POSSIBILITIES OF CARBON PROGRAMS TO IMPROVE LAND

By J.W. LEMONS | CCA, CPAg.

There is a great amount of research regarding the benefits of organic matter or soil carbon in improving soil quality and the sustainability of balanced agriculture productivity.

O

ver the past century, CO2 levels have risen significantly. There is considerable debate about the reasons (whether it’s a natural cycle or the result of increased CO2 emissions due to human activities,) but a general agreement is that human activity accounts for part of the increase, especially in view of the continuing increase of CO2 levels following the on-set of the industrial age.

There is a great amount of research regarding the benefits of organic matter or soil carbon in improving soil quality and the sustainability of balanced agriculture productivity. Less research has been done to quantify and measure the benefits of using the soil as a carbon bank. The consensus on the benefits of organic matter or soil carbon is far from being agreed upon. Climate mitigation projects in the agriculture sector, particularly those focused on storing carbon in soils, are increasingly being tied to carbon markets. But the impact of these initiatives is highly questionable.

Carbon Credits and Marketplaces

There are numerous sources of information on carbon credits. Some still call it hype while others posture it as an environmental must to combat rising temperatures associated with global warming. Some scientists are still on the fence while others still work on either side of the fence. Much of the farm and agriculture industry still asks the basic questions: What is carbon credit? Is it important? Can I accomplish the needed changes on my farm? Is there a return on investment (ROI) for expenses incurred? How do I get

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started? Who can I trust to advise me? Can I sell the credits, where, who buys them, and what are they worth? What approaches are there for entering a carbon marketplace?

Carefully consider all marketplaces and the terms and conditions of participating. There are typically two approaches for farmers entering carbon markets: using an aggregator or a data manager.

Aggregator Farmer sells entire project, control and credits to the aggregator in terms and conditions set up in a contract. The aggregator then has complete control over carbon credits, when to sell, price and data shared.

Data Manager Farmer pays a data manager to help them enter the marketplace for a fee or revenue percentage. The farmer has not sold real interests in the projects or carbon credits. How much will the farmer actually get seems like an important question.

Some companies may have a price floor.

Available information on company websites appears to have wide ranges of compensation per metric ton of CO2-eq. The farmer may have to pay the fees or the company may keep a portion of the payment or percentage of carbon credits to cover the fees, so the actual amount the farmer gets is typically less than the price listed.

We're back in 2021 for the As a crop consultant, I am not going to judge any one system of operation regarding carbon. I have decided not to discuss the details and lengthy technical sides to carbon sequestration or climate mitigation as some refer to it.

Many articles and papers have been done on the history of the agriculture carbon credit programs. These were started on a large scale back in 2006 and by 2010 suffered massive failures.

Some states, including California, started to renew these efforts with programs such as The Cap and Trade Program.

Much of the effort in agriculture focused on the dairy industry.

Use Caution, Educate Yourself

Rather than comparing the ‘what to

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do’ and ‘what not to do’ examples, I will share my humble opinion with you. Please use caution. Opinion on soil’s potential to sequester carbon has mixed reviews and scientific consensus.

There are those who believe soil carbon is the future of the planet’s climate mitigation. Others say the numbers are too little too late. As is often the case, the truth likely lies somewhere in between.

As a consultant/conservationist, I believe soil carbon in agriculture to be a much-needed tool and at least a partial solution to sustainable agriculture.

Educate yourself and seek trained experts in carbon sequestration. I would personally get comparisons from multiple sources. I would also discuss your plans with your local NRCS. I worked

June/July 2021

for that organization for a decade in my early career. Since the 1950s, they have been consulting on sustainable farm practices, or regenerative farming if that is what you want to call it. Back then, it did not carry the same titles. It was simply considered conservation farm acres and involved rebuilding the soil health by increasing the organic matter, erosion control, setting aside acres and planting grasses on them to let marginal land rest and recuperate.

Fallowing fields coupled with reduced tillage and no till, grassed waterways and wind brakes, cover crops, crop rotation, irrigation water efficiency and improved grazing management on

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Don’t ignore the possibilities carbon programs offer to improve your land, but use caution and seek out help and viable information (photo by Danita Cahill.)

Continued from Page 37 rangelands were all encouraged. Private forest management with selective harvest and dual cropping, such as properly grazing forest land while continuing to let the land be covered by trees, and replanting forested areas, creating buffer strips and riparian restoration along stream banks, are both practices developed to protect and enhance the land.

More Work is Needed

Adding another layer to the transition to carbon sequestration involves the type of farming being done. Many have asked if organic farming has a fit in the new wave of potential income generation on a farm. I don’t need to tell organic farmers why they grow organic.

We know these certified farms adhere to a way of farming to build natural soil health. They strive to reduce or eliminate synthetic inputs with organically certified inputs.

