Progressive Crop Consultant - September/October 2018

September/October 2018 Entomopathogenic Fungi as Key Players in Crop Protection and Production Optimizing On Farm Inputs: Strategies to Reduce the Off-farm Movement of Environmental Contaminants Detection and Confirmation of Fusarium Wilt Pathogens: Challenges, Errors, and Limitations Managing Band Canker of Almond

OCTOBER 26, 2018 See page 25 for details

PUBLICATION

Volume 3 : Issue 5 Photo courtesy of Jeff Mitchell.

September/October 2018

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PUBLISHER: Jason Scott Email: jason@jcsmarketinginc.com EDITOR: Kathy Coatney ASSOCIATE EDITOR: Cecilia Parsons Email: article@jcsmarketinginc.com PRODUCTION: design@jcsmarketinginc.com Phone: 559.352.4456 Fax: 559.472.3113 Web: www.progressivecrop.com

IN THIS ISSUE 4

Entomopathogenic Fungi as Key Players in Crop Protection and Production

CONTRIBUTING WRITERS & INDUSTRY SUPPORT David Haviland University of California Cooperative Extension, Kern County Franz Niederholzer UCCE Tree Crop Advisor, Colusa and Sutter/Yuba Counties Sarah Light UCCE Agronomy Advisor, Sutter/Yuba and Colusa Counties Steven T. Koike Director, TriCal Diagnostics

Surendra K. Dara CE Advisor—Entomology and Biologicals, University of California Cooperative Extension, San Luis Obispo and Santa Barbara Counties

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Themis J. Michailides Plant Pathologist, University of California, Davis, Kearny Agricultural Research and Extension Center, Parlier, CA

Optimizing On Farm Inputs: Strategies to Reduce the Off-farm Movement of Environmental Contaminants

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Detection and Confirmation of Fusarium Wilt Pathogens: Challenges, Errors, and Limitations

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Managing Band Canker of Almond

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Layering Management Options for Vine Mealybug in Grapes

UC Cooperative Extension Advisory Board Kevin Day

Steven Koike

David Doll

Emily J. Symmes

Dr. Brent Holtz

Kris Tollerup

County Director and UCCE Pomology Farm Advisor, Tulare/Kings County UCCE Farm Advisor, Merced County County Director and UCCE Pomology Farm Advisor, San Joaquin County

UCCE Plant Pathology Farm Advisor, Monterey & Santa Cruz Counties UCCE IPM Advisor, Sacramento Valley UCCE Integrated Pest Management Advisor, Parlier, CA

The articles, research, industry updates, company profiles, and advertisements in this publication are the professional opinions of writers and advertisers. Progressive Crop Consultant does not assume any responsibility for the opinions given in the publication.

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UPCOMING EVENTS: Assembly Bill 589 Training Classes

Water diversion: monitoring and reporting training October 22, 2018 | Modesto/Stockton Area October 23, 2018 | Bakersfield October 24, 2018 | King City

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Registration for the workshop is open about 4-5 weeks before the actual date of workshop. For more information, visit www.ucanr.edu/sites/AB589

September/October 2018

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ENT OM

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GENIC O H T A P

FUNGI as Key Players in Crop Protection and Production

By: Surendra K. Dara CE Advisor—Entomology and Biologicals, University of California Cooperative Extension, San Luis Obispo and Santa Barbara Counties

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ntomopathogenic fungi (EPF) have been studied for decades and used for pest management in various cropping systems. Several commercial formulations of the fungi Beauveria bassiana, B. brongniartii, Hirsutella thompsonii, Isaria fumosorosea, Lecanicillium lecanii, L. lognisporum, Metarhizium anisopliae, M. brunneum, and Paecilomyces lilacinus are available around the world to control mites, insect pests from different orders, and plant parasitic nematodes. Formulations of B. bassiana, I. fumosorosea, and M. brunneum are popular in the United States for controlling pests in greenhouses, nurseries, and crop fields. While the role of EPF in arthropod pest management is well known, recent research is exploring their interaction with plants and plant pathogens expanding our understanding of these soilborne beneficial fungi in roles other than pest management. This article provides an overview of various functions EPF perform in crop protection as well as production.

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All photos courtesy of Surendra Dara.

Entomopathogenic: EPF are pathogenic to a variety of arthropod pests. Unlike bacterial and viral entomopathogens, which need to be ingested by the host and hence are usually limited to pests with chewing mouthparts, EPF cause infections by contact and can attack a broad range of pests. They can be used for controlling root, foliar, and fruit pests; soil and above ground pests; boring, tunneling, sucking, rasping, and chewing pests; and pests in a variety of crop environments. There are some naturally occurring fungi, which cause epizootics in mites, flies, and aphids when environmental conditions are ideal and pest densities are high. However, these fungi are not easy to mass-produce or formulate into a biopesticide. In general, EPF cause infection when the fungal spores come in contact with a host. With the help of mechanical pressure and enzymatic activity, spores gain entry into the

September/October 2018

host body where the fungus multiplies and infects host tissues, eventually kills the host, emerges from the cadaver and produces spores.

Several studies showed the efficacy of EPF alone and in combination or rotation with other control options.

For example, sublethal doses of imidacloprid synergized B. bassiana and M. anisopliae in controlling the diaprepes root weevil in soil (Quintela and McCoy, 1998). Similarly, a sublethal dose of imidacloprid improved forage ant control with B. bassiana (Santos et al., 2007). It should be noted that these were laboratory studies and sublethal doses are not recommended for field use. However, another study demonstrated that neonicotinoid compounds acetamiprid, imidacloprid, and thiamethoxam are compatible at field application rates with B. bassiana, M. anisopliae, and Paecilomyces sp. and some (especially thiamethoxam) have improved fungal growth, conidial production and germination (Neves et al.,

2001). Studies conducted in California also found improvement in the efficacy of B. bassiana and M. brunneum when used with azadirachtin (Dara, 2015a and b). These studies demonstrated that EPF-based products can be used as an important part of integrated pest management (IPM) strategies to reduce chemical pesticide use, maintain pest control efficacy, and reduce the risk of pesticide resistance.

While the entomopathogenic function, similar to a contact pesticide, for EPF is exclusive, the remaining three functions are interrelated.

Endophytic Endophytic character refers to EPF penetrating and colonizing plant tissues.

EPF can colonize plant tissues when applied to foliage or soil. When pest insects feed on plants that are endophytically colonized by EPF, their survival, developmental rate, and fertility can be affected due to antibiosis or antixenosis caused by insect-toxic proteins such as beauvericin (in Beauveria spp., Isaria spp.), destruxins, anisoplin (in Metarhizium spp.), hirsutellin (Hirsutella spp.), and leucinostatins (Paecilomyces spp.). Antibiosis in this context refers to EPF imparting resistance in the plant to pests, by reducing their survival and fitness. Antixenosis refers to pests not preferring the plant due to the presence of EPF. The endophytic function of EPF can be somewhat comparable to the systemic activity of chemical pesticides and can be especially useful for controlling pests that mine or bore into plant tissues.

Endophytic B. bassiana controlled the tomato leafminer (Tuta absoluta) in tomato (Allegrucci et al., 2018), the horse-chestnut leafminer (Cameraria ohridella) in horse-chestnut (Barta, 2018), and the European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis) in corn (Bing and Lewis, 1991). Similarly endophytic M. anisopliae reduced the diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella) numbers in oilseed rape (Batta, 2013). Another recent study showed that endophytic B. bassiana from two commercial strains reduced the size of vine mealybug (Planococcus ficus) larvae and their infestations (Rondot and Reineke, 2018).

