West Coast Nut - January 2022

WEST COAST NUT

JANUARY 2022 ISSUE

Your

Connection to the Tree Nut Industry

SPOTLIGHT ARTICLE:

PECAN CROP FORECAST SEE PAGE 52

IN THIS ISSUE:

PISTACHIO NITROGEN RESEARCH

SEE PAGE 6

SCALE PESTS IN WALNUTS SEE PAGE 68

APRIL, 2022

SOIL HEALTH: DERIVING BENEFITS FROM THE GROUND UP SEE PAGE 16

See page 69

APRIL, 2022

JUNE, 2022

See page 69

PECAN

DAY

See page 69

PUBLICATION

Photo by American Pecan Council

Publisher: Jason Scott Email: jason@jcsmarketinginc.com Editor: Marni Katz Email: marni@jcsmarketinginc.com Associate Editor: Cecilia Parsons Email: cecilia@jcsmarketinginc.com Production: design@jcsmarketinginc.com Tel: 559.352.4456 Fax: 559.472.3113 Web: www.wcngg.com

Contributing Writers & Industry Support American Pecan Council Contributing Writer

Mitch Lies Contributing Writer

Vicky Boyd Contributing Writer

Krista Marshall Ph.D. Candidate, UC Davis

Danita Cahill Contributing Writer

Catherine Merlo Contributing Writer

Kathy Coatney Contributing Writer

Michelle Rodriguez Safety Specialist, Western Agricultural Processors Association

Elizabeth J. Fichtner UCCE Farm Advisor, Tulare County Roger A. Isom President/CEO, Western Agricultural Processors Association

Emily J. Symmes Ph.D., Senior Manager of Technical Field Services, Suterra

Julie R. Johnson Contributing Writer

By the Industry, For the Industry

IN THIS ISSUE 6

Losses

12 16 22

Mite Pressure Up in Walnuts Soil Health: Deriving Benefits from the Ground Up Sensing Technology Advances to Improve Irrigation Management

26 30 34 38 42 48

Rich Kreps CCA, SSp., Contributing Writer

Nitrogen Research Aims to Maximize Pistachio Yields, Reduce

Winter Chilling of Pistachio Interview with Don Barton, President of GoldRiver Orchards The Future of Groundwater Management Cal/OSHA’s Nighttime Lighting Requirements For Ag are Final; Are You in Compliance?

Weed Control in Nut Orchards The Almond Conference Highlights Opportunities and Challenges for Industry

52

Pecan Growth During the 2020-21 Year and Projections for 2021-22

Steven Koike Tri-Cal Diagnostics

54

Jhalendra Rijal UCCE Integrated Pest Management Advisor, Stanislaus County

Boosting the Elements: Manipulate Inputs to Maximize Carbon and Hold Water

58

Kris Tollerup UCCE Integrated Pest Management Advisor, Parlier

Hazelnut Propagation: A Closer Look at Growing Hazelnuts from Cuttings

62

Batting Clean-Up: Rover Robot Taps Artificial Intelligence to Target, Remove Mummy Nuts

68 78

To Treat or Not to Treat: Scale Pests in Walnuts

UC Cooperative Extension Advisory Board Surendra K. Dara UCCE Entomology and Biologicals Advisor, San Luis Obispo and Santa Barbara Counties Kevin Day County Director/UCCE Pomology Farm Advisor, Tulare/Kings Counties Elizabeth Fichtner UCCE Farm Advisor, Tulare County Katherine Jarvis-Shean UCCE Area Orchard Systems Advisor, Yolo and Solano

Mohammad Yaghmour UCCE Area Orchard Systems Advisor, Kern County

View our ePublication on the web at www.wcngg.com

The articles, research, industry updates, company profiles, and advertisements in this publication are the professional opinions of writers and advertisers.

West Coast Nut does not assume any responsibility for the opinions given in the publication.

Keep the Pressure on Navel Orangeworm with IPM and Mating Disruption

SPOTLIGHT ARTICLE: Pecan Crop Forecast American Pecan Council writes about pecan growth during the 2020-21 crop year and projections for 2021-22.

See page 52

January 2022

www.wcngg.com

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Nitrogen Research Aims to Maximize Pistachio Yields, Reduce Losses

By CECILIA PARSONS | Associate Editor

I

n his first year as a UCCE soils and pomology advisor in Tulare County, Doug Amaral is deep into research on a timely issue in pistachio production.

Given the importance of nitrogen in pistachio production, the Irrigated Lands Regulatory Plan to prevent leaching of this nutrient into groundwater, and the possibility of shortages and higher prices for nitrogen fertilizer, Amaral’s California Pistachio Research Board funded study can help growers best determine exact nutrient needs in their orchards.

Amaral’s three-year study that began in 2021, “Assessing Nitrogen Uptake to Develop Best Management Practices and Early Leaf Sampling Protocols for Pistachio Varieties Golden Hills and Lost Hills,” will give growers a tool to match nitrogen applications with demand by these cultivars. The

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The nitrogen cycle: a balancing act with the goal of applying adequate N to supply tree demand for growth and fruit production, and to avoid nitrogen losses to the environment (adapted from ABC N-BMP 2020 guidance.)

study also will include demand curves for nitrogen and other essential nutrients in pistachio production. Amaral said he is also evaluating the salinity effect on nutrient use by pistachio trees. As part of the research project, he is validating a sampling methodology for growers to help improve accuracy in determining nutrient levels in their orchards.

Amaral noted that when early nitrogen use efficiency studies were done in almonds, the range was 50% to 55%.

Improved management practices have since raised efficiency to 80%.

Nitrogen fertilizer, which continues to rise in price, is essential to high crop yields. However, the UC San Joaquin Valley Trees and Vines newsletter reports that less than half of applied N is used by the crop, with the rest lost to runoff, leaching, denitrification and volatilization.

Look at Demand for Tree Growth

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West Coast Nut

January 2022

Reducing the cost of this expensive input while maximizing yields and minimizing losses below the root zone or into the air requires careful matching of tree demand with application. Growers need to look at demand for tree growth and nut production. Amaral said an understanding of tree nitrogen demand and how it can be lost will assist in the decision-making process.

Continued on Page 8

Maximizing Nut Set & Size Under Dry Conditions

The Record-breaking drought and heat seen across California in 2021 is forecasted to continue into 2022. With drier springs comes reduced disease pressure to almond blooms and nutlets. This often means that fungicide applications at pink bud and bloom can be decreased or eliminated. While it can be tempting to leave the sprayer in the barn, almond growers’ nut set, size and yield depend on earlyseason foliar nutrition.

Growers that want to achieve maximum economic yield, however, would be wise to reallocate their fungicide dollars to where they can get the best return. The value of a good nutritional program cannot be overstated. In fact, well designed nutrient programs are even more essential in a dry year. Without moisture from rain, pollen and flowers desiccate rapidly. Desiccation reduces pollen’s viability shortening the bloom receptivity window which reduces nut set and yield. Starving the developing flowers and nutlets of essential nutrients intensifies the reduction.

The right nutrients applied during the pink bud and bloom window can make all the difference. Vigor-Cal-Bor-Moly, a sugar complexed calcium foliar combined with boron and molybdenum, is an excellent fit for pink bud and bloom time sprays to improve nut set and quality.

With a shorter bloom window, supplemental boron ensures successful germination and pollen tube development—also known as nut set.

Molybdenum, a key component of nitrogen metabolizing enzymes and others, facilitates stress responses, vascular development, and growth. Symspray, Agro-K’s seaweed product, when applied during pink bud and bloom can reduce the effects of environmental stress on the flowers, extending bloom and increasing pollen receptivity even when it is dry.

By adding AgroBest 9-24-3 to the tank with Vigor-Cal-Bor-Moly during cell division, calcium and phosphate work together to promote larger and heavier nuts. AgroBest 9-24-3 is a high phosphate/low potassium blend that delivers the phosphate energy the tree needs to maximize nut cell division, nut size and nut retention. AgroBest 9-24-3 is the most cost-effective liquid phosphate available. It delivers more phosphate per dollar at peak demand timing and is specifically designed with minimal potassium content for early season foliar applications that won’t waste dollars or antagonize calcium during nut and leaf cell division.

Ultimately, almond growers that leave their sprayers in the barn will produce smaller, lighter nuts and lower yields. Reducing the number of dry-season fungicide sprays leaves more money in the budget for a science-driven foliar nutrition program. Reallocating some of these funds for applications that drive higher yields and increase nut size is a smart way to ensure the biggest benefits from less-than-ideal environmental conditions. After all, growers still need to maximize their economic yield, as their costs and expenses continue to go up, not down.

While foliar nutrition is essential during the pink bud and bloom window to maximize economic yield, it is very important throughout the season. A dry year requires almond growers to think critically about the key nutrients they apply at each growth stage to produce more nuts with less water. Implementing a Science-Driven™ nutrient approach this year will deliver more pounds of nuts per unit of water resulting in higher economic returns per acre for you.

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May

25%

Adjust according to leaf analysis and updated yield estimate

June

25%

Adjust according to updated yield estimate

Table 1. Nitrogen application timing.

July

Comments Greatest period of crop demand When

% of 37.5% Annual N Demand

Date

Apply when leaves have just emerged was healthy and N application

April

12.5%

May

25%

Adjust according to leaf analysis and updated yield estimate

June

25%

Adjust according to updated yield estimate

July

37.5%

Greatest period of crop demand

ost-harvest application should only occur if trees are

too low.

*Post-harvest application should only occur if trees are healthy and N application was too low.

Table 2. Nitrogen Concentrations in Summer Leaf Samples.

CritCritical Value (CV) 1.8%

Suggested Range 2.2 to 2.5%

Table 2. Nitrogen Concentrations in Summer Leaf Samples.

Critical Values (CV) are minimum concentrations for adequate tree growth Crit C ritical Valuealso (CV)refers to Suggested Range for optimal and yield. Suggested Range the concentration 1.8% 2.2 to 2.5% growth. **Growth and yield is not improved with July tissue levels above Critical Values (CV) are minimum concentrations for adequate tree growth 2.5%.

early nitrogen use efficiency studies were done in almonds, the range was 50% to 55%. Improved management practices have since raised efficiency to 80%.

’

and yield. Suggested Range also refers to the concentration for optimal growth. **Growth and yield is not improved with July tissue levels above 2.5%.

Continued from Page 6

A series of trials done from 2008 to 2011 set out to understand the pattern and rate of nitrogen uptake by pista-

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January 2022

chio trees from the soil. In high-yielding Kerman orchards, it was estimated that for every 1,000 pounds of pistachio fruits (hulls, shells and kernels), 28 pounds of nitrogen were removed from the orchard.

Golden Hills, Lost Hills N Use

With plantings of Golden Hills and Lost Hills pistachio trees now making up the bulk of new orchards in California, Amaral is seeking to help growers be more efficient with nitrogen applications in these cultivars while validating earlier nitrogen use efficiency studies in Kerman done by UC Davis’ Patrick H. Brown.

“Bob Klein with the Pistachio Research Board suggested that the same nitrogen use studies be done in Golden Hills and Lost Hills since this approach has not been validated for the new pistachio cultivars, and the validation of this methodology will support growers with a reliable fertilizer management decision tool to apply the right rate of fertilizer at the right time to optimize productivity and avoid environmental losses,” Amaral said.

The nitrogen efficiency trial is being conducted in high-yielding mature orchards in the San Joaquin Valley.

Each cultivar is being monitored for nutrient content and yield changes to address yield variability and the possibility that nitrogen removal rates from an orchard will vary by site, yield or blank percentage.

Amaral said each orchard is being monitored six times over a year, with leaves, fruit, branches and root samples taken to assess nutrient levels. In addition to nitrogen, levels of other essential micro and macronutrients will be noted.

To achieve maximum efficiency in nitrogen applications in a pistachio orchard, Amaral said that timing and rate are critical. Splitting applications over the growing season

ment. The fertilization program should not only replace nutrients removed at harvest, but also supply nutrients for annual growth.

Amaral noted that different environmental conditions in pistachio growing regions would influence fertilization decisions.

Spring Leaf Sampling

Following the sampling protocol guidelines is important to get around the challenges of leaf sampling canopy variability (A). Each sampled tree must be at least 25 to 30 yards apart (B) and only sub-terminal leaves from non-fruiting branches should be collected (C) (courtesy D. Amaral.)

will not only prevent leaching below the root zone, but more of the N will be taken up by the tree, reducing costs. Although Amaral said that data from his research trial is not yet available, it has been proven that nitrogen losses can be reduced if applications are matched with the actual tree nitrogen requirement.

As reported in SJV Trees and Vines, very little or no nitrogen is taken up from the soil during dormancy to early

leaf-out. Uptake begins after flowering when leaves and fruit are expanding.

From full leaf expansion to early hull split, tree nitrogen demand is met from soil nitrogen uptake. After hull split, tree demand and root uptake decline.

Estimated yield of a tree determines the rate of soil nitrogen uptake while kernels are developing. Demand for N to support new tree growth is usually less than the demand for nut develop-

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Spring leaf sampling is a useful tool to monitor tree nutrient status. Amaral notes that July sampling is too late to allow for in-season adjustment for deficiencies. A validated model for predicting July nitrogen levels from samples taken in late April and May can predict summer tissue values.

Amaral recommends collecting sub-terminal leaves from non-fruiting branches and collecting leaves from 18 to 20 trees per orchard. It is important that samples be from non-fruiting branches, Amaral said, as the tissue

Continued on Page 10

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Nitrogen in pistachio trees during ‘on’ and ‘off’ years. Before leaf-out, little N was taken up and the trees relied on N remobilized from perennial tissue. In ‘on’ years, approximately 30% of N was taken up during spring flush (mid-March to late May) and 70% during nut fill. N uptake was negligible between harvest and leaf senescence. In ‘off’ years, the proportion of N taken up during spring flush was slightly higher (source: California Crop Fertilization Guidelines: N Pistachio (cdfa.ca.gov.)) **Note that the nitrogen (N) amount shown on Y axis is for entire orchard N content, not N recommended rate per acre.

E IZ N IM R O AXOU ATI M Y IN LL O P

"This approach has not been validated for the new pistachio cultivars, and the validation of this methodology will support growers with a reliable fertilizer management decision tool to apply the right rate of fertilizer at the right time to optimize productivity and avoid environmental losses."