Organic farmers try to increase the organic and biological matter in their soil. Since soil is one of the biggest sinks, or storage units, for carbon, this alone makes it important. Some studies claim that organic farming does not improve soil health over conventional farming. A new study from Northeast38

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ern University and nonprofit research organization The Organic Center (TOC), though, has reached a different conclusion: Soils from organic farms had 26% more potential for long-term carbon storage than soils from conventional farms, along with 13% more soil organic matter. Having consulted on organic farms and personally looked at soil samples and the soil itself, I have to report I have seen a notable change.

I know I am not sending out a message of blanket hope for the carbon program for organic farmers, but I do believe there is merit here. It just shows that there is still not enough collaborating information available to make a huge leap. Credible, reliable information is the key.

Another key point agreed upon by most writers on this topic is it will take incentive funding to get enough acres involved to make any major impact.

We need technical assistance from multiple levels, from implementation of long-term plans to conclusive and quantitative data through monitoring and measurement. We need a more uniform direction so the various aggregators and data management organizations are on the same playing field. It is

a complicated process, and those who would tell you different are not taking into account all the variables.

Do I as a Certified Crop Consultant and Certified Professional Agronomist think carbon programs are a good idea for organic farmers? The answer is yes.

We need healthier soils and reduced inputs where possible. We need sustainable farm practices to ensure food production for years to come. We have an obligation to be better stewards of the land.

Regenerative agriculture is not a whim but a necessity. We need to reduce CO2 emissions, and using plants and farm soils to do this makes environmental sense. As I said previously, don’t ignore the possibilities this offers to improve your land. Simply use caution, seek out help and viable information. Make an educated decision based on science, economics, lifestyle and your capabilities on your farm to achieve your goal.

The internet is full of reading, and if you ask many of your consulting firms, independents and suppliers, they can guide you to additional information.

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39

GROWING VEGETABLES YEAR-ROUND UNDER COVER

EVEN PULL FARM KEEPING DISEASES AND INSECT PESTS UNDER CONTROL

Vegetable seedlings nearly ready to transplant (all photos

by D. Cahill.)

By DANITA CAHILL | Contributing Writer

E

arly spring found Beth Satterwhite and Erik Grimstad growing radishes and carrots in a caterpillar tunnel and other vegetable crops in high tunnels. The husband-and-wife team are in their seventh year of operating Even Pull Farm, which is located on two acres of rented ground in McMinnville, Ore. The couple grow cut flowers and many different varieties of vegetables.

Controlling Disease Under Cover

“We do get some disease pressure in the tunnels,” Satterwhite said. “We manage it with rotation.”

Jeff Timpone, garden manager of Wepler Farms in Brownsville, Ore., also uses rotation as a disease prevention strategy.

“We are pretty fortunate,” Timpone said. “We don’t have too many issues growing under cloth or plastic. Some downy mildew, but it usually isn’t too severe. But when we do have issues, we will burn the bed with a propane torch before we till it in. Constant crop rotation definitely helps, too. Most spots in our garden get turned over four to five times a year. It just depends on what was planted there. For some longer crops like tomatoes, it’s less, but those will be planted somewhere else the following year.”

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Wepler Farms has been in operation As for vegetables, there are plenty of since the 1980s. They grow baby vegethose, too. tables and salad greens which they send weekly by airplane to high-end restau- “We grow all of the vegetables, from rants all over the country. arugula to zucchini,” Beth said.

Insect Pests

Satterwhite and Grimstad had spider mite issues last year in their cucumbers and eggplants. They have recurring problems with other insects, too.

“Flea beetles and aphids are always around,” Satterwhite said.

Timpone also has problems with flea beetles. “We’re dealing with flea beetles now,” he said. “We seal the beds up under cloth to combat them. Then if we have a big hatch out, we will often burn the bed to get as many as we can.”

Aphids aren’t too much of an issue at Wepler Farms, Timpone said. “We are generally pretty lucky with aphids, which is fortunate because they are tricky.”

Most of Even Pull Farm cut flowers are field-grown outdoors. The more than 50 types of flowers, and over 150 cultivars, are grown on just under 0.25 acres.

Some of the veggies are heirloom varieties. Some are just plain weird.

Kosaitai is one of the oddballs.

“It’s a new-to-us sprouting green. I love these kinds of greens; full of flavor, fast cooking and beautiful,” Satterwhite said. “Non-standard veggies are really where it’s at. Radishes are cool, bell peppers are fine, red round tomatoes from a local farm do taste pretty amazing, spinach is good. But the weirdos, unique varieties, things you’ve never heard of and the ‘ugly’ veggies really have my heart.”

Satterwhite and Grimstad, along with a crew of four employees, grow crops 50 weeks out of the year. They love growing delicious, healthy things to eat, and although a labor of love, as all farmers know, it’s also labor-intensive work.

The couple have plans to cut back their total weeks of vegetable production somewhat, “So we can get some rest,” Satterwhite said.

Continued on Page 42

The professionals’ top choice coast to coast for all root and foliar applications.

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Rows of carrots and radishes sprouting in a tunnel.

Continued from Page 40

Evolving Business Model

Bok choy and cut flowers were just harvested from this tunnel.