In a 2013 study, when greenhouse strawberry plants had an accidental infestation of twospotted spider mites, those growing in soil treated with M.

brunneum had 27 percent less damage compared to untreated plants 10 days after treatment and 14 percent less damage 14 days after (Dara and Dara, 2015).

Another greenhouse study conducted to evaluate the impact of endophytic B. bassiana on green peach aphids feeding on strawberry plants suggested a negative impact of endophytic fungus on aphids (Dara, 2016a).

Mycorrhiza-like: Since EPF are soilborne, they have evolved to form a relationship with plant roots and are known to be rhizosphere colonizers. Recent studies explored how they colonize plant roots and establish a mutually beneficial relationship. While EPF have an environment to depend on while awaiting their arthropod hosts below or above ground, they can help the plants with improved nutrient and water absorption, root development, plant growth, health, and reduced plant stress. Rather than being randomly distributed in the soil, inhabiting rhizosphere can increase the chance of survival and finding a suitable insect host for EPF. Somewhat similar to the symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria, some EPF can also serve as a source of nitrogen for plants. Studies conducted with Metarrhizium spp., B. bassiana, and L. lecanii showed that the former two transferred nitrogen from insect hosts into the plants when they endophytically colonized through the root system (Behie and Bidochka, 2014). Endophytic M. robertsii promoted rapid root development and increased root hair density in haricot beans (Sasan and Bidochka, 2012). Additionally, M. anisopliae increased the isoflavonoid content and reduced the salt stress in soybean (Khan et al., 2012) while B. bassiana, I. fumosorosea, and M. brunneum improved plant growth and health in cabbage growing under simulated drought conditions (Dara et al., 2017a). EPF, especially B. bassiana, improved plant growth, health, nutrient absorption, root and shoot length, and biomass in cabbage. Such an improvement in plant growth and health by B. bassiana was also seen in strawberries grown in raised beds (Dara, 2013), but subsequent field studies with B. bassiana and other EPF were inconclusive (Dara, 2016a and b). These studies demonstrate the mycorrhiza-like relationship

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infesting Brassica napus plants. Crop Protec. 44: 128-134.

Barta, M. 2018. In planta bioassay on the effects of endophytic Beauveria strains against larvae of horse-chestnut leaf miner (Cameraria ohridella).

Biol. Control 121: 88-98.

Behie, S. W. and M. J. Bidochka. 2014. Ubiquity of insect-derived nitrogen transfer to plants by endophytic insec-pathogenic fungi: an additional branch of the soil nitrogen cycle. Appl. Environ.

Microbiol. 80: 1553-1560.

Bing, L. A. and L. C. Lewis. 1991. Suppression of Ostrinia nubilalis (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Pyraliade) by endophytic Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin. Environ. Entomol. 20: 1207-1211.

Dara, S. K. 2013. Entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana promotes strawberry plant growth and heatlh. eJournal Strawberries and Vegetables. http://ucanr.edu/blogs/blogcore/postdetail. cfm?postnum=11624 Dara, S. K. 2015a. Reporting the occurrence of rice root aphid and honeysuckle aphid and their management in organic celery. eJournal Strawberries and Vegetables. http://ucanr.edu/blogs/blogcore/ postdetail.cfm?postnum=18740 Dara, S. K. and S. R. Dara. 2015. Strawberry IPM study 2015: managing insect pests with chemical, botanical, microbial, and mechanical control options. eJournal Strawberries and Vegetables. http:// ucanr.edu/blogs/blogcore/postdetail.cfm?postnum=19641 Dara, S. K. 2015c. Soil application of the entomopathogenic fungus

Continued from Page 5 EPF form with plant roots or plants in maintaining its health and growth.

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TO EN

Disease control Antagonizing plant pathogens

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Progressive Crop Consultant

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Pest control Controlling multiple pests

Biostimulation Improving Soil health Aiding in nutrient and water holding and absorption

Allegrucci, N., M. S. Velazquez, M. L. Russo, E. Perez, and A. C. Scorsetti.

2018. Endophytic colonization of tomato by the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana: the use off different inoculation techniques and their effects on the tomato leafminer Tuta absoluta (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae). J. Plant Protec. Res. 57: 205-211.

Batta, Y. A. 2013. Efficacy of endophytic and applied Metarhizium anisopliae (Metch.) Sorokin (Ascomycota: Hypocreales) against larvae of Plutella xylostella L. (Yponomeutidae: Lepidoptera)

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References

Metarhizium brunneum protects strawberry plants from spider mite damage. eJournal Strawberries and Vegetables.

Dara, S. K. 2016a. Endophytic Beauveria bassiana negatively impacts green peach aphids on strawberries. eJournal Strawberries and Vegetables. http://ucanr.edu/blogs/blogcore/postdetail. cfm?postnum=21711 Dara, S. K. 2016b. First field study evaluating the impact of the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana on strawberry plant growth and yield. eJournal Strawberries and Vegetables. http:// ucanr.edu/blogs/blogcore/postdetail. cfm?postnum=22546 Dara, S. K. 2016c.

Impact of ento-

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Since EPF-based formulations are generally more expensive compared to certain chemical pesticides, their role in all facets of crop production and protection can offset their higher cost and encourage growers to use them instead of using multiple products or microbes for different purposes. The more we understand their potential the better we can use them for sustainable food production.

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Isaria fumosorosea-Bagrada bug

EI

Multiple studies showed EPF antagonizing plant pathogens or inducing systemic resistance to plant pathogens.

A laboratory study demonstrated that endophytic B. bassiana offers protection against Rhizoctonia solani and Pythium myriotylum in tomato and cotton seedlings (Ownley et al., 2008).

Beauveria bassiana hyphae were found coiling around P. myriotylum hyphae. In a recent greenhouse study, B. bassiana, I. fumosorosea, and M. brunneum antagonized Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. vasinfectum Race 4 in cotton seedlings and reduced the disease severity. In some instances, these EPF, especially B. bassiana, was more effective in disease control than the botanical or microbial fungicides used in this study (Dara et al., 2017b). Multiple species of Lecanicillium are known to be parasitic to plant pathogenic fungi and plant parasitic nematodes (Ownley et al., 2010).

The antagonistic effect of EPF on plant pathogens can be through antibiosis, competition for resources, mycoparasitism, or stimulating plants natural defenses.

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Disease Antagonizing:

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Promoting plant and root growth

Beauveria bassiana-Bagrada bug

Metarhizium brunneum-Bagrada bug

Beauveria bassiana-Lygus bug

Beauveria bassiana-GWSS

Metarhizium brunneum-GWSS

Paecilomyces sp.-Western harvester ant

Beauveria bassiana-Western harvester ant

Entomophthora sp.-Strawberry aphid

mopathogenic fungi and beneficial microbes on strawberry growth, health, and yield. eJournal Strawberries and Vegetables. http://ucanr.edu/blogs/blogcore/ postdetail.cfm?postnum=22709 Dara, S.K., S.S.R. Dara, and S. S. Dara. 2017a. Impact of entomopathogenic fungi on the growth, development, and health of cabbage growing under water stress.