”

—Doug Amaral, UCCE Soils and Pomology Advisor

Continued from Page 9

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analysis can be misinterpreted.

All leaves should be combined in a single bag for submission to a laboratory. A minimum of 180 leaves per bag is required.

In January, a pre-season yield estimation should be done, taking into account historic yield trends, last year’s yield, winter chill and spring bloom weather. Annual inputs of nitrogen from water, composts and fertilizer should be estimated.

Preliminary fertilization rates and timings should be calculated and the first application should be made around mid-May depending on growing region. This late-spring timing is also time to collect and analyze leaf samples and make a mid-season yield estimate.

Depending on the estimate and leaf analysis report, the fertilization strategy can be adjusted for the remainder of the year.

Comments about this article? We want to hear from you. Feel free to email us at article@jcsmarketinginc.com

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Mite Pressure Up in Walnuts

Sacramento and Northern San Joaquin Valleys Seeing High Numbers in Particular

By MITCH LIES | Contributing Writer

These photos of two walnut blocks in the same orchard in Colusa County, taken the first week of September in 2015, depict the damage mites can inflict on an orchard. The photo on the right shows a healthy block. The photo on the left shows a block under heavy mite pressure. Note the leaves on the ground and the lack of shade in the block with mite damage (photos courtesy F. Niederholzer.)

P

CAs and growers reported high mite pressure in walnuts last year, particularly in the Sacramento and northern San Joaquin valleys, according to UCCE Farm Advisors Franz Niederholzer and Luke Milliron as well as Area IPM Advisor Jhalendra Rijal.

“Usually, in walnuts, you have some mite activity,” said Rijal, an advisor for the northern San Joaquin Valley. “But usually, it is late in the season. This past year, they started in the early part of the season.”

Mite presence late in the season generally is not problematic, Rijal said, given that by then, predatory mite populations have built up and the main damage mites cause (loss of leaves) isn’t as important as in early season. But, researchers said, heavy mite pressure early in the season should be addressed.

“An orchard’s motor is the leaves,” said Niederholzer, farm advisor for Colusa, Sutter and Yuba counties, “so when you take away the leaves, you can have more sunburned nuts and you may have smaller nuts at harvest. You end up kind of limping along with a reduced leaf area, 12

West Coast Nut

January 2022

especially if the mite outbreak is earlier in the season. “[A mite outbreak] reduces the vigor of an orchard and it is certainly not something you want to have during a drought,” he added.

Early Monitoring

Rijal advised growers to start looking for spider mites as early as late April.

Early season scouting can be done with less frequency than mid-season scouting, he said, and can be concentrated on areas most prone to mites, such as stressed trees or near dirt roads.

By late June or early July, scouting should be occurring weekly, according to UC IPM guidelines, and should continue at that pace through August. The guidelines recommend randomly selecting samples from ten trees in an orchard and picking five leaflets from low branches and five from high branches in each tree.

Treatment thresholds are based not only on the presence of spider mites, but also on the presence of predators and whether a broad-spectrum insecticide was used to control pests such as codling

moth or walnut husk fly.

In cases, where a pyrethroid was used, for example, a miticide may be warranted if predators are present on fewer than 10% of mite-infested leaves when 10% of leaves have spider mites.

Whereas absence a pyrethroid, sprays are not recommended until 30% to 40% of leaves are mite infested and predators are present on fewer than 10% of mite-infested leaves.

“The bottom line,” Rijal said, “is if you apply broad-spectrum insecticides early in the season, you can expect mite activity. And whenever you are doing mite counts or doing sampling, you also should do it for predators, too.”

Easy to Differentiate

Rijal said it is easy to differentiate between predator mites and the twospotted or Pacific spider mite. “The spider mite is always this kind of greenish mite with two spots on their body, and they basically hunker down on the leaf surface and pretty much feed there,

Continued on Page 14

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West Coast Nut

in the long run, they can save you money.”

Use of neonicotinoids to control husk more like a stationary creature,” he said. fly also could have exacerbated issues with “The predator mite moves around a lot, and mites last year, Niederholzer said, given the majority of these predator mites have that research has shown that they can more like a clear body type.” increase the fecundity of spider mites.

Rijal added that walnuts orchards often Another factor in the increased mite have a rich diversity of predatory mite pressure in walnuts in the Sacramento species.

Valley and northern San Joaquin Valley When treating for mites, Rijal advised could be an inherent difficulty in spraying growers to consider using slower-acting the crop for mites. “It is harder to take care materials, such as growth regulators like of mites in walnuts than it is in almonds,” spirodiclofen, hexythiazox and etoxazole.

Niederholzer said, “mainly because of the “Those do a good job when there is low to size of the trees. Mature orchards can be moderate mite pressure,” he said. Other very tall. You have to drive really slowly to good options he identified are bifenazate, get spray to the tree tops. You have to use cyflumetofen and fenpyromixate, dependa lot of water to cover the acres of leaves in ing on the orchard mite pressure and costs. an acre of trees. It takes a lot of time to do He discouraged growers from using a good job. abamectin, particularly early in the season, “It is a real challenge,” he said. given the material’s potential negative Still, Rijal said, the biggest reason for effect on sixspotted thrips, a predator of the increase mite pressure last year was spider mites. probably drought.

Dust in orchards can contribute to mite “Probably that is the major reason why population increases, he added, so growers we had a lot more mite activity from the should consider watering or putting down beginning of the season this past year,” Risome oil on dirt roadways. “The dust jal said. “If there are favorable conditions, collects on the leaves, which tends to dry mite populations can multiply very fast. leaves, and that is favorable for mites,” And mites love dry conditions.”

Rijal said.

Also, Rijal said, water-use restrictions in place in some orchards last year could Combination of Factors have been a contributing factor. “It is a Rijal and Niederholzer attributed last two-fold thing,” he said. “They might have summer’s mite outbreak in walnuts to a used less water and there were drier condivariety of factors, including drought and tions early in the season. I think that was use of pyrethroids to control high codling the main reason.” moth pressure.

“Pyrethroids are inexpensive and Dramatic Effect effective, and have some obvious upsides Niederholzer added that when mites do for growers in a down market,” Niederhol- strike an orchard, the effect is dramatic. zer said. “But they have some significant “Nothing is worse than a mite outbreak downsides from a management standwhen it comes to how the orchard looks, point.” because you lose a lot of leaves,” he said.

Rijal said codling moth activity was “The whole orchard looks terrible in a mite low in the San Joaquin Valley for much outbreak.” of last summer, but not in the SacramenWhether or not mites return to walnut to Valley, which could have driven some orchards next year is anybody’s guess, spray decisions. according to Rijal. “You never know with “Some of the collaborative studies mites,” Rijal said. “It depends on spray we are doing in the Sacramento Valley programs and environmental conditions.” indicate that much more codling moth But, regardless of pressure, evidence pressure, at least early in the season, is shows growers can minimize crop damage requiring insecticide sprays,” he said. “So, to mites by keeping a close watch for the there could have been some sprays that pest and selecting spray materials that contributed to mite flare-ups.” reduce flare-ups.

When treating for codling moth, growers should consider using lepidopterComments about this article? We want ous-specific insecticides, Rijal said. “They to hear from you. Feel free to email us at are more expensive than pyrethroids, but article@jcsmarketinginc.com

January 2022

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A WORD FROM THE BOARD: THE ALMOND BOARD OF CALIFORNIA

Soil Health: Deriving Benefits from the Ground Up

Key Principles for Building Healthy Soil and Enhancing Orchard Ecosystem Functions

By KRISTA MARSHALL | Ph.D. Candidate, UC Davis

T

he concept of “healthy soil” has become increasingly popular over the last decade as researchers, government agencies, organizations like the Almond Board, and farmers continue learning more about the essential role soil plays in crop productivity, air and water quality, climate regulation and human health.

Benefits of Healthy Soils

Soils are complex and living ecosystems capable of supporting a wide range of functions through the activities of soil organisms (Figure 1). Among other benefits, a well-functioning soil ecosystem can: • Promote the retention and availability of crop nutrients, • Build soil structure to reduce topsoil loss,

Figure 1. Soil supports a wide range of organisms (left to right) Pill bugs help build soil structure and promote nutrient cycling by shredding & decomposing residue. Soil microbial communities, including fungi and bacteria, are the main engines of soil ecosystem as they contribute substantially to many functions. Finally, earthworms are engineers of the soil because they build soil structure. In addition, they promote nutrient cycling by decomposing plant residues (all photos courtesy K. Marshall.)

• Alleviate compaction, • Improve infiltration and soil water holding capacity and • Build and sequester carbon.

Healthy soils have the potential to not only play a central role in individual almond orchards but also support industry-wide efforts to achieve Almond Orchard 2025 Goals.

A healthy soil ecosystem in the orchard can help growers collectively advance toward specific goals such as improving water and nutrient use efficiency, recycling almond coproducts and reducing dust to improve air quality. And these numerous benefits that ultimately contribute to long-term orchard sustainability goals often do not come at the expense of productivity. In fact, a growing number of studies suggest we can build healthy soils that support multiple benefits while maintaining or, in some cases, improving crop yields.

Uncovering Healthy Soil Management Principles

Identifying the strategies for how to build healthy soils and enhance soil ecosystem functions are still being established for almond orchards. To address this knowledge gap and start developing best management practices for grow-

16

West Coast Nut

January 2022

Figure 2. Orchards were selected for soil health research based on a variety of management, scales of operation and farm goals.

ers, a collaborative team of UC Davis researchers and a UCANR extension specialist are aiming to better define healthy almond orchard soil in the Sacramento Valley and identify practices already being used to improve orchard soil health.

Although the research was explicitly conducted in the Sacramento Valley region, more regional work to explore soil health best management practices

is needed across California as almond producing regions vary widely in regards to soil types and climates. The research team selected 23 orchards across the Sacramento Valley region that represent a variety of management, scales of operation and farm goals (Figure 2) to capture the diverse challenges and innovative solutions used by California almond growers.

There are many management prac-

tices being promoted as ways to build healthier soils. However, the success and feasibility of these practices is highly dependent on other aspects of a grower’s operation, such as equipment availability, harvest times, weather patterns, access to resources and information, and food safety precau-

Continued on Page 18

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Continued from Page 17 tions. Therefore, the team recommends growers consider the foundational ecological principles that underlie soil health-building practices and, from that information, identify specific strategies that can be used to build healthy soils and enhance soil ecosystem functions in their orchards.

To determine which specific strategies show potential in the Sacramento Valley region, the team spent the last two years meeting with a wide range of almond growers whose management reflects the below principles to address orchard challenges and meet diverse goals.

Principle One: Reduced Disturbance Important Although physical disturbances like tillage play a role in production, reducing these events minimizes the destruction of the environment where soil organisms live and perform important functions for agriculture. Given that reduced or zero-tillage management has been widely adopted across almonds, this principle is already easy for most growers to achieve in their efforts to improve soil health.

It should also be noted that minimizing disturbances, such as tillage in regions with heavy clay soil, could have tradeoffs with soil compaction, potentially inhibiting root growth and the uptake of nutrients. To address these potential tradeoffs, growers can look to build soil organic matter and reduce compaction, which leads us to our second principle.

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West Coast Nut

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Principle Two: Maintaining Continuous and Diverse Organic Inputs Soil organic matter address compaction, continuous inputs of carbon and nutrients in organic forms, such as amendments, mulches, animal manure and plant residues that are essential to enhancing soil ecosystem functions and reaping the benefits of healthy soil. In fact, soil organisms like bacteria, fungi and earthworms require carbon and nutrients to live and perform essential soil ecosystem functions.

There are many creative ways to increase organic inputs in agriculture. For example, researchers documented almond growers using compost, recycled almond shells, growth of resident weeds in the winter, planted cover crops and animal manures. Although we did not work with growers who utilized whole orchard recycling (WOR), this practice recycles carbon and nutrients from aboveground biomass back into the soil ecosystem and is a useful long-term strategy for supporting healthy soil.

However, one of the most effective ways to introduce more continuous and diverse organic inputs is to maintain living plant roots, which leads to the third principle of building healthy soil.

Principle Three: Maximize Living Cover Living root systems provide an effective way to supply resources directly into the soil. Although there are multiple management constraints to increasing living roots in almond orchards, interesting strategies that are effective and feasible for management exist. For example, resident vegetation and planted cover crops like ground clover and triticale, which have shorter stands, can be effectively managed where frost is a concern to almond growers. Additionally, planting and termination can be optimized to take advantage of winter rainfall when almond trees are dormant and competition is low. Further, appropriate selection of plants and their growth periods can help ensure that residues left on the surface are able to sufficiently decompose before harvest.

Ultimately, finding what works for any given almond orchard will take time and experimentation, a recurrent comment from growers we spoke with who are increasing the presence of living roots in their orchards.

Introducing more organic inputs, especially living covers, in almond orchards also helps promote the fourth principle of healthy soil.

Principle Four: Keep the Soil Covered Although this principle may require adjustments to management, main-

Continued on Page 20

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Continued from Page 18 taining a surface cover is essential to building healthy soil. Covering the soil physically protects it from the environment, which can reduce soil loss by wind erosion and surface runoff.

In addition, covering the soil allows for greater sunlight interception and moderation of soil temperature, both of which could help reduce water evaporation from the soil surface.

The degree to which residues are kept on the surface influences how management needs to be adjusted. For example, one grower’s cover crop was terminated early enough to allow the residue to decompose well ahead of harvest, posing no challenges. Another grower, who left a small residue layer on the soil surface, said slowing down during harvest (moving equipment through the orchard at a slower pace) allowed for sufficient nut collection.

Adoption of an off-ground harvesting system would allow for the maintenance of a thick residue layer, where residues can build up over years to protect the soil surface and provide organic inputs (Figure 3).

Enhancing biodiversity in almond orchard soil is also essential, and leads to the final principle of healthy soil.

Principle Five: Support Soil Biodiversity through Diversification There is growing consensus amongst the scientific community that soil biodiversity can promote a wide range of soil ecosystem functions. Finding ways to support soil biodiversity, such as diversifying the plants growing in the soil, can be an effective strategy to build healthy and well-functioning or-

chard soils.

For example, growers can plant cover crop mixes in their orchard middles that contain multiple species, such as grasses, legumes, and brassicas.