Correction:

In a 2020 Almond Conference recording titled “Organic Almonds: Why and How from a Grower’s Perspective”, Wes Sperry of Sperry Farms spoke about specific products and tools he has used to manage pests in his organic almond orchard. A direct quote, which was published in the February/March 2021 edition of Organic Farmer, attempted to reference what Sperry said but did not reflect his words accurately.

The quote should have read, “Pest management has been one of the larger concerns we’ve had here on the organic farm. We’ve had pretty good success I think for our first year. With only one year under our belt, it’s hard to really know what the future is going to hold. The first year, we used a number of different organic-labeled fungal sprays, bloom sprays. It all seemed to do really well for us. On the NOW side, we went with a product from Semios, their mating disruption. We had extreme success in that range.

After harvest, we had worm damage results that were on par with or below even our conventional. We also did put in some hull split sprays along with the mating disruption from Semios, but we really felt that was a strong point of our pest management program.”

For a link to the full updated article, go to Organicfarmermag.com.

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Satterwhite and Grimstad’s business model has changed and evolved since they first began. For the first few years, they did Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) gardening.

“But we only had about 30 subscribers,” Satterwhite said. “It wasn’t sustainable.”

They also had constant interruptions from subscribers and others stopping by the farm to hang out, look around and chat. It’s not that Satterwhite and Grimstad minded the visitors, per se, but the constant need to stop and answer questions and give tours took up too many precious daylight hours. After some consideration, they took the farm address off their website.

Since abandoning the CSA business model, Satterwhite and Grimstad now grow for local restaurants, all within 25 miles of their farm. They make delivery runs three days a week to provide fresh ingredients for the Yamhill Valley chefs to use in their dishes.

Even Pull Farm also sells vegetables and cut flowers at the seasonal farmers market in downtown McMinnville. They host pop-up events for special holidays such as Thanksgiving – think squashes and other fall veggies – and Mother’s Day with offerings of spring flower bouquets. Satterwhite keeps an email list to notify customers of upcoming pop-up events.

She also sells “market shares,” which is basically a prepaid credit card with a built-in discount. Customers can purchase the card before the farmers market starts each spring, thus giving some extra supply money to the farm during the slower winter months.

Even Pull Farm maintains their own cooler at Mac Market in downtown McMinnville. They are soon expanding to two coolers, which they will stock twice a week with whatever vegetables are in season. They also provide mixed bouquets

of flowers at Mac Market. Located inside a renovated historical warehouse that was once a shoe-grease factory, Mac Market is a “collaborative and community-driven eating, drinking and gathering place.”

Online Presence

COVID-19 forced many farmers to pivot to remain relevant and in business. Satterwhite stayed active online to reach out to customers and those interested in how their food is grown. Even Pull Farm, with a double oxen yoke as a logo, has an informative, colorful website. Satterwhite also keeps up with active social media accounts, using her farm’s Instagram account almost like a blog.

Overwintered garlic is mulched with straw.

Keeping It Upbeat Online “We spent Earth Day planting and cultivating all of the things before the rain, among the birdsong and sunshine and strong, chilly spring winds. The best thing about farming is working outside. All year long, no matter the weather, we get to see and experience it all.

We are grateful every day for this amazing planet, for the plants, the soil, the sunshine and rain. The generosity of it all is overwhelming and beautiful,” Satterwhite said on Instagram.

Remembering to Say ‘Thank You’ “You can also, as always, find our veggies on the menu at many fine eateries around our county,” Satterwhite said. “Thank you, chefs, we love you all. There’s a lot of good future in all of our futures!

Thanks for your support, each and every one of you out there—you make it all possible!”

Keeping It Local On April 18, Satterwhite wrote, “It is verrrrrry weird for it to be in the 80s when there are barely leaves on the trees. And the river already looks alarmingly low because of like three days of irrigation in the county... BUT, the summer babies in the prop house finally don’t look like death which means they will get to graduate to the tunnels this week! Yay!”

Even Pull Farm irrigates with drip tape inside the tunnels. They irrigate outdoor crops overhead.

On April 29, Satterwhite wrote, “Got my second dose of vaccine this morning, planted summer crops all afternoon, and ended the day by making these pretties [with a photo of flower bouquets]. I really missed making bouquets in 2020. With everything falling apart in so many ways last season, I didn’t have the bandwidth to maintain the flower block or to do anything with the blooms we had beyond making bunches. We kept a few key crops going, but didn’t have the ingredients for making mixed bouquets, which meant that I didn’t have this creative outlet, which I didn’t fully know I needed until it was gone. Longest way ever to say that bouquets are BACK. And we’re happy about it.”

Satterwhite ends each online post with several hash tags. Here is a sampling of some she has used: #flowersforthepeople #grownwithlove #climatechangeisreal #trysomethingnew #somanytastythings #expandyourplate.

Comments about this article? We want to hear from you. Feel free to email us at article@jcsmarketinginc.com

Beth Satterwhite and her farm dog, Maddie.

June/July 2021

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