Amer. J. Plant Sci. DOI: 10.4236/ajps.2017.86081.

Dara, S. K., S.S.R. Dara, S. S. Dara, and T. Anderson. 2017b. Fighting plant pathogenic fungi with entomopathogenic fungi and other biologicals. CAPCA Adviser 20 (1): 40-44.

Khan, A. L., M. Hamayun, S. A. Khan, S.-M. Kang, Z. K. Shinwari, M. Kamran, S. Rehman, J.-G. Kim, and I.-J. Lee. 2012. Pure culture of Metarhizium anisopliae LHL07 reprograms soybean to higher growth and mitigates salt stress. World J. Microbial Biotech. 28: 1483-1494.

Neves, P.M.O.J., E. Hirose, P.T. Tchujo, and A. Moino, Jr. 2001. Compatibility of entomopathogenic fungi with neonicotinoid insecticides. Neotrop. Entomol. 30.

DOI: 10.1590/S1519-566X2001000200009 Ownley, B. H., M. R. Griffin, W. E. Klingeman, K. D. Gwinn, J. K. Moulton, R. M. Pereira. 2008. Beauveria bassiana: endophytic colonization and plant disease control. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 98: 267-270.

Ownley, B. H., K. D. Gwinn, and F. E. Vega. 2010. Endophytic fungal entomopathogens with activity against plant pathogens: ecology and evolution. BioCon. 55:113-128.

Quintela E. D. and C. W. McCoy. 1998. Synergistic effect of imidacloprid and two entomopathogenic fungi on the behavior and survival of larvae of Diaprepes abbreviatus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in soil. J. Econ. Entomol. 91: 110-122.

Rondot, Y. and A. Reineke. 2018. Endophytic Beauveria bassiana in grapevine Vitis vinifera (L.) reduces infestation with piercing-sucking insects. Biol. Control 116: 82-89.

Santos, A. V., B. L. de Oliveira, R. I. Samuels. 2007. Selection of entomopathogenic fungi for use in combination with sub-lethal doses of imidacloprid: perspectives for the control of the leaf-cutting ant Atta sexdens rubropilosa Forel (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Mycopathologia 163: 233-240.

Sasan, R. K. and M. J. Bidochka. 2012. The insect-pathogenic fungus Metarhizium robertsii (Clavicipitaceae) is also an endophyte that stimulates plant root development. Amer. J. Bot. 99: 1010-107.

Comments about this article? We want to hear from you. Feel free to email us at article@jcsmarketinginc.com

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OPTIMIZING On Farm Inputs: Strategies to Reduce the Off-farm Movement of Environmental Contaminants

By: Sarah Light UCCE Agronomy Advisor, Sutter/Yuba and Colusa Counties and Franz Niederholzer UCCE Tree Crop Advisor, Colusa and Sutter/Yuba Counties

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he goal of applying fertilizer or pesticides is to increase crop yields and/or quality and to improve on farm economic returns. Pest control advisors (PCA) and Certified Crop Advisors (CCA) are tasked with helping growers optimize farm management to achieve high yields, maintain farm profitability, and meet the regulatory requirements designed to protect our natural resources. Ideally, everything applied on farms will stay on the farm because any loss to the environment reduces the efficiency of our system and wastes money. Additionally, off-farm losses of inputs can cause damage to ecosystems, other species, and in some cases, to our communities. Crop consultants deliver a valuable service to the growers they work with, and communities they live in, when they help growers and their employees limit off-farm losses of fertilizers and pesticides.

There are many different practices to limit these losses— some simple and some more complex; this article presents some approaches that we feel are good places to start.

Reducing Off-Farm Losses Agricultural products move off farms in a variety of ways.

During the application, spray drift can move out of the work site before the application is complete through droplet or vapor movement. After the application, farm inputs can be lost through adsorption and movement of soil (erosion) and plant pieces, dissolved in water (runoff and leaching), and in the form of vapor (volatization). It is challenging to ensure that 100 percent of farm inputs stay in the treated field. However, there are management strategies that can be implemented to reduce both the risk of off-farm movement of agricultural products, and the environmental contamination from products that do move off-farm.

Vigorous winter cover crops use soil nitrogen that otherwise might be lost to leaching. Winter rye cover crop being rolled ahead of incorporation and field prep for summer crop.

Photo courtesy of Jeff Mitchell.

Optimizing existing practices can reduce off-farm losses.

Timely monitoring and accurate diagnosis of in field issues can reduce unnecessary and/or ineffective sprays. Be especially careful when monitoring and recommending pest control or fertilizers in fields adjacent to sensitive sites such as streams, roads, and neighboring farms; or on soils with a high leaching risk. Calibrate and set up sprayers—especially

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Continued from Page 8 airblast sprayers—to ensure accurate delivery of the recommended pesticide rate, target the crop in the treated field, and avoid overspray, which can lead to drift. Dial in fertilizer practices to match crop nutrient demand with application, keeping in mind the 4Rs: right source, right rate, right time, and right place. Ensuring there are enough nutrients in the root zone during time of peak uptake is critical for maximum productivity while soil nutrients outside the root zone risk being lost off-farm.

Pesticide Usage There are pesticide use decisions that can reduce environmental risk as well.

When deciding on an application rate, whenever possible and practical, use the lowest effective rate for pest control, especially near field edges. Often, especially when good spray coverage is possible early in the growing season and drift risk is highest, control can be achieved at a lower rate than the maximum label rate. Applying at this lower rate reduces excess product in the environment (and can save money). Check University of California (UC) pesticide efficacy research results—often reported in commodity research reports—for effective control rates for many pests.

Walnut, prune, and stone fruit research results can be found at: http://fruitsandnuts.ucdavis.edu/Research_Databases/. The almond research database is available at: http://www.almonds.com/ growers/resources/research-database.

Reducing Surface Water Contamination Additionally, choosing lower-risk pesticides can reduce surface water contamination. There are soil properties and environmental factors that affect the

likelihood that a product will move offfarm. However, this risk is also driven by the physical and chemical properties of active ingredients. A few factors impact the risk of unintended loss including the product degradation rate, ability to adsorb to soil, and solubility in water. Pesticides also have different levels of toxicity to aquatic organisms.

Selecting a less toxic product will reduce the impact of products that do move off-farm. For detailed information on the runoff risk for many common pesticides, download a free copy of “Pesticide choice: BMPs for protecting surface water quality in agriculture” available at: http://anrcatalog.ucanr.edu/pdf/8161. pdf.

In addition to adjusting existing management practices, there are management strategies that can be implemented to reduce off-farm movement of agricultural products. Certain environmental contaminants (notably phosphorus and certain pesticides such as pyrethroids) adsorb tightly to soil and/or plant surfaces and only move off-farm—after application—with soil or plant debris. Bare soil is at higher risk of erosion than soil with plant cover.

Vegetation (like a planted cover crop or volunteer weeds) can reduce runoff volume, soil erosion, and nitrogen leaching across the field as compared to bare soil.

Although either may be effective for reducing off-farm losses, cover crops provide additional soil benefits while weeds may spread throughout the farm.

Vegetation maintains topsoil in the field in both annual and perennial systems because plant roots protect soil from movement by wind, rain, or irrigation water. In addition, plant canopies lessen the force of rain on soil surface, reducing soil sealing and maintaining soil structure that allows more rapid infiltration. Vegetative cover

Shutting off herbicide nozzles at the end of the row saves money and leaves vegetation between the orchard and the ditch to filter sediments and plant pieces holding pesticides and nutrients contained in winter runoff. Photo courtesy of Franz Niederholzer.