Integrating animals to manage vegetation has also shown great potential as a beneficial diversification strategy for building healthy soils. However, uncertainties remain regarding Figure 3. This young orchard has built a thick layer of plant residue to best management protect the soil surface. A mixture of resident vegetation and planted practices, manage- cover crops grow across the orchard middle and berm then is mowed to build a residue without terminating plant growth. ment logistics and concerns over food safety, questions that the Almond more about living roots and the steps to Board of California will be researching incorporating cover crops, specifically in the upcoming years. in their orchards, are encouraged to Building healthy soils in almond or- read the “Cover Crop Best Managechards is essential and enables growers ment Practices” guide developed by to not only address current managethe Almond Board of California and ment challenges but also ensure their University of California available now almond productions meet long-term on Almonds.com/covercrops. Finally, if productivity and sustainability goals. growers are interested in learning more Although gaps in our knowledge still about WOR, they can read the “Whole exist around what management stratOrchard Recycling Guide for Califoregies are most effective for building nia Almond Growers” and find more healthy soils, this research allowed us information at Almonds.com/WOR. to better understand what innovative The integration of animals and and feasible strategies almond growers use of animal manure is not currently are already implementing to incorporecommended by the Almond Board rate soil health into their management. of California due to food safety conThe researchers hope to continue cerns and uncertainties regarding best their work to capture growers’ current management practices. To comply with soil health building strategies, better food safety regulations, animals must be define healthy orchard soil and encour- removed from the orchard or manures age growers to continue experimenting applied more than 90 days before harto learn what strategies work best for vest if almonds are harvested off-ground their productions. and more than 120 days before harvest if almonds are shaken onto the ground.

Additional Resources

The full findings from the soil health research project will be available this upcoming year, including academic articles, outreach materials and factsheets for building soil health in almond orchards. Growers interested in learning

20

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January 2022

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SENSING TECHNOLOGY ADVANCES TO IMPROVE IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT

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T With field scale sensing of soil water using a cosmic ray neutron probe, the goal is to evaluate the ability of the probe to accurately measure soil moisture at the orchard scale (photo by I. Kisekka.)

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ree nut growers seeking the ‘holy grail’ of plant water sensing have many options these days, but there is no one perfect sensor that will tell you when to irrigate, UC Davis Plant Scientist Ken Shackel said.

Shackel led a panel of speakers on irrigation technology and automated monitoring at the 2021 Tree Nut Conference held in Tulare. Speakers included UC Davis Irrigation Specialist Isaya Kisekka and Ryan Kaplan of Pressure Bomb Express.

Sensor Research

Shackel, who is researching the physiology of plant responses to water availability, said the current sensors available are direct, meaning they show the current stress level of the tree, and indirect, measuring shrinkage in a plant. The direct sensors (FloraPulse, Saturas, ICT) are all automated, and the pressure bomb also provides a direct measurement of stress. All are attempting, Shackel said, to measure how hard a plant is working to suck moisture from the ground. The indirect sensors measure shrinkage of a tree trunk, leaves or petiole. Others measure sap flow. Evapotranspiration sensors and temperature sensors measure water use or canopy temperatures.

There are other automated devices, Schackel said, but differences between them make comparisons difficult.

“What you want to know is, is the information the sensors provide consistent and reliable and does it give you time to make irrigation decisions?”

Shackel’s research includes tree responses to water stress, drought and regulated deficit irrigation under field conditions. What has been learned, he said, is that just matching ET does not mean trees will be unstressed. Trees

‘There is no one perfect sensor that will tell you when to irrigate.’ may use up the ‘easy’ water quickly and may experience stress at the end of each irrigation cycle. Daily sensor or pressure chamber readings on typical trees appear to be accurate enough to manage water for an irrigation block.

Shackel said automated sensors have the potential to agree with the pressure chamber. Bottom line, Shackel said, is that plant-based irrigation may require more of a ‘response’ approach rather than a fixed schedule, especially if deficit irrigation is part of the plan.

An Almond Board of California-funded study on whole tree ET responses to mild and moderate water stress, done in Parlier with double line drip on deep and very well drained soils, showed that ET was closely matched with irrigation, but tree stress occurred.

Precision Irrigation Technologies

Kisekka said his research focuses on precision irrigation in nut crops with a goal of sustainable water use. His pre-

cision irrigation technologies can help tree nut growers reduce water-induced spatial variability in yield.

He is seeking to answer the questions of when to irrigate, how much to irrigate and where to irrigate- which is the precision aspect. Kisekka said growers can divide orchard blocks into small zones with similar soil characteristics with a challenge of developing an irrigation schedule for each zone.

Kisekka’s research has shown that

Continued on Page 24

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Continued from Page 23 some commercially available stem water potential sensors are accurate and produce similar data to the pressure bomb. In addition, some commercially available satellite evapotranspiration is accurate and can be used for site-specific precision irrigation management.

His recommendation is for growers to use a combination of stem water potential to determine the ‘when,’ soil water sensing to manage soil water depletion, and ET to determine how much water to apply to schedule irrigation for each zone.

In his presentation at the Tree Nut Conference, Kisekka outlined his research on soil water sensing and modeling, remote sensing of evapotranspiration and soil nitrate sensing.

Soil water status sensing and modeling involves spatiotemporal modeling of root zone soil moisture dynamics using machine learning and remote sensing. His goal here is to develop a method for upscaling point measurements of soil water to the block scale using machine learning.

With field scale sensing of soil water using a cosmic ray neutron probe, the goal is to With field scale sensing of soil water using a cosmic ray neutron probe, the goal is to evaluate the ability of the probe to accurately The the goalability of soilofnitrate sensing is development of asoil lowmoisture cost ion-selective evaluate the probe to accurately measure at the orchard scale measure soil moisture at the orchard scale. soil nitrate sensor (photo courtesy I. Kisekka.) (photo by I. Kisekka.)

Kisekka said he also hopes to understand the impact of soil heterogeneity and soil amendments on infiltration and root water uptake.

His work in soil nitrate sensing involves sensor testing and evaluation in soil columns and deep vadose zone monitoring of nitrate before it reaches groundwater.

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West Coast Nut

January 2022

Streamlining Pressure Bomb Use

Kaplan, who also grows almonds, walnuts, pistachios and prunes, said he is building a game plan to streamline pressure bomb use. This will enable crop advisors to make recommendations based on inputs.

He is looking at how much to stress trees at different growing stages, including bud development and hull split. He also wants to account for “the rootstock effect” of smaller trees with fairly shallow root zones.

Comments about this article? We want to hear from you. Feel free to email us at article@jcsmarketinginc.com

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WINTER CHILLING OF PISTACHIO CONSEQUENCES OF LOW CHILL AND IMPLEMENTATION OF ONLINE CHILL CALCULATORS

By ELIZABETH J. FICHTNER | UCCE Farm Advisor, Tulare County

Winter Outlook (December 2021- February 2022) Precipitation Outlook Temperature Outlook Probability (percent chance)

Learning Below Likely Below

Below Normal 33-40% 40-50% 50-60% 60-70% 70-80%

Equal Chances

Above Normal

33-40% 40-50% 50-60% 60-70% 70-80%

Learning Above Likely Above

Probability (percent chance)

Learning Below Likely Below

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Learning Above Likely Above

Temperature an Precipitation Outlooks for December 2021-February 2022; Issued October 21, 2021.

NWS Climate Prediction Center. Map by NOAA Climate.gov Figure 2. Predictive modeling conducted by NOAA suggests the probability that the winter of 2021-22 may be warmer than normal and characterized by lower precipitation than normal.

T

he pistachio industry has thrived in the southern San Joaquin Valley (SSJV) of California due to the unique climate that historically contributes adequately to the accumulation of heat units in the summer to promote crop development and chill units in the winter to break dormancy for production of the successive crop.

Climate Anomalies

Climate anomalies are not uncommon, with the recent 2021 summer characterized by excessive heat throughout California’s main pistachio-growing regions (Figure 1a, see page 27).

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West Coast Nut

January 2022

(Figure 1b, see page 27), may now be followed by an unusually warm winter as predicted by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Climate Prediction Center (Figure 2). Insufficient chill this winter may challenge pistachio production in 2022.

On Oct. 21, 2021, the NOAA reported that predicted winter conditions, consistent with La Nina, are likely to be warmer than usual in the SSJV. Additionally, precipitation in the SSJV is likely to be lower than average and drought conditions may continue to worsen. Based on the same model, the Sacramento Valley may expect normal winter temperatures, but is not exempt from the probability of below-average precipitation.

Consequences of Low Chill on Pistachio

Many temperate crops, including pistachio, require a cumulative amount of chilling to exit dormancy in the spring. The chilling requirement is a physiological mechanism that protects buds from the winter cold. Without a chilling requirement, budbreak could occur during intermittent winter warming events, thus exposing open buds, flowers or shoots to cold conditions that may limit survival of the structure. Chill hours are not calculated on a continuous basis, but rather in a cumulative fashion throughout the winter.

When the chilling requirement for pistachio is not fulfilled, vegetative and reproductive abnormalities may be observed in the spring. Bud break may be delayed or irregular (Figure 3, see page 27), often resulting in multiple phenological stages present on the same branch. Insufficient chill may result in protracted progression of bud break, whereas sufficient chill is

Frequency of Daily High Temperture > 100 F Delano, CA

A 20

2017 2018 2019 2020 2021

correlated with a more condensed duration of bud break (Afshari et al. 2009). Lack of adequate chill has also been associated with abscission of floral buds as well as altered flower morphology and reduced fruit set. Pollination rates may be reduced due to asynchronous bloom of male and female trees as well as poor pollen production and death of the stigma (Crane and Takeda 1978). The resulting reduction in fruit set is associated with an increased proportion of blanks, unsplit nuts, late maturation, and a general reduction in yield (Crane and Takeda 1978). As a pollination management strategy, some growers have opted to plant multiple male genotypes in orchards to extend the duration of pollen availability.

Studies conducted by UC scientists determined that ‘Peters’ males have a higher chilling requirement

Continued on Page 28

12 8 4 0

# of Days

Figure 3. Low chill accumulation is associated with delayed, protracted bud break, bud abscission, bare zones on branches and poor nut set (photo by David Doll, The Almond Doctor.)

# of Days

16

B 60 50 40

May

June

August

July

September

Frequency of Daily High Temperture > 100 F 2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

30 20 10 0

Delano, CA

Stratford, CA

Five Points, CA

Woodland, CA

Figure 1. Summer 2021 was characterized by excessive heat in pistachio-growing regions in California. Focusing on Delano, Calif. (A), there were more days with temperatures ≥100 degrees F in June through September than in the prior four years. Similarly, across four regions (B), the cumulative number of days with temperatures ≥100 degrees F was generally higher in 2021 than the prior four years. Data source: CIMIS

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27

Continued from Page 27 than their ‘Kerman’ female counterpart. ‘Peters’ males require at least 900 hours below 45 degrees C to achieve 50% bloom. The ‘Kerman’ female requires 700 hours below 45 degrees C to achieve 44% bloom (Ferguson et al. 2002). The chilling requirements for new varieties, such as ‘Golden Hills’ and ‘Lost Hills,’ have yet to be assessed.

Chill Models

Various chill models used by physiologists are not laws of nature, but rather statistical models used to represent plant response to chill-related variables. In short, each model simply calculates the chill-related variable slightly differently.

The model achieving the “best fit” may vary from year to year simply because no two years have identical temperature fluctuation profiles from November through February. The simplest model, the Chilling Hour Model, is a summation of the hours below 45 degrees F. It is this model that was used to establish the 900- and 700-hour chilling requirement for ‘Peters’ and ‘Kerman,’ respectively.

A modified model accounts only for chilling hours accumulated between 32 degrees F and 45 degrees F; these are called ‘Modified Chill Hours.’ Two other models, the Utah Model and the Dynamic Model, attempt to characterize the influence of intermittent warmer temperatures on chill accumulation and are represented by ‘Chill Units’ and ‘Chill Portions,’ respectively. When comparing the Chilling Hour Model and the Dynamic Model, 900 chill hours converts to approximately 69 chill portions in California’s Central Valley (Pope et al.

2015).

Chill model calculation tools are available online at the UC ANR Fruit and Nut Research and Information Center (FNRIC) website (fruitsandnuts. ucanr.edu). To utilize these models, a grower can click on the model of interest and choose the CIMIS (California Irrigation Management Information Center) station nearest their orchard. Data from CIMIS stations are available for four locations in each of Tulare and Kern counties, two locations in each of Kings and Madera counties, and nine locations in 28

West Coast Nut

January 2022

Fresno County. One limitation of these calculators is the reliance on information from CIMIS stations and not from individual orchards and microclimates; however, the online calculators do allow for comparisons over successive years by providing access to historic, archived CIMIS data.

Chill is Not Everything

Adequate chill is not the sole determinant of orchard productivity. A recent study of historic yield records demonstrated that pistachio yields did not fall below average until chill portions dropped below 57 (Pope et al. 2015). Recalling that the 900 chill hours required for ‘Peters’ converts to approximately 69 chill portions in the Central Valley, one can conclude that it takes more than a reduction of chill portions below 69 to affect the yield at a state level.

Another study utilizing 30 years of production data from three ‘Kerman’ orchards identified four main factors responsible for over 65% of the variability in yield (Kallsen 2017). In this study, the main factors influencing yield included 1) yield in the prior year; 2) warm spring temperatures (>80 degrees F) prior to bloom; 3) cool temperatures (<45 degrees F) from mid-November through mid-February; and 4) warm temperatures (>65 degrees F) from mid-November through mid-February. If four variables accounted for 65% of the variability in yield in the Kallsen (2017) study, then the other 35% of yield may be influenced by many other orchard management practices throughout the year.

In summary, the chill calculators are tools that may be utilized to make comparisons of chill accumulation between years and assess the progress of chill accumulation during a given season. The model outputs are limited by the input data sourced from CIMIS stations at discreet locations that might not adequately reflect the environmental parameters of a given orchard. In addition to chill accumulation, growers should consider other mitigating factors, such as microclimates, propensity for inversions and historical yield data to assess the future orchard productivity potential.

Comments about this article? We want to hear from you. Feel free to email us at article@jcsmarketinginc.com

DORMEX® IS NOW REGISTERED IN CALIFORNIA FOR USE ON ALMONDS AND PISTACHIOS

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View from the Top Interview with Don Barton, President of GoldRiver Orchards ‘We’re in an Existential Battle for Our Very Survival’

By CATHERINE MERLO | Contributing Writer

D

on Barton’s family has weathered CalMatters columnist Dan Walters made plenty of challenges since it began at WAPA’s annual meeting last June. In growing walnuts in California in an early November interview with West 1912. But the threats facing California Coast Nut magazine, Barton recalled agriculture today may the toughest yet. what Walters told the audience that day: Barton grew up on the family ranch “In Sacramento, if you are not at the table, in Escalon, about mid-way between Sacyou are on the menu. And agriculture, I ramento and Merced. He graduated from have news for you, you are on the menu.”

Stanford University and later earned an MBA in agribusiness at Santa Clara Uni- Q: How are the drought and versity. Rather than return to the family the Sustainable Groundwater business, he pursued a food marketing Management Act affecting career, working for major companies like your operation?

Ocean Spray Cranberries, Inc. and The The water situation is the most critical H.J. Heinz Corporation. situation we face on the farming side of In 2003, he left the East Coast to take our business. The main impact is not due on a new responsibility: launching the to SGMA. The main impact is the gross family’s GoldRiver Orchards, Inc. Today, mismanagement of water resources in as its president and managing partner, California by both the State of California Barton oversees a company that processand the federal government. Most of our es some 30 million pounds of walnuts production operations are near the Stania year at its plant near Escalon. It works slaus River. The flows from the Stanislaus with about 100 walnut growers and emare regulated by the New Melones Dam ploys 60 employees at peak season. The upstream of our ranch. company markets its California walnut Twice a year since 2009, the Army products to Asia, Europe and the Middle Corps of Engineers makes major releases East, all under its GoldRiver Orchards of fresh water from the New Melones brand. Meanwhile, Barton Ranch contin- Reservoir down the Stanislaus River and ues to grow walnuts as well as almonds eventually through the Delta and into and olives for oil. the rising oceans. They do this ostensibly Barton’s industry knowledge broadto increase the fish populations, yet the ened during his 2017-21 tenure as salmon population has not increased. chairman of the board of Western AgriWe’ve flushed an estimated 800 billion cultural Processors Association (WAPA). gallons of water down the channel. That’s He’s also served on committees for the fresh water that is so precious to CalCalifornia Walnut Board. ifornia, whether it’s for agriculture or Those experiences have left Barton municipal use, and it’s going right into acutely aware of the difficulties of runthe ocean with no measurable results. ning a California agricultural compaThis same water could be delivered to ny. But what haunts him is a statement farms in our area, reducing reliance on 30

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January 2022

“We need to be better organized as an industry to remind people of the value of California agriculture to our state economy,” says walnut grower/processor Don Barton (photo courtesy D. Barton.)

groundwater.

The environmental advocates ignore the fact that there are non-native predatory species in the Delta that are eating the salmon fry and having a major impact on salmon populations in the San Joaquin River system. They just don’t seem to care. Ultimately, this terrible policy is creating a situation where we have, in this case, a fantastic storage facility that is grossly underutilized because we keep draining water out of it, even in the midst of two of the most severe droughts California has ever experienced. That, far more than SGMA, is a major challenge for us. In my view, we have the surface water to use to keep our groundwater basins sustainable under SGMA, if only California and the federal government would stop preventing its beneficial use.

Q: Apart from water, what’s your biggest challenge today?

It is a continuous onslaught of adversarial actions from Sacramento, whether they’re from the State Legislature or from regulatory agencies that continue to press in on agriculture. Farmers typically want to keep our heads down. We just want to do our job and enjoy the way of life that we’re used to. We’re not good at organizing. That has hurt us. We are out-organized by the environmental interests in this state. I believe we are in an existential battle for our very survival.

California agriculture is a breadbasket for the rest of the world, particularly

Continued on Page 33

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Barton said a priority for California ag in 2022 is solving the state’s export issues (photo by Vicky Boyd.)

Continued from Page 30 with specialty crops. But you can easily foresee scenarios where that won’t be the case 20, 25, 30 years from now. We’ve got to fight to hold on to our way of life.

Q: What can you do about it?

One way we’re trying to address this, in a state where three-quarters of the State Legislature are Democrats, is to engage with moderate Democrats, particularly those from urban districts, who don’t know a lot about agriculture but are willing to learn. We bring them out to our farms and processing facilities to dispel some of the perceptions out there and show them that, first of all, we are employing a lot of people in California. Secondly, that we are good stewards of the land. And thirdly, that there is a viable place for farming and agriculture in California. We don’t have the glamour of Hollywood. We don’t have the power of Silicon Valley. But we are still a significant part of California industry, and we’re one of the largest exporters in California and the U.S. We’re worth fighting for, if we can convince enough politicians to fight for us.

Q: What are your priorities for 2022?

Our first priority is trying to figure out how to continue to serve our customers so that, ultimately, we can serve our growers. The mainstream media tend to focus on supply chain issues with regard to imports. But growers and processors are having a terrible time getting our product shipped to overseas markets. A recent report ranking the efficiency of ports around the world showed that of 351 ports worldwide, Los Angeles ranks #328 and Long Beach ranks #333. That’s

embarrassing, and it has huge social costs for the American economy. These shipping challenges are huge. In our 18 years as a walnut processor, I can’t remember a challenge as significant as this supply chain issue we’re facing. We are shipping goods but only at a rate of about half of what we would normally be doing at this time of year. We’re building up a lot of inventory. We’ve got our warehouses packed full of finished goods. They’re under contract, ready to ship. But finding empty containers and getting those shipped on time is a huge challenge.

Q: In closing, is there anything else you’d like to say?

I’d just like to re-emphasize that the challenges that agriculture faces in California are real and they are severe.

They will require leaders in California agriculture to come together. We’ve got to do a better job of organizing, speaking out, of making sure that our elected officials know the importance of California agriculture to the California economy.

If the environmentalists have their way, honestly, you can foresee a future where the Central Valley of California, which is agriculture, if that disappears, you will have a Dust Bowl. It will be an economic disaster for the state, and the impact will ripple across worldwide markets, because California’s products are traded worldwide. At some point, we need the help of regular citizens and certainly, we need to be better organized as an industry to remind people of the value of California agriculture to our state economy.

Comments about this article? We want to hear from you. Feel free to email us at article@jcsmarketinginc.com

January 2022

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33

The Future of Groundwater Management Satellite monitoring of crop water use for groundwater management is the next wave.

By KATHY COATNEY | Contributing Writer

M

ost experts agree that using satellites to monitor groundwater is the future for California agriculture.

Satellite measurements are accurate enough to determine water usage of a given crop, which has led Groundwater Sustainability Agencies (GSAs) to look at this as a way to monitor groundwater.

Satellite monitoring of crop water use for groundwater management is the wave of the future, according to Joel Kimmelshue, Ph.D., principal agricultural scientist for Land IQ, and it is a method that the regulatory agencies are using.

Tracking of evapotranspiration (ET) through infrared technology for mapping has been around for quite some time, but satellites would actually use regional snapshots of an area or a simple vegetative index, then come up with calculations based on the amount of water a given crop needs.

Mike Wade, executive director for the California Farm Water Coalition, said, “I think between these satellites that are able to measure groundwater and others that measure crop evapotranspiration through infrared spectrometer photography, what I have heard is the experts believe they will be able to accurately monitor groundwater use without metering

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every pump.”

Water Monitoring Research

Dan Howes, a professor at the Irrigation Training and Research Center (ITRC) at California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, has been doing research on using satellites to assess plant water use for quite some time.

“There’s been work on assessing plant water consumption, evapotranspiration, using remote sensing, specifically satellites, since I’d say the late 1990s, early 2000s,” Howes said, adding Landsat has been the primary remote sensing data tool.

Landsat 8 is an American Earth observation satellite that launched in February 2013 and is the eighth satellite in the Landsat program. Currently, Landsat 8 has 11 bands of data

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Continued from Page 34 that can be used for different purposes, including monitoring for plant water use. The ITRC uses a surface energy balance process based on data from Landsat and ground-based weather data to compute actual evapotranspiration. There are other methodologies also being used for this type of analysis.

The research was originally intended as water management for irrigation districts or water agencies to answer questions like, “I know how much water I’m bringing in, I have meters on that, and I know how much water flows out of the downstream end, but what’s going on with the plants? How much do the plants actually need, and how is that matching with how much I’m bringing in?” Howes said.

“Since the 1940s and 50s, we’ve been trying to do that in different methods, and this was just another leap forward in our traditional assessment of plant water use for design, for management, and then, yes, for farmers, too, for irrigation scheduling. You do have to realize that what we provide, and what we all try to provide for, especially for this groundwater monitoring, is the actual ET (as opposed to the potential ET),” Howes said.

Howes and others are currently in the implementation stage.

Satellite data is already being used in several capacities from water analysis to water rights, Howes said.

“We started this whole program of using remote sensing to assess evapotranspiration for groundwater monitoring, for groundwater regulation through the Sustainable Groundwater

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Management Act (SGMA). And then companies obviously took off from there, and so now, as they take over, we go into more of an expert oversight role,” Howes said, “where we’ll act as the unbiased expert that is called out to make an assessment when needed.”

Ground Truthing

Kimmelshue said Land IQ provides information on how much water has evapotranspired, or how much water the crops use, not what water is applied. “The fundamental mechanism that we use is critical. It is what we call heavy ground truthing which anchors/calibrates our modeling efforts to actual ground measurements of ET for the most accurate estimates of crop water use possible,” he said.

Ground truthing and the collection of ground truth data enables calibration of remote-sensing data and aids in a more accurate and defensible interpretation and analysis of what is being sensed.

Land IQ has over 100 climatic stations in the southern San Joaquin Valley that measure the parameters necessary to calculate actual ET, then satellite imagery is used to extrapolate the ground truthing measurements across the rest of the landscape, Kimmelshue explained.

“When you’re using remote sensing and looking across an entire landscape, to have data points on the ground that tie you or anchor you to the ground is really valuable, because rather than kind of guessing what it is, you’re measuring what it is,” Kimmelshue said.

What Land IQ provides is more of a water management tool, Kimmelshue continued. “Think about a grower wanting to irrigate a whole season, and the grower only has a certain amount of water that they can pump, an allocation in other words,” Kimmelshue said. “They can use these results to track how they’re doing throughout an irrigation season and determine if they are above or below their allocation.”

Land IQ works for grower representative organizations, water irrigation districts, GSAs and various commodity groups that in turn share this information with their growers.

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In the Coachella Valley, an avocado grower is experimenting with a pressure sensor that measures the water pressure of the tree. Working with the university and understanding plant physiology, research has found that when the pressure in the tree reaches a certain level, the tree needs water, and it’s irrigated, Wade said.

This grower is taking that to the next level, Wade continued.

He’s working to develop an irrigation management system that takes the information directly from the probe so that the tree can essentially determine when to irrigate itself.

The theory is, with the right mechanics and electronics, when the sensor reaches a certain level, it can trigger the irrigation system to turn on, then irrigate to the point where the pressure of the tree reaches the sustainable level, then turn off. In essence, the tree can decide when and how much water it needs based on its own demand.

“If it’s hotter, maybe it’s going to irrigate more often. If it’s not hot, it senses that and it won’t irrigate,” Wade said.

“That’s just one of the other new technologies that are out there that could develop into something that is almost hands-off in terms of meeting crop water needs,” he continued, adding that this technology could possibly transfer into almonds, walnuts and pistachios.

Groundwater Monitoring

What does satellite monitoring of groundwater mean for farmers? “Well, I think what it’ll do is it will make the Sustainable Groundwater Management Act more accurate,” Wade said, “and SGMA needed some methodology to accurately measure groundwater extraction and satellites can do that.”

How this will be translated into regulatory oversight at the local level isn’t known yet, Wade continued. “But I think on the positive side, that means we will be able to meet the needs of the groundwater management act, hopefully on time, over the next 20 years.

“With the right tools, if they (GSAs) can see that block is using more water than the region should be using, and I’m sure there will be a buffer, but if it’s considerably more, then they’re going to be able to tell that you’re probably

Examples of Land IQ’s field-by-field monthly crop evapotranspiration results for two summer months.

pumping more groundwater than what the sustainable yield is,” Wade said.

“The vast majority of the industry wants to do a good job, and farmers are remarkable people as a whole. If they’re given a goal, this is what we need to achieve, they’ll figure out how to do it.

And I think most farmers want to do the right thing, and they’re going to work to-

ward achieving that,” Wade said, adding that with farmers achieving this on their own, it means less regulation down the road.

Comments about this article? We want to hear from you. Feel free to email us at article@jcsmarketinginc.com

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Cal/OSHA’s Nighttime Lighting Requirements For Ag Are Final; Are You in Compliance?

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New lighting workplace standards aim to protect agricultural workers who harvest, operate vehicles and perform other jobs between sunset and sunrise. (all photos courtesy Western Agricultural Processors Association.)

A

re you operating at night around the huller or on the farm? In June 2020, the Standards Board for the California Occupational Safety and Health Administration (Cal/OSHA) adopted new lighting workplace standards for protecting agricultural workers who harvest, operate vehicles and perform other jobs between sunset and sunrise. The new regulation requires agricultural employers to evaluate areas of outdoor worksites to determine if the present lighting levels are within the specifications established by the standard.

The goal in establishing this requirement is to implement protective measures that improve visibility of workers by operators of farm equipment and vehicles, and ensure workers have adequate lighting depending on the area they are operating in and the task they are preforming. Supervisors must conduct safety meetings at the beginning of every shift to inform workers about their surroundings and high traffic areas.

General Requirements

Agricultural equipment, including tractors, harvesters and trucks, must have at least one headlight to illuminate the front of the equipment at least 50 feet in front of the equipment. For all other operations occurring at night, the standard requires agricultural employers to meet specific illumination levels (Table 1, see page 40).

Required illumination levels can be met by providing hands-free portable lighting and/or area lighting. It is important to note that these illumination levels should be

Continued on Page 40

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Continued from Page 38 measured by a meter. These meters can be purchased from typical equipment supply companies like Grainger. Look for meters from Flir, Extech or similar.