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can improve soil structure and increase water infiltration and soil water holding capacity. This increases the ability of soil to filter and detoxify certain products.

Microbes break up pesticides and the increase in soil organic matter by cover cropping increases biological activity.

The combination of increased infiltration of products into the root zone, and more rapid decomposition by microbes, leads to a reduction in off-farm movement of products. Additionally, nitrate leaching can be reduced by grass and brassica cover crops, which are deep rooted and absorb nitrate from deep in the soil profile. When cover crops are terminated (See Photo 1), nitrogen that has been taken up by the cover crop remains in the cover crop biomass (top of soil profile) and is available for subsequent mineralization and crop uptake.

Resources with more information about cover cropping in different cropping systems are available at: http://anrcatalog.ucanr.edu/Items.aspx?search=cover%20crops . Other soil building practices like reduced tillage and maintaining crop residue on fields will have some of these same benefits to soil.

VFS Vegetative filter strips, located on the edges of the property, can keep soil and plant debris (holding adsorbed pesticides and/or nutrients) from moving from the site into streams and creeks.

Vegetative filter strips (VFSs) are planted (or allowed to grow) at field edges and effectively intercept product runoff and trap sediment and plant debris as they move off-farm. VFSs work by intercepting and rediverting the overland flow of water into their root zone. When intercepted by the VFS, water will either infiltrate down into the soil, where pesticides can be broken down and nu-

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Set the stage for increased yields in 2019 Post-Harvest nutrient sprays help increase nut set and size Almond Trial Var. Independence Two Bees Ag Research – Escalon CA LB Nutmeat/Acre

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Soon after harvest while leaves are still in good condition is a great time to nutritionally impact next year’s almond crop. Foliar sprays of nutrient formulations like Sysstem Ready and Zinc +5 DL that are proven to penetrate summer-hardened leaves are excellent tools to replenish key nutrient levels in the tree ahead of winter to set the stage for higher yields in 2019.

Understanding nutrient drivers that effect nut set and size is a guide to effective post-harvest nutrient management. Nut set requires good pollination, a process influenced by boron and molybdenum. Top Set DL provides a balanced blend of boron and moly that is readily absorbed by tough plant tissue especially when tank mixed with Sysstem Ready. But achieving good set is just the first step in maximizing yield. Minimizing nut drop and maximizing nut size are what determine yield after set occurs.

Building large, functional, energy producing leaves are what is needed to carry and size a large crop. Phosphorus, zinc, iron, magnesium and manganese are all key nutrients needed to build the leaf factory necessary to support the crop and must be available early season at peak demand timing. Sysstem Ready, Zinc +5 DL, and AgroBest 0-20-26 are excellent tools for post-harvest delivery of these early demand nutrients to the buds so they are readily available when the tree breaks dormancy next spring and cool wet soils limit nutrient availability.

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Building good nutrient levels this year leads to stronger buds with less winter stress and better frost resistance. Trees that enter winter replenished nutritionally will be healthier and perform better next spring.

Bud break will be more uniform, flowering stronger and leaf growth faster. Attaining a larger healthier tree comprised of larger leaves with more photosynthetic capability is the key to growing bigger nuts. In addition, trees that are not nutritionally stressed experience less post bloom nut drop.

Maximizing yield starts with nut set and post bloom nut retention. Ensuring peak nutrient demand is met leads to increased yields through better set, nut retention and larger nut size. Agro-K’s post-harvest nutrient program utilizes proven products like Sysstem Ready, Zinc Plus +5 D.L., Top Set DL, and AgroBest 0-20-26 to ensure the tree has sufficient early season nutrients to support bloom and set as well as initial leaf and root development. By beginning to manage next year’s nutrient needs now at post-harvest you set the stage for better tree health, stronger set and size and higher yields while working to minimize alternate bearing issues.

Agro-K products are compatible with most pesticides. For more information, call 800-328- 2418, visit www.agro-k.com, or email info@agro-k.com. Your Agro-K distributor and PCA can provide guidance on all Agro-K products needed to increase your 2019 yields.

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Continued from Page 10 trients captured, or flow back up on the other side, after being filtered through the roots of plants in the VFS. As with cover crops, microbial activity is increased in the root zone of VFSs, which is what accelerates pesticide decomposition. VFSs can also trap as much as 75-100 percent of sediment that would otherwise leave the field. Additionally, there is a benefit to producers because VFSs also intercept water transported pathogens, which reduces the risk of

diseases spreading from farm to farm in a region.

Be strategic when planting VFSs. The goal is to intercept water flowing off of the field. For this reason, VFSs should be planted at field boundaries; along irrigation canals, ditches, and streams; on roadsides; or near other high-risk areas of the farm (animal facilities, pesticide sheds, etc.). If VFSs are planted on a steep (above 15 percent) slope or ditch bank, they will be ineffective because water will flow over them. The width

for Biological Controls , N .O . W., ia r a n r e lt A , se o n c Anthra and more .. .

required for an effective VFS varies depending on the location and should be wider on a sloped field. Generally, if the field is flat, a 10 to 15 foot strip is effective. In California, the most effective VFSs are drought-tolerant, tall, perennial grasses. During development, VFSs should be checked for erosion or flow channels. These are evidence that the VFS is not working effectively. In order to be most effective, VFS must managed to encourage robust plant growth. This might mean managing the VFS like we manage our crops including irrigating to ensure good stand establishment; controlling weeds; and limiting traffic. Ongoing maintenance is minimal although above ground biomass should be periodically harvested and removed to remove excess nutrient buildup.

Excess sediment should also be removed to ensure the VFS can effectively capture additional sediment. While there may be initial effort required for establishment, if implemented correctly, VFSs should be easy to plant and require minimal maintenance over time.

Specific information about implementing and maintaining VFSs is available as a free download at: http://anrcatalog. ucanr.edu/Details.aspx?itemNo=8195

Native Vegetation Another approach to VFSs is to allow native vegetation to grow along edges of field. By allowing natural fall germinating vegetation to grow along field edges, growers save money (time, labor, and fuel) and reduce off-farm movement of sediments and pesticides on soil and plant debris as well as dissolved nutrients. Something as simple as shutting off herbicide booms at the end of the tree row (see Photo 2) saves wasted herbicide and may reduce runoff from the field and erosion losses.

Although the short-term gains from some of these practices may not be immediately apparent, the long-term benefit from reduction in product costs and improved nutrient and water use efficiency can be realized in time.

Additionally, the benefit of protecting ecosystems and having clean air and water for our own communities is immeasurable.

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DETECTION & CONFIRMATION of Fusarium Wilt Pathogens:

Challenges, Errors, and Limitations By: Steven T. Koike | Director, TriCal Diagnostics Tom Gordon | Professor, University of California at Davis Introduction to Fusarium Wilt

F

usarium wilt diseases are well known problems that affect many crops and result in significant losses of yield and quality. In California’s central coast region, a number of Fusarium wilt diseases occur and affect crops such as celery, cilantro, lettuce, pepper, strawberry, and tomato (see Figure 1, column 3, above right for a list of some susceptible coastal crops).