The Association recommends conducting a site assessment, by taking light measurements at night in those areas where activities can or may occur in. A critical area is the loading or unloading of stockpile bins onto or from trucks. Be sure to take light measurements in these critical areas. Once you know the actual light levels, you can decide on how to address any deficiencies or make changes to avoid low-light areas. A well conducted site assessment is critical to a successful plan.

Table 1. Cal/OSHA Lighting Requirements for Agricultural Operations at Night

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10

107.64

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20

215.30

Task lighting for maintenance work on equipment

Safety Meetings

There is a specific requirement for “safety meetings” for this regulation. It mandates that supervisory employees conduct a safety meeting at the begin-

40

West Coast Nut

January 2022

Operations, Areas or Tasks Outdoor areas Pathways leading to and around restrooms and drinking water stations Inside restroom facilities Storage areas accessed by employees

conditions, such as fog in the winter, sometimes makes it difficult to see people. Reflective clothing helps improve visibility immensely.

While this is another one of those California-only regulations, there are some aspects of this regulation that make sense, such as wearing the reflective vest or other clothing. Being visible is the most critical point here, and the reflective clothing will

definitely help.

For those that need assistance in meeting these requirements or need help understanding this rule, please feel free to contact the Association Offices.

Comments about this article? We want to hear from you. Feel free to email us at article@jcsmarketinginc.com

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Class 2 high-visibility vests that meet this standard are inexpensive and readily available.

ning of each shift to inform employees of the location of the restrooms, drinking water, designated break areas and additional hazards, such as nearby bodies of water and high-traffic areas.

For most tree nut facilities, this should not be a huge issue as these typically don’t change much, but it is important to make sure employees know these areas and are reminded of them. Farming or field operations may have additional information to cover with employees as work crews move to different worksite locations. While not required, the Association strongly encourages you to document these meeting as well as who attended them.

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

This particular regulation mandates the employer provide and require workers to wear Class 2 high-visibility garments conforming to the specifications of the American National Standard for High-Visibility Safety Apparel and Accessories (ANSI/ISEA) 107-2015 for any work activities that occur between sunset and sunrise. This requirement is a good safety practice as Class 2 high-visibility vests that meet this standard are inexpensive and readily available. Many tree nut facilities make this a standard requirement as other

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Like threespike goosegrass, alkaliweed has the potential to become a looming threat in nut orchards, and both are resistant to glyphosate and many other herbicides (photo by Kurt Hembree, UCCE.)

Threespike goosegrass has cropped up in both the San Joaquin and Sacramento valleys and is a growing concern for weed science researchers such as Hanson (photo by B. Hanson.)

WEED CONTROL IN NUT ORCHARDS

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January 2022

Brad Hanson, during a presentation at the Tehama County Agriculture Producer’s Day. Hanson said an integrated approach that starts with proper identification is the best approach.

“I think it’s important to understand the weed problem you’re trying to manage, consider what management option you have, and seek integrated approaches to weed management using chemical, cultural, biological/cultural and physical manipulations of the cropping system,” he said.

Following identification, one of the next steps in weed control and man-

Continued on Page 44

Brad Hanson, UCCE Weed Science Specialist, promotes integrated weed control (photo courtesy B. Hanson.)

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Continued from Page 42 agement is to select registered herbicides with activity on the grower’s specific weed spectrum, followed by properly applying that material.

“More isn’t always better,” he said when it comes to applying herbicides. “If you use a herbicide program that isn’t appropriate for the weeds in your orchard, or if you apply it poorly or at the wrong time, you are wasting your time and money.”

He addresses this issue by recommending growers ask themselves a series of questions in considering ways to reduce herbicide weed management intensity: What product(s) and strategies are being used? Are they the best for the weed problem and your goals?

What rate(s) are they being applied? Could a lower use rate (at a better timing) achieve the goal? Could a lower-use-rate product replace a higher-use-rate product?

How frequently are herbicides applied in the orchard? Could a better-designed program or slightly relaxed threshold reduce applications by one or more per year?

How many sprayed acres versus orchard acres for each application? Could more narrow strips be used to reduce overall herbicide treated area?

In reference to his last posed question, Hanson explained,

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January 2022

would an eight-foot strip versus a 10-foot strip be sufficient? If so, that could amount to a 9% reduction in treated area in 22foot row spacing, which could result is a number of benefits.

In addition, he asked, what about the middles of the orchard?

“Is your current middles herbicide program necessary?”

Hanson asked. “Could other less-intense approaches be used instead, or to supplement, middles vegetation management?”

In terms of herbicides, it comes down to a formula of the right product, at the right time, in the right amount and place.

Preemergence Herbicides

The “right time” can often entail the use of preemergence herbicides before the weed has emerged.

Preemergence herbicides are applied to bare soil and affect germinating seeds and seedlings. “Typically, these are the herbicides that are applied in the fall, winter or early spring before weeds emerge, and they usually affect weeds just as they germinate or are just beginning to emerge from the soil,” Hanson explained. “Often, people mistakenly think these herbicides kill seeds or sterilize the soil, which is not actually the case.”

This takes place by the herbicide being absorbed by the seedling root, shoot or both. “Some pre herbicides translocate within the plant, while others do not,” he said. “The whole point of residual preemergence herbicides is they persist in the soil for a period of time and affect weeds that germinate after the application, at times weeks or even months later.”

Residual activity is rate-dependent and even soil-dependent in some cases, Hanson added.

However, there isn’t a monolithic group of preemergence chemicals on the market, so the grower and pest control advisors need to be knowledgeable about the strengths, weaknesses, and risks of the different herbicides that can be used preemergence.

Preemergence chemical properties vary in volatility, photosensitivity, mobility, binding affinity to soil, leaching risks and more.

“I think integrated weed management programs that include preemergence herbicides make a lot of sense for orchard cropping systems,” Hanson said. “There are different modes of action in the preemergence herbicide sector compared to postemergence materials which gives us some help for managing resistant weeds. This reduces the need for later-season weed control”.

Herbicide Resistance

Walnut and almond growers’ most commonly-used herbicide, glyphosate, is becoming less effective among several weed species due to resistance, Hanson explained.

Glyphosate has confirmed resistance in broadleaves including horseweed and hairy fleabane and in grasses including ryegrass, annual bluegrass and junglerice.

Potential resistance is also suspected in broadleaves such as lambsquarters and alkaliweed and in the grasses, threespike

goosegrass, feather fingergrass, windmillgrass, sprangletop and witchgrass.

In recent years, researchers are also seeing increasing issues with multiple, or “stacked,” resistance in isolated weeds, Hanson said.

“In most cases, that involves resistance to a second herbicide, such as paraquat, in addition to glyphosate,” he added.

“We’ve seen this in weeds such as Conyza, Lolium and Poa so far.

“We are doing okay managing glyphosate resistance in major T&V (tree and vine) crops with the use of pre-herbicides plus other post herbicides, often plus glyphosate. However, there is some concern about additional selection pressure for glufosinate and paraquat resistance, and in summer grasses, we may see increased pressure on ACCase-inhibiting herbicides.”

Among some good news, so far, Hanson said, they have not seen issues of resistance with PPO (Protoporphyrinogen oxidase) inhibiting-herbicides, pre or post, ALS inhibitors, CBI and mitotic inhibitor and HPPD inhibitors.

Tank Mixes, Sequences and Rotations

Hanson said that managing for herbicide-resistant weeds requires monitoring and record-keeping to understand weed history in the orchard, rotating among multiple modes of action and, where necessary, thinking differently about applications to get residual control with preemergents through the summer.

“Tank mixes, sequences and rotations remain important,” he added.

He recommends mixtures to broaden activity and also trying to overlap on key species.

“Sequences used in tree crops can introduce several opportunities and sites of action,” Hanson recommends. “’I want us to control weeds, but not over-apply coverage.’ It’s a matter of economics, crop safety, and environmental consideration.”

In addition, growers should separately consider preemergence and post-treatment windows and rotation chemistries in both, which is especially important in thinking about multiple resistance, he added.

Weed ID

When considering herbicide resistance and management, Hanson advises field scouting for weed identification to catch problems early.

“I can’t emphasize this enough,” he said. “This is a practice that needs to take place several times per season.”

Weed identification helps growers create control decisions on actual weed problems.

“Control the weeds you know you have or will have,” Hanson said. “Identify new weed problems when they are small, such as new invasive species, resistant biotypes, and such. That way, you can use more intensive control strategies on the pockets that need it rather than fieldwide.”

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Continued on Page 46

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45

tions; however, it will take good management, and costs are likely to increase to some degree.”

Cover Crop Weed Management

While the practice of cover crops in orchards is not a highly used weed management practice in California, there are some benefits (and drawbacks) to consider.

Benefits include building soil health, nitrogen credits, bee forage and help in controlling weed pressure.

Drawbacks to the practice, according to research, involve residues at harvest, interference with sanitation and navel orangeworm pressure, increased water usage and frost risks.

Two keys to cover crop success is seed mix selection and cover crop management. Criteria to consider when choosing species: ▶ Main objectives: pollinator habitat, pest control, soil health ▶ Orchard’s irrigation system and water demand of cover crop species ▶ Soil type and tillage Cover crops are one of the non-chemical options in the fight against weed pressure (photo by B. Hanson.)

ICE HIL N E

L

V

books, online and through industry advisors, to help in identifying weeds. One online option is the “Weed Research and Information Center” at wric.ucdavis.edu and then clicking the site “weed ID tool”.

Can the industry manage weeds effectively without glyphosate, asks Hanson. “Glyphosate has a lot of weed control attributes, especially in terms of bang-for-the-buck, but has not really been an effective stand-alone program for years,” he said.

“Tree nut and vineyard systems have a number of herbicide op-

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▶ Biodiversity and functions of the cover crop

January 2022

There are two weed species that have shown up in both the San Joaquin Valley and the Sacramento Valley that Hanson said are of relatively new concern to orchard growers.

The threespike goosegrass is an annual to short-lived perennial that emerges in early spring to early summer. It is of a low growing stature, but very prolific, Hanson said.

“It is tolerant of glyphosate, especially once established,” he added. “Since it’s a perennial, it’s also hard to control with most of our preemergence herbicides once established, although those products can work well on new seedlings.”

In a series of field trials, researchers have found that sequential programs of preemergence herbicides to reduce seedling recruitment followed by an ACCase-inhibiting herbicide to control the established plants can be quite effective.

Alkaliweed is related to morning glories and bindweed. It is a perennial plant that dies back to the crown in the winter, then produces seed and regrows from underground buds.

Control of the weed is difficult as it has very hairy leaf surfaces, making it hard to wet in applications.

There is poor control of alkaliweed with glyphosate and contact herbicides suppress but do not control the weed.

Alkaliweed likes saline/alkaline areas and is becoming an increasing issue in pistachio orchards.

Comments about this article? We want to hear from you. Feel free to email us at article@jcsmarketinginc.com

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The Almond Conference Highlights Opportunities and Challenges for Industry

By MARNI KATZ | Editor

Almond Board’s Geoff Bogart moderated a panel on agriculutral export delays at this year’s Almond Conference in December.

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he California almond industry confronted the challenges facing the industry at this year’s Almond Conference while also offering up a number of solutions to help the industry move forward. While some of the industry’s challenges are external—water, crushing supply chain disruptions, increases in input costs—others are self-imposed, namely a precarious imbalance in supply and demand.

Several sessions at this year’s first in-person conference in two years focused on efforts to build demand, through novel approaches to domestic marketing and building and expanding on important export markets. In addition, a well-attended session on breaking the export log jam focused on the supply chain issues impacting the industry and how or when it will ever be resolved. Experts at this year’s Almond Industry conference seemed to agree that the way out of the current price situation for almond growers is through it, by balancing out supply and demand and building relationships to break down obstacles at home and abroad.

Supply Chain Issues

In a session titled Ag Export Delays: Any Light at the End of the Tunnel, the Almond Board’s Geoff Bogart noted that there is a dim light but it is a very long tunnel. As of early December, the situation at ports, rail ramps and roads continued to deteriorate, causing delays in shipments, according to Joshua Woods of Blue Diamond Growers.

Jonathan Hoff at Monte Vista Farming said the crisis is creating a cash conversion cycle longer than ever before, making it harder to pay growers in a timely manner.

“It’s critical we figure out this puzzle and that we keep things going. The issues we are facing are huge and its going to require a massive effort from every stakeholder that is involved,” said Hoff, chair of the ABC Technical and Regulatory Affairs Committee.

Katie Stack, with Grizzly Nut and the board of directors of the Almond Alliance, said the Alliance is focusing on getting empty containers filled with almonds and back on vessels. That includes strategies to store almonds closer to ports, break the log jam in trucks and chassis and develop strategic partnerships with labor and trucking groups.

Andrew Hwang of the Port of Oakland said that California almonds are an important segment for the port and that congestion at the port is being exacerbated by a shortage of trucks and containers. He stressed that the crisis should compel companies to shore up their logistics planning now and in the future.

“Logistics has been looked on as a pass through part of the business, but companies who have traditionally complex logistics programs have been hurt less, so there needs to be a strategic alignment of logistics programs with the rest of the business,” Hwang advised.

Brian Ezell of the Wonderful Com-

pany and chair of ABC’s Global Market Development Committee said these unprecedented transportation and port issues continue to plague shipments.

“We started feeling the pains of it about a year ago, but I kind of felt like as an industry, we had learned some tricks and knew how to deal with the issues, and we had record shipments month after month,” Ezell said. But recent months have become much tougher.

Ezell said that while external forces such as water, tariffs, transportation issues and input costs are external and beyond growers’ control, supply issues must still be addressed. A supply increase of 37% over the last two years is not sustainable. Ezell said the industry is built to absorb a supply growth rate of about 6.5% to 7% before efforts to build demand can no longer offset that growth and prices suffer.

Exports Lead the Way

Meanwhile, global demand for almonds, despite these trade and logistics challenges, continues to be a bright spot for the industry. About 70% of California almonds are destined for export markets. ABC’s Emily Fleishman said strategic marketing objects to build long-term worldwide demand will help buoy the financial wellbeing of the industry. The Almond Board works to choose the right markets currently and in the future to build demand. She said the Board is looking beyond growth in the top 10 markets to new regions including, South American, the Middle East, Africa and even Russia, to build demand for future production.

While conditions on the ground and at sea have been challenging for exports, those markets will continue to lead the way for California almond handlers. India is particularly hopeful in terms of its place as the number-one export market for California almonds and in terms of its untapped market potential.

“The India market is tailor-made for our industry,” according to Warren Cohen, VP of global sales for Blue Di-

Continued on Page 50 January 2022

www.wcngg.com

49

Continued from Page 49 amond Growers. Almonds fit well into India’s health conscious eating trends and there are vast areas of India that have not yet been touched by the market potential of California almonds.

Consumption in India saw a 42% increase in one year and, while there are several kinks in the trade relationship, consumption is still higher than that for all EU nations combined.

While India has a number of trade challenges, U.S. trade representatives are working to set the stage for regular engagement on trade with India, said Joan Warren Cohen of Blue Diamond Growers, at left, said India will continue to be a key parter in future export Hurst with the USDA’s growth for California almonds.

Foreign Ag Service.

A growing middle class and improved economy and infrastructure are removing access barriers to Indian consumers.

“The good news is there is still so much potential and upside to be had in the market,” Fleishman said.

Domestic Growth

Domestic market growth will also be key to continued industry success, and Fleishman noted that younger consumers will be an important target for domestic marketing programs. The Almond Board plans to engage millennials through a partnership with Marvel Studios featuring a cross promotion with the upcoming Thor “cinematic universe”.

Fleishman said that while almonds are a $30 billion global category in grocery stores, it has the potential to exceed $164 billion within a decade.

Comments about this article? We want to hear from you. Feel free to email us at article@ jcsmarketinginc.com

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®

IMAGINATION

INNOVATION

SCIENCE IN ACTION

A WORD FROM THE BOARD: AMERICAN PECAN COUNCIL

Pecan Growth During the 2020-21 Year and Projections for 2021-22

By AMERICAN PECAN COUNCIL | Contributing Writer

E

very year, the American Pecan Council (APC) as the Federal Marketing Order (FMO) for the U.S. pecan industry creates a marketing policy statement that includes recaps and projections for the upcoming fiscal year. Each year, these marketing policy statements are approved during the August council meeting in preparation for the pecan industry’s new fiscal year beginning October 1. In this article, we will dive into some key data and analytics of the U.S. pecan industry gathered this past year and visit the current projections for the 2021-22 crop year.

Low Consumption with More Supply Coming

When the pecan industry came together and formed the

FMO, pecans came in at 15% top-of-mind awareness among U.S. consumers. Prior to the FMO, research showed that U.S. pecan consumption was stagnant while other tree nuts with established programs were experiencing growth. We saw from this research that there would be exponential growth in global pecan supply, almost double by the year 2027. At the current rates without the FMO, global pecan supply was projected to exceed demand by 15%. With that being said, the U.S. pecan industry, across 15 different states, came together and unified marketing efforts to combat the supply growth and raise topof-mind awareness for and overall consumption of pecans. The marketing strategy from the start of the FMO was to echo these efforts and goals.

Data illuminated the beginning success of the young FMO work. In the first two years, pecan consumption increased 16%.

Since then, consumption has continued to climb by 20%. The increase in consumption and demand means more product is moving from the supply that is only projected to go up. We will take a look at the movement of handler inventory later in this article.

2020-21 Crop Size

Because mandatory data is new for the pecan industry, the FMO is still establishing baselines and trends from the current data received. Based on the August 2021 Year-End Inventory Report, the total U.S. crop came in at roughly 330 million pounds. This is one of the highest reported crops thus far compared to previous crop years, further driving home how necessary it is to offset growing supply with increased demand for pecans.

Growth Despite a Pandemic

In 2020, COVID-19 brought the food service industry to a near stop. This affected food industries across the world. With the projected global pecan supply, it was a concern that this new hurdle would also put a halt in the movement of inventory.

With stay-at-home orders and scaled-back gatherings leading to people staying home and cooking more, it was imperative to reach consumers right where they were. Pecan’s digital marketing strategy aligned well with the adjusted consumer behaviors to continue to keep pecans top-of-mind and move the pecan crop production through the pandemic. Below is some industry data that highlights these efforts.

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Net Open Position as of August 31st 2020-2021

46,614,520

2019-2020

61,084,050

88,315,223

2018-2019

Based on the August 2021 Year-End Inventory Report, the total U.S. crop came in at roughly 330 million pounds, one of the highest reported crops thus far compared to previous crop years (all photos courtesy American Pecan Council.)

Pecan Industry Position Reports

The first annual industry report was published for the 2016 crop year. The first monthly data reports were published for the 2018 crop year. This data has been crucial to the industry for setting baselines and to begin tracking and analyzing trends. These reports include stats on shelled meat and inshell shipments, inventory, commitments, net open position at the end of each month, imports and exports. On top of that, APC gathers data on product that is shipped to Mexico to be shelled and then returned as shelled meats so that it is not double counted as an export and import, a common occurrence in the industry.

Total shipments were up from 233 million pounds in the 2019 crop year to 433 million pounds in the 2020 crop year.

When we focus in on the total inshell retail/grocery/wholesale/export shipments, we see an increase of 48% from the 201920 crop year.

As of August 31, 2021, the net open position, which represents how much uncommitted inventory was out and available for the marketplace, was down 19% from the 2019 crop year. This is encouraging because it shows inventory is moving and combatting potential of excess supply.

On top of that, pecan’s total exports for the 2020-21 crop have increased from prior crop years. Some of the top exporting countries were China, Canada, Germany, Mexico, France, South Korea, U.K., Italy and Spain.

-

20,000,000 40,000,000 60,000,000 80,000,000 100,000,000

As of August 31, 2021, the net open position, which represents how much uncommitted inventory was out and available for the marketplace, was down 19% from the 2019 crop year. This is encouraging because it shows inventory is moving and combatting potential of excess supply.

which takes into account that pecans are an alternate bearing crop. The feedback received thus far regarding this year’s crop, which began September 1, 2021, is that harvest started later than usual and the crop is coming in slow compared to prior years. We don’t quite know if the delayed start has affected the crop yet.

We will continue to monitor the crop size through the year. You can view the pecan industry’s monthly position reports at

Americanpecan.com under the data and analytics tab.

We would love to hear from you! If you have any questions, please feel free to reach out to the Council office or email Director of Industry Relations Emma Garner at egarner@americanpecan.com.

Comments about this article? We want to hear from you. Feel free to email us at article@jcsmarketinginc.com

Current Crop Sizing Projections

APC has projected a total of 315 million pounds for the 2021-22 crop year, January 2022

www.wcngg.com

53

Boosting the Elements Manipulate Inputs to Maximize Carbon and Hold Water

By RICH KREPS | CCA, SSp., Contributing Writer

A

s crop advisors and farmers, we are constantly trying to find the magic tricks to growing crops and maximizing yields. We discuss the timing of nutrient and crop protection applications. We hold open forums at coffee shops before the crack of dawn on how to properly irrigate at a specific time of the year and for a specific reason.

And we aspire to get to a metaphysical level of understanding of how to make 17 nutrients work in perfect Zen harmony to create the perfect crop, for less. On occasion, someone strikes the gong and we are brought back from our tantric meditational fixation of all things nutrition to realize a plant is 96% carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The other 17 elements play an important part of trying to making those three elements work. And it isn’t cheap.

A plant is 23% lignin, 40% cellulose and 33% hemicellulose. Without getting deep into the chemical weeds here, think of lignin as the structure of a plant. Lignin is very insoluble, a very heterogenous polymer of phenols. Its diver-

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sity allows it to become a very stable part of a plant. Picture it mostly as the bark. Cellulose is the more malleable carbon molecules that build the original structures of cells. If we were to think of them as a building, cellulose would be the 2x4s that create the original structure. Lignin would be the plywood sheathing and stucco. All the plumbing and electrical would be the hemicellulose. They are more specifically functioning structural parts of a plant with other functions like carrying water and electricity. So what?

Maximizing Carbon

The “what” is all of these structural chains of molecules and functional groups are held together by carbon. How can we increase our carbon usage and save money on inputs and water at the same time? Carbon. Sugars, starches, fats, oils and phenols all make up the “organic” part of chemistry.

They are “carbon-based”. Our focus in plant nutrition is to get a plant to be very efficient at manipulating carbon dioxide and water to create food. If we think of carbon like the kids toys of yesterday, “Jacks”, we see the attachment points that allow carbon to grab onto other elements. Carbon is what makes life work. Fats, sugars, food and structure all come from different formulations of a plant using water and CO2.

I wanted to point all that out because the meat and potatoes of our crops are three elements: C, H and O. We help manipulate those three elements by adding at least 17 other nutrients to the mix to make it all happen. If we add too much of a specific nutrient, say manganese, that contributes to an overabundance of an enzyme, say pyruvate carboxylase, and we go too heavy on specific reactions like energy production. In enhanced energy production, we may use up our phosphorus reserves more quickly making ATP and not have enough when specific processes need to happen after bloom when P demand is high. Now in layman’s terms.

Let’s say we go heavier on coffee in the morning than usual.

Alertness increases, fats get burned, sugars get burned, heart rate increases, and then we crash before lunch. Action and reaction. The same thing happens with our macronutrients. When we apply too much N, P, K, Ca and even Mg or S, the process can go into hyperdrive. How many times have you seen solid growth in an orchard only to have medio-

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Compost can be applied to soils after harvest and in the spring to maximize carbon. It’s best to incorporate it onto the soil to avoid excess volatilization (photo courtesy Almond Board of California.)

January 2022

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Continued from Page 54 cre yields? Big trees, no nuts. We went vegetative instead of producing fruit. If we focus more on providing carbon with our inputs, we should be able to stabilize our production and even reduce our inputs of other nutrients and water.

What inputs can we manipulate to maximize carbon?

Compost We can apply compost to soils after harvest and in the spring.

It’s best to incorporate it onto the soil to avoid excess volatilization. Compost will also enhance the diversity of our soil biome as well as feed it. It is important to source a quality mature compost. If you open the truck or pull the tarp and it wreaks of ammonia, send it back.

Green Waste Growing cover crops can add many more tons of material to a field and increase deep carbon incorporation with root structures. Cover crops can greatly increase the organic matter in soil, reduce temperatures on soil surfaces and stabilize soil structures.

Leonardite We can spread leonardite directly onto our fields to increase organic matter. Leonardite is highly stable and a rich carbon source. It will take longer to break down, so don’t expect

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Growing cover crops can add many more tons of material to a field and increase deep carbon incorporation with root structures (photo courtesy Nichols Farms.)

immediate, dramatic results; however, continual applications can enhance soil organic matter and add structure. Oftentimes, we add an array of sugars to our NPK inputs. These carbon chains allow nutrients to increase their absorption, to “chelate” nutrients, and become a slower release molecule.

Organic acids, such as humic and fulvic, are a great way to increase soil organic matter. These forms are more expensive as they skip the middle man. Leonardite and compost breakdown further to humic acids and then to fulvic acids.

Adding those acids directly costs more as someone already refined it, but they get to work immediately.

The Extra Benefits

A 1% increase in soil organic matter will hold 20,000 gallons more water per acre. If you have 140 trees per acre, that’s 140 more gallons potentially stored in the root zone each irrigation. In California, that may be the game changer as to whether we can farm or not with no surface water deliveries. Extra carbon in the soil feeds the microbiology that lives there. And as those organisms live, breathe and die, more stable carbon can be stored in our soil. As they feed on carbon sources, the nutrients consumed with them are also stabilized and exchanged with plants for root exudates. This symbiotic relationship can actually perpetuate itself. Increasing our carbon sources will also allow us to make more sugars and oils. An almond sitting on an orchard floor and drying out will weigh less if its initial water content was way higher than its oil content. We can increase yields.

Everything we do with our essential nutrients are all in an effort to increase the amount of energy we harvest in the food we produce. That energy is mostly C, H, and O. Gentle, balanced manipulation of those elements will not only save us some money, but allow our trees to produce our crops in a more healthy fashion. Saving money on water and nutrition this year may just be the key to saving farming in the west.

Comments about this article? We want to hear from you. Feel free to email us at article@jcsmarketinginc.com

THE BEST WAY TO MANAGE PATHOGENS BEFORE THEY BECOME AN ISSUE.

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HAZELNUT PROPAGATION: A CLOSER LOOK AT GROWING HAZELNUTS FROM CUTTINGS

By DANITA CAHILL | Contributing Writer

Hazelnut softwood cuttings root best during the late spring and early summer growing period (all photos by D. Cahill.)

T

here are several different methods for propagating hazelnuts. Two of the methods growers can try is with cuttings or by layering. There are also different techniques within each method.

Before propagating hazelnuts, it’s important to note that most of the new varieties of hazelnuts that come from the Oregon State University (OSU) breeding program are protected by plant patents. These varieties cannot be legally propagated for commercial use without a license, whether the plants are intended for use by the grower themselves or for sale to other hazelnut growers. Contact OSU for more information about licensing. With that said, the following is a look at growing new plants using cuttings.

Softwood Cuttings

Softwood cuttings are small shoots

taken from the current year’s growth off of a mother plant, or from a stock plant kept specifically for propagation purposes. Take softwood cuttings during the active growing season. Use root suckers because they will root and grow more vigorously than shoots taken from other parts of the tree such as the trunk or branches. Choose sucker shoots that are roughly the diameter of a pencil and about six inches long.

Remove the shoots using a clean, sharp tool.

While collecting the shoots, keep them moist and out of direct sunlight.

You can use a bucket half-filled with damp sawdust. Stick the cuttings into the sawdust as you work. Keep the bucket in the shade or cover it with a damp towel as you move from tree to tree. You don’t want the cuttings to dry out before you get them stuck into the growing medium. It’s also important

to keep the shoots oriented as to which end is the top and which is the bottom.

Cuttings will not root if they are stuck upside down. For reference, buds tend to point up.

Dip the bottom 0.5 to 1 inch of the shoots in rooting hormone containing indole-3-butyric acid (IBA), which is a synthetic auxin hormone root stimulant (auxin is a natural plant hormone that causes cells to elongate in shoots and aides in regulating plant growth.)

IBA comes in different concentrates.

Choose one with a concentration of 500 to 1,000 parts per million (ppm). Use a dibbling tool or your fingers to first form a hole and then stick the shoot into the porous growing medium; a peat moss and perlite mix works well.