Fusarium wilt of blackberry. Plants infected with a Fusarium wilt pathogen can exhibit various foliar symptoms such as yellowing, wilting, leaf drop, and drying up of foliage. On blackberry, Fusarium wilt can cause discoloration of the outer surfaces of stems.

Photo courtesy of Tom Gordon

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Fusarium wilt diseases share a basic profile: (1) The pathogen can survive in the soil for a relatively long time, up to several years, without the presence of a susceptible crop; (2) In the presence of a susceptible plant, the Fusarium fungus penetrates the root, colonizes root tissue, enters the plant’s vascular tissue (xylem), and moves systemically into the plant stems via these vascular tubes; (3) Disease symptoms develop primarily due to the plugging up of the plant vascular tissue; (4) Symptoms include stunting and poor growth, yellowing of foliage, wilting of foliage, collapse of the plant, distinctive brown to red discoloration of the vascular tissue in roots and stems, and eventual death of the plant; (5) Because these pathogens are soilborne, Fusarium is readily spread in contaminated soil and crop residues that adhere to equipment and vehicles; (6) Fusarium wilt management is achieved by a combination of rotating to non-host crops, practicing field sanitation (avoid moving contaminated dirt on equipment), planting resistant cultivars, and in some cases applying

September/October 2018

pre-plant fumigants (example: conventional strawberry).

Fusarium wilt diseases are caused by one species of this fungus, Fusarium oxysporum. Researchers have shown that Fusarium wilt pathogens from different crops are genetically distinct from each other. A major implication of this genetic diversity is that each Fusarium wilt pathogen has a very narrow host range and usually causes disease on only one type of crop. The Fusarium wilt pathogen affecting celery causes disease in celery but does not cause symptoms in other crops such as lettuce or strawberry; the F. oxysporum that causes strawberry decline and death does so only to strawberry but not to lettuce or tomato. To help clarify this host specific phenomenon, plant pathologists give each Fusarium oxysporum pathogen the additional designation of “forma specialis” (abbreviated “f. sp.”) to indicate the host of that particular pathogen. The F. oxysporum that causes disease in celery becomes F. oxysporum f. sp. apii. Fusarium wilt of lettuce is caused by F. oxysporum f. sp. lactucae. See Figure 1, column 3, above right for a list of such designations for coastal crops. Pathogenic F. oxysporum in some cases can be further differentiated into distinct sub-populations such as races or somatic compatibility groups (Figure 1, column 4, above right). These F. oxysporum pathogens persist in field soils for extended periods of time, thereby causing long-term concerns for a grower.

Figure 1. Diversity of Fusarium fungi in soil.

A factor that complicates Fusarium wilt diagnosis, however, is that the soil is home to a great diversity of Fusarium fungi. Agricultural soils are complex biological environments and may contain numerous Fusarium species, of which F. oxysporum is one of many (Figure 1, column 1, above). F. oxysporum fungi that are in agricultural soils can be either pathogenic or non-pathogenic to plants (Figure 1, column 2, above), which can create challenges regarding disease diagnostics and pathogen detection in soil. While non-pathogenic F. oxysporum strains do not cause disease symptoms in plants, these strains can still penetrate plant tissues and make their way into roots and other plant parts. Laboratory tests may detect these non-pathogenic F. oxysporum and report a false positive finding for Fusarium wilt. Likewise, soils that are tested for pathogenic F. oxysporum will likely also recover the non-pathogenic type of F. oxysporum, resulting in elevated counts and inaccurate test results.

Challenges and Errors in Confirming Fusarium Wilt Pathogens Because of the economic impacts of Fusarium wilt diseases, confirmation of the respective F. oxysporum pathogens (the forma specialis sub-groups, Figure 1, column 3, above) isolated from plant samples is important. In addition, for some crops such as strawberry and lettuce, disease management decisions may depend on quantification of the true F. oxysporum pathogens in soil samples—i.e., how much inoculum is in the soil. However, such plant and soil confirmations are not straightforward. The following statements outline some of the challenges and errors inherent in Fusarium identification and detection.

A. Identifying Fusarium fungi found in plant samples.

1. Because pathogenic F. oxysporum (forma specialis types), non-pathogenic F. oxysporum, and many other species of soilborne Fusarium can all enter plants via roots and damaged tissues and be recovered in lab culture tests, a

laboratory result that lists “Fusarium species” is not a sufficiently detailed or useful report. A lab report that presents a diagnosis of “Fusarium wilt” based on the recovery of a “Fusarium species” does not have sufficient evidence to justify this conclusion.

Continued on Page 16

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Continued from Page 15

2. Lab results for root tests can be especially ambiguous because many species of Fusarium, including non-pathogenic F. oxysporum and the primary F. oxysporum pathogens, can all invade and colonize roots. Isolations from xylem tissue in above-ground stems would reduce the likelihood of recovering non-pathogenic Fusarium fungi.

3. Most diagnostic labs cannot visually differentiate between colonies of pathogenic and non-pathogenic F. oxysporum recovered from plant samples. Some very experienced research labs can make this differentiation with a high degree of confidence (example: the Gordon program at University of California (UC) Davis can use Komada’s selective medium to visually differentiate between the pathogenic F. oxysporum f. sp. lactucae of lettuce from non-pathogenic F. oxysporum). Therefore, unless a lab has proven experience with such differentiation, visually identifying a Fusarium wilt pathogen from a culture plate generally is unreliable.

4. If a lab culture test recovers F. oxysporum from a plant’s

vascular tissue, care must be taken before concluding that the sample is positive for Fusarium wilt. While such a conclusion is possibly correct, additional tests (molecular analysis, host inoculation experiments) must be completed to be sure scientifically. If a F. oxysporum-like fungus is consistently recovered from symptomatic vascular tissue, a conservative conclusion might be to call the sample “presumptive positive” or “provisionally positive” for Fusarium wilt.

B. Identifying Fusarium fungi recovered from soil samples.

1. Tests that use non-selective culture media when attempt-

Fusarium wilt of celery (also known as Fusarium yellows). A characteristic symptom of Fusarium wilt diseases is the tan to brown discoloration of the internal vascular tissue.

Photo courtesy of Steven T. Koike

ing to quantify the amount of pathogenic (forma specialis types) F. oxysporum in soil samples will not provide any meaningful information. Pathogenic and non-pathogenic F. oxysporum as well as many other Fusarium species will all grow on such media and will be impossible to differentiate from each other.

2. When using semi-selective culture media (such as Komada’s selective medium), estimated counts of pathogenic F. oxysporum in soil samples may be of questionable accuracy because both pathogenic and non-pathogenic F. oxysporum can grow on this substrate. In general, it is difficult to differentiate between pathogenic and

Continued on Page 18

Fusarium wilt of strawberry. In advanced stages of the disease, Fusarium wilt can result in complete collapse and death of the plant.

Photo courtesy of Steven T. Koike

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September/October 2018

Fusarium wilt of celery (also known as Fusarium yellows). Most Fusarium wilt diseases result in stunting and decline of foliage (plants on right); healthy plant is on the left.

Photo courtesy of Steven T. Koike

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Continued from Page 16 non-pathogenic colonies in culture.

However, as indicated above, some very experienced research labs can make the distinction between these two groups.

3. On-going research may develop

more accurate and useful soil tests using molecular methods. Such assays potentially will be specific for the particular forma specialis of concern and may eliminate the ambiguity and confusion caused by non-pathogenic F. oxysporum fungi that are very common in agricultural soils.