Make the hole a little larger than the diameter of the cutting. That way, the

Continued on Page 60

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Both softwood cuttings and micro-cuttings root quicker and easier with the aid of bottom heat from a propagation mat.

Continued from Page 58 rooting hormone doesn’t rub off when sticking the cutting. Place the bottom end of the cutting in the hole and gently firm the soil around the stem.

Hazelnut softwood cuttings root best during the late spring and early summer growing period. May and June are good months to try your hand at rooting softwood cuttings. Roots should form sometime between the second and eighth week after sticking.

Micropropagation is a technique used in a sterile laboratory setting, although there are DIY kits available for growers who want to give it a whirl at home.

As the name suggests, micro-cuttings are tiny. They can be an inch or less in length. Growers can order micro-cuttings either rooted or unrooted.

If ordering the unrooted cuttings, they can be coaxed into rooting any time of year with artificial light, although delivery of cuttings during the spring and summer growing season is the most popular.

Hardwood Cuttings

Like with softwood, hardwood cuttings should be taken from root suckers for best rooting and better performance later in the field. Growing hazelnut trees from hardwood cuttings is both simpler and more difficult than rooting them from softwood cuttings. It’s simpler because hardwood cuttings are taken during the tree’s dormant season, making watering easier to manage. It’s more difficult because hazelnut hardwood is notoriously tough to root.

However, where there’s a will, there’s

a way. According to OSU archival content written by Jeff Olsen and Dave Smith, there has been some hardwood cutting success with hazelnuts by choosing late-season, underground growth. Choose underground suckers found growing in the sawdust mound around trees used for tie-off layering, or underground around stock plants.

These suckers are tiny with a diameter as small as 0.25 inches and a length of four to eight inches. They may root more easily than typical aboveground tissue because they are etiolated. This means the suckers have never been exposed to sunlight and the open-air environment, Olsen and Smith explain.

Gather the tiny suckers and cut them into even smaller lengths, around two inches. Be sure to keep track of which end is the top (apical) and which is the bottom (basal) so you can orientate them correctly in the growing medium. If other chores interrupt before you get the freshly cut suckers stuck into cell trays or small pots, you can place them in a plastic bag and refrigerate them for a brief time.

Hardwood cuttings benefit from 75 degrees F bottom heat from a propagation mat. They take longer to root than softwood cuttings. Expect to wait six to eight weeks for new leaves to begin growing, a sign of successful rooting.

Care of Cuttings

Keeping moisture levels stable in both the soil root zone area and in the air around the cuttings is imperative for rooting success. Nurseries use misters or fog systems to control humidity levels. This requires either a greenhouse or an indoor growing facility with

Keeping the young trees healthy takes careful monitoring of soil moisture levels.

Roots cannot dry out or become waterlogged.

artificial lights set on timers to replicate trees away from the misting system, but natural daylight hours. continue to grow them inside a greenBoth softwood cuttings and mihouse. cro-cuttings root quicker and easier “Wean the rooted cuttings from the with the aid of bottom heat from a mist environment so they have leaves propagation mat. Set the thermostat to that are adapted to general greenhouse 75 to 80 degrees F. conditions,” Olsen and Smith said.

Once cuttings are rooted and show- “Attention to detail and gradual change ing new growth, it’s time to repot them in the growing conditions are crucial. into four- to five-inch nursery conHazelnuts do not tolerate sudden shifts tainers. Gradually acclimate the young in humidity and light intensity and

will stop growing if they encounter too much change. Eventually, you will grow the new plants in the greenhouse with appropriate watering, fertilization and pest control.”

Keeping the young trees healthy takes careful monitoring of soil moisture levels. Roots cannot dry out or become waterlogged. Protect the cuttings from freezing temperatures before and after rooting. Plants grown in containers are more adversely affected by freezing temperatures than plants growing in the insulated ground.

Although growing hazelnut trees from cuttings requires more attention and skill than layering techniques, growers might find they enjoy the challenge.

Comments about this article? We want to hear from you. Feel free to email us at article@jcsmarketinginc.com

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61

Batting Clean-Up Rover Robot Taps Artificial Intelligence to Target, Remove Mummy Nuts

By VICKY BOYD | Contributing Writer

The self-propelled Rover uses onboard cameras to “see” mummies in the tree. A computer then uses artificial intelligence to target and remove the mummies with biodegradable pellets powered by air blasts (all photos courtesy InsightTRAC.)

T

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The brain child of Anna Haldewang, InsightTRAC founder and CEO, the Rover uses mounted cameras to “see” mummies. It then knocks them from trees by firing biodegradable pellets powered by air blasts. The machine is designed to eliminate polling crews and possibly winter shaking, depending on the number of unharvested nuts left on trees.

And unlike human mummy removal, the Rover can operate around the clock for a couple of days before its pellet supply and 18-gallon gas tank need to be refilled. During a season, it can cover about 425 acres, a comparable pace to a polling crew of eight people working nine-hour days, Haldewang said.

But the machine can work during daylight and in the dark and doesn’t call in sick or need breaks. A single technician oversees operation of the Rover using a tablet to monitor its course.

Going Commercial

In late fall 2021, Haldewang sought five to eight growers to host demonstrations in January in the state’s three main almond growing regions. Later this winter, she plans to conduct a preliminary trial with pistachios, which

Continued on Page 64

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Continued from Page 62 also have issues with navel orangeworm overwintering in mummies.

“We then want to branch out into walnuts, then branch out into other crops,” she said. “We’re looking into other seasonal activities we can do around the orchard.”

Haldewang has already started taking orders for the Rover. If all goes according to schedule, she plans to make the first deliveries the last quarter

of 2022.

The one unknown is current supply chain disruptions. “That’s definitely been a challenge, especially as we near the period of production,” she said.

“We’ve had to wait on other suppliers to bring in the components. It’s been a challenge, but I’m proud of the team.”

The True Cost of Mummies

Extension specialists have long recommended almond growers in the Sacramento Valley strive for fewer than

two mummies per tree. In the central and southern San Joaquin Valley, they recommend a target of one or fewer mummies per tree. The reason for their concerns is mummies can provide overwintering habitat for NOW larvae.

They also can provide egg-laying sites for the first moth flight in the spring.

By removing and destroying this habitat, growers typically start the season with much lower NOW populations.

Dr. Sebastian Saa, senior manager for agricultural research for the Almond Board of California, hasn’t seen the Rover in action. But he said the almond board welcomes novel and cheaper methods to aid winter sanitation.

“We understand that this cultural practice is key to implementing a full integrated pest management approach to control navel orangeworm, our key insect challenge,” he said. “Winter sanitation is not only an expensive cultural cost for our growers but also a treatment that is hard to do right; effective sanitation with less than two mummy nuts per tree.”

Doing nothing and leaving mummies on the trees also can hit growers hard financially. Blue Diamond’s Mel Machado estimates that NOW damage at 2% reject levels can translate to losses of $336 to $436 per acre.

With hourly wages of more than $30 per hour, Australian almond growers are also looking at automation to manage their expenses. Although they don’t have NOW, they do have Carpophilus beetle and carob moth, considered Australian almonds’ most serious insect pests. But much like NOW, the two Australian insect pests overwinter in mummy nuts.

As a result, Haldewang said, growers Down Under are equally interested in her Rover automation. With the Australian almond season opposite California’s, she’s able to double up on demonstrations and collect twice as much data per year. Haldewang also plans to conduct demonstrations in Australian almond orchards in June.

Continued on Page 66 64

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January 2022

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The Evolution of the Rover

As an amateur beekeeper in Indiana, Haldewang had heard about the plight of honeybees and thought about using drone pollination to augment the millions of beehives required during the six to eight weeks of California almond pollination.

After talking to California almond growers and industry representatives, she learned of the pressing mummy nut issue and refocused her efforts. Haldewang admitted she didn’t have the technological background to develop such robotics, but she credited her team for bringing the needed engineering know-how.

The first hurdle to overcome was how to remove the mummies on the tree. About 15 people came together in a room to brainstorm.

“No idea was off the table,” she said.

They narrowed the candidates down to five that included an air jet, a water jet and a bristle brush. Eventually, they weeded out the bristle brush because

If growers had a clean harvest and only a few mummies per tree, they could enlist the Rover alone to remove the remainders.

of the difficulty pulling it through the tree. A water jet only worked if the machine was a few feet away from the mummy nut. Plus, with the current drought, Haldewang said she didn’t want to potentially increase water use in an orchard.

A system similar to a pellet gun that used biodegradable plastic pellets powered by air blasts seemed to be the most

effective at removing mummies.

Collecting Photos of Mummies

Beginning in 2019, Haldewang began the arduous task of collecting over 20,000 images of mummy nuts to create a database.

“I did it all by hand,” she said, laughing. Using a make-shift system comprising a light and laptop strapped to her, Haldewang walked orchards taking photos at specific distances and angles that mimicked how the Rover would see mummies.

Digital cameras on the Rover view a mummy nut and relay the information. Using artificial intelligence and drawing from the image database, the computer “brain” within the Rover can accurately identify and remove mummies up to 30 feet away.

As the Rover goes through orchards on its duties, it continues to collect mummy nut images, improving upon the image database, she said. At the end of the clean-up activities, the Rover can produce maps, showing growers where the most and least number of mummies were in the orchard.

“Over time, the grower is able to see patterns in their orchard,” Haldewang said. “Maybe [the higher mummy numbers are] related to stress in this area due to irrigation. This data is going to be really powerful to answer other questions as well as in other seasons.”

Winter Demonstrations

Haldewang began work on the original Rover prototype in 2019. She put it

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through demonstrations in a couple of California almond orchards with a few grower and industry members during the 2020-21 winter. Based on their suggestions, she and her engineering team added the improvements and launched what she refers to as Rover 2.0.

Instead of having cameras strapped to the machine as the original one did, the latest prototype has the imaging technology integrated into the body design. But much like the original machine, the latest version retained the 4-foot-wide footprint with tracks to Anne Haldewang, founder and CEO of InsightTRAC, developed the concept of a robotic navigate potentially muddy orchards. mummy nut remover after visiting with California growers and industry representatives. She The Rover is powered by an electric moassembled a team of technology experts to help bring the project to fruition. tor with an on-board gas generator.

Haldewang foresees growers using the machine in two ways. If they have the remainders.

Rover directly to growers with larger a higher number of mummies, they’d “If you have 50 per tree, it will take acreage or to custom operators who mechanically shake first, then use the three hours to get through an acre,” she want to provide an added service to Rover to clean up the last few nuts. This said. “If you have side-by-side polers their grower-customers. would be much as they would with a versus us, we would be slower. But hand polling crew. where we pick up that time is we operIf growers had a clean harvest and ate 24/7. We don’t take breaks. We keep Comments about this article? We want only a few mummies per tree, they at it long after they’re gone for the day.” to hear from you. Feel free to email us at Antles_WCN_Ad1C_101920.pdf 1 10/19/20 11:47 PM article@jcsmarketinginc.com could enlist the Rover alone to remove InsightTRAC plans to market the

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To Treat or Not to Treat: Scale Pests in Walnuts

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Live walnut scale adults (photo courtesy UC Statewide IPM Program.)

D

epressed walnut prices and higher input costs have put a premium on pest management decisions and increased the importance of dormant monitoring for scale pests in walnuts.

UC IPM Pest Management Guidelines advise growers and crop consultants to monitor scaffolds, limbs, branches and prunings in the dormant period for San Jose scale, Italian pear scale and, most prominently, for walnut scale and frosted scale. At high populations, walnut and frosted scales can reduce yields and quality and create issues with other plant pests, particularly Botryosphaeria.

Both scales inflict damage by sucking plant juices from leaves and twigs and reducing growth and vigor. “This

Continued on Page 70

Important Information ABOUT UPCOMING TRADESHOWS POSTPONED UNTIL: APRIL 2022 YUBA CITY, CA

POSTPONED UNTIL:

APRIL 2022 YUBA CITY, CA

POSTPONED UNTIL: JUNE 2022

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NORTH VALLEY Nut Conference

REGISTRATION IS STILL OPEN AT WCNGG.COM/EVENTS After much consideration and with the best intentions for our industry and everyone involved, I have decided, in cooperation with the Walnut Board, CA Pecan Board, and the UC Cooperative Extension, to postpone the North Valley Nut Conference on January 5th, Pecan Day on January 12th and the California Walnut Conference on Januar y 13th and 14th, 2022 due to increasing health and safety risks and mandated restrictions set forth by our local government officials. My goal is to provide the most successful outcom es for our attendees, exhibitors, sponsors, and presenters. My hope is that by a future date (outlined below) the restrictions and concerns will lessen to a point where we can all fully benefit from holding a live in-person event.

We will keep you informed after the holiday season on exact dates within those months. Thank you for your understanding and patience. I hope everyone has a great holiday season and look forward to a new adventure in 2022.

Jason Scott | Publisher The California Walnut Board values the health and wellbeing of our indust ry members which is why we support postponing the California Walnut Conference to a later date when the risks of COVID will hopefully be lower and we can better assure the safety of all in attendance.

Michelle Connelly | Executive Director, California Walnut Board and Commission

Continued from Page 68 manner of feeding creates entry points for pathogens and UC Plant Pathology Specialist Dr. Themis Michailides has correlated scale infestation with increased incidence of Botryosphaeria infection in walnuts,” said Emily Symmes, Ph.D., former UCCE IPM advisor and current Senior Manager of Technical Field Services for Suterra.

Symptoms of trees infested with walnut scale include a water-stressed appearance and die back of fruiting wood on lateral bearing cultivars. High populations of frosted scale reduce terminal growth and vigor, resulting in smaller nuts and poor kernel quality. Additionally, the frosted scale can secrete large amounts of honeydew that covers nuts and contributes to growth of sooty mold, increasing chances of sunburn.

Research has shown that when monitoring for the pests, growers and PCAs should simultaneously look for biological control activity. “Evidence of parasitism is fairly easy to identify as small holes on the scale bodies where

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Dead walnut scale adult (photo by E. Symmes.)

the adult parasitoid has exited its host,” Symmes said.

Guidelines call for examining a minimum of 100 branches and tree scaffolds from throughout an orchard, and to make observations at varying heights. “Getting up in the tree canopy on a pruning tower can be an excellent means of monitoring tree tops, which is important as infestation can vary at different heights in the tree canopy,” Symmes said.