Summary Positive identification and confirmation that a Fusarium isolate is truly a Fusarium wilt pathogen requires the involvement of a qualified lab that has the experience and tools necessary to make this determination. Lab test results that do not indicate which species was recovered provides little useful information to the submitter of the sample. If a lab confirms that F. oxys-

porum was recovered from symptomatic vascular tissue, a “presumptive” or “preliminary” statement could be made that the isolate is possibly a true wilt pathogen; however, to be rigorously correct, the isolate would need to be inoculated into a host plant so that pathogenicity can be confirmed. More specific tools under development may allow for conclusively identifying and quantifying this group of very important plant pathogens without recourse to time-consuming pathogenicity tests.

Comments about this article? We want to hear from you. Feel free to email us at article@jcsmarketinginc.com

Fusarium wilt of lettuce. Because the Fusarium wilt pathogen persists in the soil for long periods of time, continued movement of soil in a field can spread the fungus and result in extensive crop losses.

Photo courtesy of Steven T. Koike

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September/October 2018

Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. fragariae (red colonies) recovered and isolated from diseased strawberry; testing a healthy plant resulted in no recovered Fusarium (right side). Laboratory testing is required to confirm the presence of all Fusarium wilt pathogens.

Photo courtesy of Steven T. Koike

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Managing Band Canker

of Almond

By: Themis J. Michailides1 and Yong Luo1 (plant pathologists), Dani Lightle2 (farm advisor), Chris Taylor3 (farmer and pest control adviser), and Joseph Connell4 (emeritus farm advisor) 1 University of California, Davis, Kearney Agricultural Research and Extension Center, Parlier, CA 93648; 2UC Cooperative Extension, Butte, Glenn, and Tehama Counties, Orland, CA 95963; 3 Taylor Ranch, Artois, CA 95963; 4UC Cooperative Extension, Butte County, Oroville, CA 95965.

I

n the last decade or so, we have noticed a flare up of band canker disease on almonds. In fact, in the last four to five years the disease has been showing in first, second and third leaf orchards, uniformly distributed throughout the planting. The cankers of the disease develop in a unique way. Despite that most other fungal canker diseases develop vertically along branches and trunks, in this case the cankers develop horizontally like a band in the trunk of trees, thus the name band canker (Figure 1A, above right).

Background Band canker is not a new disease. It was described as a sporadic disease back in the 1960s. At the time, researchers reported that because the disease was very sporadic the damage to the almond industry was insignificant. Subsequently, more and more disease started showing up in northern San Joaquin and Sacramento Valley. And recently, more and more disease is occurring in very young orchards. In the early 2000s, orchards in Butte, Glenn, Stanislaus, San Joaquin, Fresno, and as far south as Kern County were reported with more band canker than earlier. An example of the damage is depicted in an orchard in Kern County where 1,700 trees were removed by the grower in a 40-acre orchard. Isolations from pieces of cankered bark consistently revealed the fungus Botryosphaeria dothidea.

Following this outbreak, the Almond Board of California (ABC) funded a grant to search for effective ways to manage this disease.

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September/October 2018

Cause(s) and diagnosis In the original description of the disease, early researchers described that both B. dothidea and a second fungus, Hendersonula toruloidea (which also belongs in the Botryosphaeriaceae) were isolated from tissues of cankers.

Pathogenicity was tested with B. dothidea and since then the cause of the disease has been attributed to this pathogen. However, by now using molecular techniques to analyze (fingerprinting) the DNA of these fungi, we discovered that we are dealing with at least eight distinct species which all belong in the Botryosphaeriaceae fungal family. Furthermore, when almonds were inoculated with the discovered fungal pathogens, three of the eight were significantly more aggressive than the others. The involvement of many species as causes of band canker suggests that this is a more complex disease than initially thought, imposing greater difficulties in managing it.

Symptoms of the disease include the weakening of the trees, a thinning canopy resulting from premature leaf loss, and the canopy becoming lightly chlorotic which contrasts well with the dark green canopy of healthy trees. After examination of the trunk of infected trees in the spring through the fall, one can see gum galls usually developing horizontally on the trunk like a band (typical symptom). By scraping away the bark underneath the

gum galls, there is dark bark usually associated with growth cracks (Figure 1B, right). Similar symptoms can also develop close to the base of major scaffolds. Over the years, we’ve noticed other locations for infection include, but are not limited to, lenticels of the bark, cracks at the base of branches created as wind moves the branches, pruning wounds (especially in young, two to three years old trees), and woodpecker holes. Usually abundant gum forms in the infection and/or the area surrounding the canker. If the infection extends into the wood, the branch above the infection dies. Band canker can also kill entire trees, especially if the trees are two to four years old. Discolored sapwood often extends longitudinally several centimeters beyond the canker margin. Under humid conditions, tiny, white spore tendrils (cirrhi) can

Continued on Page 22

Figure 1A. Band canker. Figure courtesy of Themis Michailides.

Figure 1B. Growth cracks that help initiate band canker. Figure courtesy of Greg Browne.

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Continued from Page 21 be seen oozing from pycnidia immersed in the outer bark. Pycnidia of the fungus are formed in groups in a black fungal matrix and are associated with old lenticel areas of the bark, protruding through old lenticel cracks. In addition to pycnidia which produce water-splashed spores, Botryosphaeria develops fruiting structures (pseudothecia) in cankered tissues that produce spores that become airborne. Therefore the band canker pathogens can move around easily with splashed water (within the orchard spread) and airborne spores (from outside sources and from orchard to orchard).

Year 1

Year 2

Efforts to manage the disease In general, to develop effective management of diseases, it is essential to gain knowledge on the pathogens causing the disease, the pathogen’s inoculum source(s), the type of infection they cause, when infection takes place, and what conditions favor disease development.

In essence, the disease cycle in the orchard needs to be clearly understood.

Figure 2. Serial innoculation of wounded almond.

Figure courtesy of Themis Michailides.

Infection and epidemiology Serial inoculations with Botryosphaeria of potted trees showed that if conditions are favorable for infection, infections can occur throughout the year. However, infections from March to May developed the most severe symptoms (larger cankers), which is an indication that infections in the spring will be the most damaging (Figure 2, right).

Therefore, trees need to be protected from infections in the spring.

Although details on the specific conditions that favor the disease development have not been defined yet, we observed higher incidence and more severe band cankers in orchards where the trunk of young trees got wet from micro-sprinklers or impact sprinklers than in orchards where the trunk of trees was not wetted. In a replicated study in a Nonpareil/Padre block where band canker was severe and sprinklers wetted the tree trunk, we installed stream splitters in sprinklers of replicated blocks of trees and left others with intact without any stream splitters. This change alone reduced the size of the developing cankers, but not the incidence of cankers, three months after installing the splitters. When the disease was evaluated in October of the second year of the experiment, we not only had a reduction in the size of the cankers, as observed in year one, but there was also an almost 50 percent reduction in the disease incidence, which means that keeping the trunks dry reduced infections (Figure 3, right). This is the first experimental evidence that by keeping the trunk of trees dry disease is reduced significantly.

Figure 3. Effect of splitters in sprinklers on band canker of almond. Keeping the trunk dry reduced infection and slowed down the growth of existing band cankers.

Figure courtesy of Themis Michailides.

Figure 4. Spread of band canker from the source of pathogen’s inoculum. Figure courtesy of Themis Michailides.

Once band canker symptoms have developed, it is not possible to either cure the infection or slow down the development of the cankers.

We tried several ways to manage the disease: i) injecting effective fungicides, ii) spraying the trunk with fungicides at label rate, or iii) wrapping the cankers with a gauze impregnated with a concentrated solution of fungicides. Nothing really was effective in curing the trees from these cankers or slowing down the canker development.

Therefore curing infected trees with apparent band cankers symptoms will not work and cannot be an approach to manage this disease.

New developments We know now that disease inoculum can come from neighboring infected orchards, riparian trees and bushes next to or close by the orchard, or from within the orchard (water spread and airborne spores from infected trees or stumps left in the orchard after the removal of 22 Progressive Crop Consultant

September/October 2018

Figure 5. Young almond orchard with gaps due to Botryosphaeria canker. Figure courtesy of Danielle Lightle.

Figure 6. Botryosphaeria Canker.

Figure courtesy of Chris Taylor.

infected trees). Initial reports stated the infections were never associated with pruning wounds or lenticels. However, pruning wound infection has become a common avenue for infection of young almond trees now, and lenticel infections were found to be common in orchards where disease is in high levels.

In early studies, we showed that there was a pattern of spread of the disease from the inoculum source as shown in (Figure 4, left), with more disease and more dead trees close to the source of inoculum than away from the source, but now there are several new observations:

a. The disease appears in very young

orchards (second to third leaf) even when there is no obvious source of inoculum nearby;

b. The pattern of the disease is uniform throughout the orchard (Figure 5, left) with no indication of spread from a source of inoculum;

c. Cankers do not develop the typical

band on the trunk; instead cankers are irregular and develop at any point on the trunk (Figure 6, above).

The uniform appearance pattern of Continued on Page 24

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Continued from Page 23 disease in the orchard, and the atypical “no band” shape of the canker in the trunk suggested perhaps that the infections of these trees occurred at a very early age during the time the trees were produced and/or as soon as they were planted in the field. It is well known that the species of Botryosphaeriaceae cause latent infections.

If we show that the DNA of the Botryosphaeriaceae fungi we detect with the molecular approach belongs to species as those causing band canker, then measures should be taken as soon as the trees are planted in the field.

A latent infection is defined as a parasitic relationship between pathogen and plant that eventually induces disease symptoms. We now have evidence that these latent infections occur in symptomless tissues of young almonds obtained from 1st-, 2nd-, and 3rdleaf orchards, and current year’s growth shoots from nursery trees (Figure 7A & B, right). This latest finding implies that new management approaches should be investigated by focusing on protecting the young symptomless trees by never allowing their trunks to become wet from irrigation. We are also evaluating the efficacy of protective, fungicide trunk sprays during the 1st-, 2nd-, and 3rd-leaf of the orchard. When efficacy of such sprays is determined, it may be required that the sprayers are modified to accommodate good coverage of not only the canopy, but also of the trunk.

Conclusions 1. Once symptoms of band canker appear, the disease cannot be controlled.

Figure 7A. Incidence of latent infection of young symptomless almond shoots using the quantitative qPCR technique. Figure courtesy of Themis Michailides.

2. To slow down the disease development and to stop trees from new infections, the trunk needs to be kept dry.

3. We are currently evaluating sprays that may help keep this disease at bay.

Acknowledgments The research reported here was funded by the Almond Board of California (Modesto, CA).

Comments about this article? We want to hear from you.

Feel free to email us at article@jcsmarketinginc.com 24 Progressive Crop Consultant

September/October 2018

Figure 7B. Incidence of latent infection by Botryosphaeriaceae fungi and Cytospora in 1-year-old, symptomless almond shoots obtained from two nurseries.

Figure courtesy of Themis Michailides.

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25

LAYERING MANAGEMENT OPTIONS

for Vine Mealybug in Grapes By: David Haviland | University of California Cooperative Extension, Kern County

M

anagement of vine mealybug in grape vineyards is a tricky business. Control options have to be done early in the season, almost preventatively at times, to make sure that mealybugs do not enter clusters or spread viruses. There are also large discrepancies among vineyards regarding the amount of control needed, particularly among vineyards used for table, wine and raisin grapes. This means that pest control advisors and vineyard managers need to be aware of all options available for mealybug control, with their pros and cons, to develop layered approaches that make sense locally. These approaches combine biological with chemical controls, including mating disruption.

Biological control Biological control’s greatest impact on vine mealybug is typically achieved by the parasitoid Anagyrus pseudocci.

This tiny wasp stings and parasitizes mealybug nymphs. Presence of the parasitoid is easiest to detect by looking for round, bloated mealybugs (also known as mummies) under the bark.

Mummies with a round hole in one end confirm that the mealybug was parasitized and a parasitoid emerged.

Some vineyard managers, especially those growing organic grapes, augment parasitoid populations by making releases in the spring. Other vineyard 26 Progressive Crop Consultant

managers focus on the conservation of parasitoids that are present. This is done by avoiding or minimizing in-season use of broad spectrum insecticides such as pyrethroids (mostly used to keep spiders out of table grape clusters), spinosyns (mostly for flower thrips at bloom), and some foliar applications of neonicotinoids.

disrupt biological control. However, due to environmental concerns many wineries do not allow its use, and growers who use it must first obtain a recommendation from a licensed pest control advisor, satisfy all label restrictions, and submit a notice of intent (NOI) to the county agricultural commissioner’s office.

Insecticides

Insect Growth Regulators

There are several insecticides that can be used against vine mealybug. The most common insecticides are applied prior to budbreak (chlorpyrifos) or during an eight-week period from mid-April to mid-June (most other products).

Additionally, mating disruption can be employed for portions of or for the entire growing season. Below is a description of the key insecticides with their key pros and cons.

Buprofezin (Applaud) is an insect growth regulator that inhibits the ability of mealybugs to molt. It is highly effective against small mealybugs in the crawler and second instar stages, but has minimal effect on larger stages.

For this reason it is usually applied prior to bloom if monitoring indicates a relatively synchronized emergence of crawlers. Despite its long history of being an effective reduced-risk insecticide for vine mealybug, growers who export to the European Union should consult with their packers or winery prior to applying buprofezin.

This is due to recent reductions in the residues allowed for fruit and wine imported into the European Union (E.U.)

Organophosphates Chlorpyrifos (Lorsban) is a broad-spectrum, restricted-use organophosphate insecticide that is labeled for use prior to budbreak. It is typically applied in large water volumes to drench the dormant trunk and cordons. In research trials applications prior to budbreak typically provide 50 percent reduction in mealybug infestation in the clusters at harvest.

Chlorpyrifos is also the only insecticide for mealybugs that controls ants that

September/October 2018

Lipid Biosynthesis Inhibitors Spirotetramat (Movento) is a systemic insecticide that can be applied to grape foliage from late April through

Continued on Page 28

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Continued from Page 26 June. After application the active ingredient absorbs into the leaf and moves within the phloem and xylem to where mealybugs feed. Once ingested, spirotetramat limits the ability of mealybugs to store energy.

This causes mealybugs to die within days (small crawlers) or several weeks (large nymphs and adults). Research has shown that spirotetramat can be applied as soon as there is a good canopy to absorb the active ingredient (late April in the lower San Joaquin Valley) through June as long as there is at least eight weeks between the application date and harvest to give the product time to work. Post-harvest applications of spirotetramat have also shown to cause significant reductions in mealybug density the following spring.

Neonicotinoids—Soil-applied Imidacloprid (Admire) is the least expensive and most widely used of the systemic neonicotinoids. It is most effective on mealybugs when applied during periods of root flush, which for grapes occurs around bloom.

Imidacloprid is typically used at a top-of-label rate and is effective on mealybugs in vineyards planted to sandy soils. In heavier soils the active ingredient is known to bind to soil particles and has poor uptake into the plant. When applying imidacloprid and other neonicotinoids through a drip system it is important to consider soil hydration levels and soil type to determine the amount of pre-irrigation and post-irrigation that are required to move the active ingredient into the ideal location for uptake by the roots.

Continued on Page 30

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Continued from Page 28 Clothianidin (Belay), thiamethoxam (Platinum) and dinotefuran (Venom) are also systemic neonicotinoids that can be applied to the soil in grapes. On sandy soils, soil-applied clothianidin has similar efficacy to imidacloprid, but is more expensive. Therefore, it is used more commonly as a foliar spray (see below).

On heavier soils where imidacloprid is not highly effective, thiamethoxam and dinotefuran are used more commonly through the drip system. They also have the added benefit of helping to manage leafhoppers and sharpshooters.

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Neonicotinoids—Foliar-applied Clothianidin (Belay) and acetamiprid (Assail) are the most effective neonicotinoids for foliar applications. They are typically used within the last few weeks before harvest in cases where existing management programs have not provided sufficient control. In these scenarios clothianidin and acetamiprid can help prevent crawler mealybugs from moving into the clusters for about one week. This level of control is not very high, which is why management programs should focus on managing mealybugs earlier in the season. However, when emergencies occur, one or more foliar neonicotinoid applications can have major benefits in averting a disaster. Prior to using foliar neonicotinoids, or any other pesticide close to harvest, be sure to discuss the application with the packinghouse or winery to ensure compliance with maximum residue limits (MRLs) within intended export markets for the fruit.

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Mating disruption Mating disruption is a relatively new technique that has the potential to improve integrated pest management programs for vine mealybug. Mating disruption works by inundating the vineyard with artificially-produced vine mealybug pheromone. This inhibits the ability of males to find females and mate. If females do not mate they are unable to produce offspring. Additionally, delays in mating can result in decreased offspring.

CIDETRAK® DA MEC™ contains a novel, patented kairomone in a microencapsulated liquid formulation that influences the behavior of adult and larval Codling Moth,resulting in significant enhancement of the control of Codling Moth larvae when tank mixed with various insecticides.

Additionally, Codling Moth adult control is significantly enhanced when mixed indirectly with airborne Codling Moth pheromone applied as a mating disruption treatment. CIDETRAK® DA MEC™ added to your insecticide program is the “Gold Standard” for controlling Codling Moth for either conventional or organic apple or pear program. And in walnuts, controlling even minor populations of Codling Moth with DA MEC™, provides dramatic improvement in the control of Navel Orangeworm!

• What it does: Disrupts oviposition. Changes larval behavior: Stops/delays locating fruit; stops/delays fruit entry and reduces damage.

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30 Progressive Crop Consultant

September/October 2018

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Checkmate VMB-F (sprayable pheromone) a new method of applying pheromone to disrupt mating of vine mealybug became available in 2016. This new product is called CheckMate VMB-F. This new formulation contains pheromone that

Continued on Page 32

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Continued from Page 30 has been microencapsulated into millions of tiny bubbles within a liquid. The product is poured into a standard spray tank with water and applied to the vines.

This results in millions of tiny capsules on the leaves that slowly release pheromone into the vineyard.

Research in 2016 and 2017 showed that an application of CheckMate VMB-F at a rate of 5 g a.i./acre can inhibit the ability of male vine mealybugs to find pheromone traps for approximately 30 days. This time period is similar to the length of one generation of vine mealybug during summer months in the Central Valley. When multiple applications are made at monthly intervals, trials showed reductions in male captures of 93 to 95 percent from June through the end of October (Figure 1, right). At one research site, plots treated aggressively with insecticides plus mating disruption every 30 days had no mealybug-infested clusters compared to 0.08 percent infested clusters in plots receiving only the insecticides (Figure 2, right). At a second research site plots treated aggressively with insecticides plus mating disruption every 30 days had 0.58 and 0.67 percent infested clusters compared to 1.20 percent in clusters in plots receiving only the insecticides. At a third site there were significant reductions in male mealybug captures in traps, but no mealybugs in the clusters at harvest in any plots.

CheckMate VMB-XL (dispenser-based pheromone) This was the first mating disruption product registered for vine mealybug in California approximately seven years ago. With this system, pheromone is released from dispensers that are hung in the orchard at a rate of 250 per acre. Dispensers are hung in the spring and last for approximately 90 to 120 days. This dispenserbased pheromone system is not as effective as repeated applications of sprayable pheromone. However, dispensers have the benefit of only needing to be applied once in most parts of California, and are approved for use on organic grapes where mealybug control options are limited.

Integrating tools Every vineyard is unique and for that reason vine

Continued on Page 34 32 Progressive Crop Consultant

September/October 2018

Figure 1. The impacts of mating disruption on male moth captures after application of CheckMate VMB-F at 30-day intervals. Arrows indicate dates of application. Kern County, 2017.

Figure 2. The impacts of mating disruption on the percentage of clusters with presence of mealybugs after application of CheckMate VMB-F at 30-day or 45-day intervals compared to a no-mating disruption check.

Kern County, 2017.

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Continued from Page 32 mealybug management programs should be site-specific. For example, in table grapes one well-timed insecticide application may provide adequate season-long control of vine mealybug in low-pressure vineyards harvested in late June or early July. At the other end of the spectrum, heavily-infested table grapes harvested in late October may require four or more insecticide sprays in combination with mating disruption if the goal is to have mealybug-free clusters at harvest. A typical spray program for mid-season table grapes harvested in August might include chlorpyrifos prior to budbreak, buprofezin in late April when crawlers emerge, soil-applied imidacloprid during root flush at bloom, and spirotetramat in June, with or without the use of mating disruption. Similar or scaled-back versions of these programs may be employed by wine and raisin

34 Progressive Crop Consultant

growers depending on economics, tolerance for mealybugs in clusters at harvest, and prevalence of mealybugvectored diseases in the region.

Due to the complexity involved in vine mealybug management, grape growers should employ a well-qualified pest control advisor that is aware of the management tools that are available, and has experience knowing how to stack these tools on a site-by-site basis.

More information on how to manage vine mealybug and other grape pests can be found at the University of California Statewide IPM Program’s web site at http://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/ selectnewpest.grapes.html.

Acknowledgements: Research described in this article was funded by table grape growers through the Consolidated

September/October 2018

Central Valley Table Grape Pest and Disease Control District.

Disclaimer: Discussion of research findings necessitates using trade names.

This does not constitute product endorsement, nor does it suggest products not listed would not be suitable for use. Some research results included involve use of chemicals which are currently registered for use, or may involve use which would be considered out of label. These results are reported but are not a recommendation from the University of California for use. Consult the label and use it as the basis of all recommendations.

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