Parasitized walnut scale adult (photo courtesy UC Statewide IPM Program.)

Continued on Page 72

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Healthy (non-parasitized) frosted scale nymphs (photo courtesy UC Statewide IPM Program.)

Continued from Page 71

Walnut Scale

According to UC Davis literature, the walnut scale is the most important armored scale pest of walnuts. It has two generations per year in the Cen-

tral Valley, overwintering primarily in the second-instar stage. In spring, the scales resume development and adult males emerge as tiny winged insects, while females remain immobile under

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the scale cover. After mating, females lay eggs in May that will typically hatch in two to three days. Crawlers will disperse before settling down to feed and secrete the white scale cover. The cover color will change to gray in about a week.

The first generation typically completes development by mid-July.

Second-generation eggs are laid around mid-August and the crawlers will again disperse before molting prior to overwintering.

When looking for walnut scale in the dormant period, look for daisy-shaped groups of male crawlers under the margins of circular female covers. When lifting the scale cover, look for a yellowish body with indented margins. These features distinguish walnut scale from other armored scales on walnuts.

It is also important when scouting for walnut scale to confirm that the majority of the population is still active prior to making any treatment decisions, Symmes said. “The scale cover can stay attached to the plant tissue even when the insect beneath is no longer alive,” Symmes said.

She advised growers and PCAs to remove the scale cover with a small blade or a fingernail and examine the

Continued on Page 74

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Continued from Page 72 body beneath. “If it is bright yellow and ‘squishy,’ it is still alive,” she said. “Dead scales will be darker yellow to translucent and often slough off easily when removing the scale cover.”

Frosted Scale

Frosted scale, which is considered the most important soft scale pest of walnuts, has only one generation per year. It overwinters as a nymph on twigs and small branches. The nymphs, or crawlers, emerge from beneath scale covers from late May through June and settle mostly on the underside of leaves.

From there they will feed during summer months. In the fall, nymphs molt and move back to twigs.

When monitoring for frosted scale during the dormant period, UC IPM guidelines call for examining the previous season’s growth on randomly selected trees throughout an orchard.

Parasitized frosted scale nymph (photo courtesy UC Statewide IPM Program.)

Treatment threshold is reached if finding more than five nymphs per foot of last year’s wood if less than 90% of the

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nymphs are parasitized.

When looking for evidence of the parasites, look for nymphs that are almost black and have convex covers.

Unparasitized nymphs, conversely, are flat and opaque. Several parasites commonly emerge from a single parasitized adult scale, leaving a perforated cover. Past research has shown that parasitoid populations can increase over time, and researchers recommend growers consider holding off on insecticide treatment as long as possible to allow for parasitoid populations to build. When insecticides are deemed necessary, Symmes advised growers to choose the most selective chemistries available to preserve the predator and parasitoid populations.

Also, consider orchard management history when gauging whether to treat.

Low to moderate numbers of either walnut or frosted scales are not considered a significant threat to orchards, according to the IPM guidelines, particularly if biological control agents are present. Careful monitoring and knowing the history of pest pressure cycles in the orchard can help inform whether it is prudent to rely solely on natural enemies in a given year, Symmes said.

Delayed-Dormant Treatment

If treating for the pests, UC IPM

Walnut scale crawlers trapped on double-sided tape, high magnification (photo by E. Symmes.)

Guidelines recommend doing so in the delayed-dormant period before shoot growth begins, especially if using an

insect growth regulator. Further, the guidelines recommend placing double-sided sticky tape around limbs near

adult scales in early spring to monitor for crawler emergence.

For walnut scale consider performing a follow-up treatment if finding yellow, mite-sized crawlers congregating on the edges of sticky tapes. For frosted scale, a follow-up treatment may be necessary if finding eggs under adult females on the sticky tape and crawlers actively moving beneath the scale. Eggs will be white and shiny in appearance, resembling tiny grains of rice.

Monitoring over several years has shown that crawler emergence is variable, coming as early as the third week of April and as late as the third week of May, so crawler treatment should not be timed by the calendar, according to Symmes.

Various insecticide options can be used to control scales, including buprofezin, pyriproxyfen, spirotetra-

Continued on Page 76

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Frosted scale with eggs (photo by E. Symmes.)

Frosted scale with crawlers (photo by E. Symmes.)

Continued from Page 75 mat, bifenthrin/imidacloprid and acetamiprid, according to the UC IPM Guidelines. Among these, buprofezin and

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pyriproxyfen during the dormant or crawler periods are most effective and are selective choices that can help mitigate non-target impacts to natural enemies, according to Symmes.

Narrow range oils can suppress low to moderate numbers of walnut scale during summer months, but can be destructive to walnut aphid parasite. Guidelines advise growers to refrain from applying oils if trees are suffering from low soil moisture or other stress factors or if temperatures are expected to exceed 90 degrees F at the time of application.

For frosted scale, narrow range oil can be effective during the delayed dormant period, but should be applied only after buds begin to swell as a dilute application in at least 300 gallons per acre. As with the walnut scale, an application in summer will suppress low to moderate numbers.

Deciding whether to treat for scale pests can be a difficult decision, particularly when profit margins are low and biological control agents often keep the pests in check. But, at times, not treating can be more costly than spending money on an insecticide.

“Research has shown that a good insecticide application can provide suppression of walnut and frosted scale for multiple seasons, so annual treatments may not be needed in every orchard,” Symmes said.

Symmes added that through dormant monitoring, growers can get a good idea of whether they should treat for these pests or let biological control agents do their work for them.

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Keep the Pressure on Navel Orangeworm with IPM and Mating Disruption

By EMILY J. SYMMES | Ph.D., Senior Manager of Technical Field Services, Suterra

T

he 2022 growing season will likely continue to present uncertainties around supply chain, availability of critical crop inputs like fertilizers, costs of materials and access to labor, among others. One unfortunate certainty that California nut crop growers have come to expect is the potential for navel orangeworm (NOW) to cause economic damage in almonds, pistachios and walnuts.

For the past several decades, NOW has been a primary insect pest in these crops.

Despite the perennial threat of NOW, the outlook for this pest is increasingly encouraging. Advances in research and technology, coupled with historically proven practices, have equipped growers and their crop advisers with options to develop customized and effective integrated pest management (IPM) strategies for NOW in their orchards.

Mating disruption is one technological advancement that provides nut crop producers with an additional effective tool to reduce NOW populations, protect yields and deliver a high-quality crop.

Recent estimates indicate that approximately 40% of almond acreage and 50% to 60% of pistachio acreage are using some form of mating disruption. Adoption rates are increasing year over year as successes and return on investment are realized. Multiple years of industry and academic research has shown that incorporating mating disruption into an IPM program for NOW will reduce crop damage by 50% or more in a single year with further reductions over multiple years of use.

In addition to the direct benefits of mating disruption, it is important to note that this approach increases the efficacy and return on investment of other pest management tactics because there are fewer pests in the environment to kill or remove with insecticides and other inputs.

Insect Behavior Modifier

In the case of NOW specifically, mat-

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Harvest damage evaluations are critical to evaluating the overall IPM program (photos courtesy E.J. Symmes.)

ing disruption works by inhibiting the ability of male NOW to locate females for reproduction. This non-toxic mode of action reduces the number of viable offspring in each generation that pheromone mating disruptants are effective in the orchard.

The physiology of pheromone-based communication among insects and the behaviors elicited are highly specific to a given species and innately tied to their evolutionary success. For this reason, we can exploit this part of their biology for purposes of pest management, reducing populations in a consistent and reproduceable manner with mating disruption products.

Population Potential and Mating Disruption

Population growth rates in insects when uncontrolled can be exponential, given the high reproductive potential of each individual female. For example, consider a basic model for NOW population growth rates assuming an initial population of 100 individual NOW, a 50:50 male-to-female sex ratio in the population and an average of 100 eggs per female (a conservative estimate for NOW.) In the absence of mating disruption and other mortality factors, this would result in 250,000 NOW in the second generation, 12.5 million NOW in the third generation, and 625 million

NOW in the fourth generation.

With highly effective mating disruption (95% reduction in offspring each generation), those numbers become 625 in generation two, 1563 in generation three, and 3906 in generation four. If mating disruption increases to 98% reduction in offspring each generation, the model demonstrates a negative population growth rate, with 50, 25, and 13 offspring in generations two, three, and four, respectively. While this model does not account for natural mortality, induced mortality (e.g., insecticide inputs during the season), sanitation efforts impacting the initial population density, or migration into or out of the orchard, the trajectory of each population potential growth curve remains consistent and illustrates the efficacy of mating disruption.

Sanitation Remains a Critical Baseline

The model above is based on an initial population of 100 individual NOW. Layering in other critical baseline IPM inputs such as sanitation will impact the initial population density and ultimate NOW numbers each generation, although population growth models will remain consistent depending on whether mating disruption is included or not.

Consider sanitation efforts that result in an initial population of 15

Monitoring for NOW in Mating Disrupted Orchards

Monitoring to obtain knowledge for decision-support is crucial for any IPM program. There are several options for monitoring NOW and understanding the utility of each method is important, especially in mating disrupted orchards.

Research has shown that a combination of monitoring methods is the best strategy for informing NOW control input needs and timing. In mating disrupted orchards, the presence of pheromone in the environment impacts male capture in traps baited with only pheromone lures; therefore, additional reliance on alternative monitoring approaches is needed. Below is a brief summary of how different monitoring methods can be used in mating disrupted orchards.

Pheromone traps target adult males only and should be deployed in mating disruption blocks to indicate mating disruptant activity. Significant trap suppression in each flight is expected for season-long products (aerosols and medium-density emitters) and for up to 30 days after application of sprayable pheromones. Increases in pheromone trap capture can inform best timing for application or re-application of sprayable pheromones.

Egg traps can be used in mating disrupted orchards as they are used in non-mating disrupted orchards because female trap location ability is not impacted by mating disruption. Utility of egg traps includes establishing biofixes, degree-day modeling and informing insecticide timing. Egg traps are not an effective method to measure mating disruption efficacy as females lay eggs whether they have mated or not, meaning eggs deposited on egg traps may or may not be viable.

Kairomone (e.g., bait bag or Peterson traps) can be used in mating disrupted orchards in the same way as they are used in non-mating disrupted orchards because female trap location ability is not impacted by mating disruption. These traps target adult females almost exclusively and are considered less sensitive than pheromone traps, meaning they have a smaller attractive radius and often catch a much lower total number of moths relative to pheromone traps, where mating disruption is not present and suppressing pheromone trap capture. Kairomone-based traps can be used to track female flight activity under mating disruption but have not been shown to indicate efficacy of mating disruption.

PPO+Pheromone traps are presently considered the most effective for monitoring NOW flights in mating disruption blocks. Phenyl propionate (PPO) lures paired in a trap with a standard NOW pheromone lure attract both males and females and are used to track flight activity in mating disrupted orchards.

PPO+pheromone trap data has not been

Adult NOW moth (photo courtesy USDA ARS.)

shown to be indicative of mating disruption efficacy.

Mummy samples and infest rates should be conducted during the late fall to winter to help guide sanitation priorities and estimate block-specific pest pressure going into the next season.

This knowledge can help inform mating disruption approaches and plan other NOW control strategies.

Continued on Page 80

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Incorporating Mating Disruption

Continued from Page 79 Crop phenology is monitored to determine peak in-season crop vulnerability (e.g., the onset of hullsplit through harvest in almonds) and can be paired with visual observations of egg laying directly on the crop. This window of in-season crop susceptibility is a critical time for potential insecticide applications as well as possible targets for timing sprayable pheromone applications.

Harvest damage evaluations are critical to evaluating the overall IPM program. Processor grade sheets provide good information for the grower but may lack specificity regarding the exact nature of damage. Obtaining and cracking out in-orchard harvest samples provides the best information about sources of crop damage as well as a more accurate measure of crop lost to NOW as NOW-damaged nuts may not make it all the way through harvest processes for grade sheet inclusion.

There are multiple pheromone delivery systems available in the market. Growers and crop advisers are encouraged to investigate each of the pheromone systems in detail and choose a product that best fits the pest management needs of each individual operation.

Aerosol emitters (typically one per acre), medium-density dispensers (typically 15 to 28 per acre) and a sprayable microencapsulated formulation (up to 30-day field life) are the three commercially available options. The active ingredient (pheromone) is the same molecule across all NOW mating disruption options. However, even within similar delivery mechanisms (e.g., aerosols), it is important to note that there are intrinsic differences among products.

Co-formulants and pheromone purity as well as the device itself (e.g., durability, stability, placement, consistent release mechanism) can result in differences of pheromone release in the environment and thus the effectiveness of disruption in reducing populations and crop

damage. The decision on which platform and product is best suited for a given operation should be based on conversations among growers, their PCAs and product manufacturer technical representatives to fully understand the quality, reliability and consistency of pheromone emission.

Keep the Pressure on NOW

It is important to acknowledge that IPM for pests of all types (insects, mites, diseases, weeds and vertebrates) exists within the larger scope of the overall agricultural enterprise. In this context, which could be termed Integrated Production Management (IProM), numerous elements interact to ultimately impact the degree of success in each individual operation. These include, but are not limited to, environmental conditions, water availability and irrigation management, soil structure and health, horticultural characteristics and practices, plant nutrition and pest management, and overall operational activities. In some cases, it may be possible to control or influence these elements to varying degrees. In others like weather conditions, for example, agriculturalists must play the hand dealt. Crop producers are no strangers to this concept and are experts at adapting to challenging and shifting circumstances.

The 2022 growing season will likely present challenges particularly related to the availability of water and fertilizers, both of which not only impact overall plant health and crop yields but can increase the negative impacts of pests and diseases, including NOW. Additionally, if lower crop yields are expected, it becomes increasingly important to the bottom line to ensure that the highest quality crop is delivered in order to receive the maximum premiums possible.

When it comes to the threat of economic damage caused by navel orangeworm, it is critical to continue to manage the aspects that can be controlled. One of the primary features of an IPM approach to pest management is to achieve long-term mitigation of pests and their damage. Mating disruption as a pest management tactic is one

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Durable. Sustainable. Trusted.

The most trusted mating disruption pheromone for navel orangeworm.

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Continued from Page 80

Recent estimates indicate that approximately 40% of almond acreage and 50% to 60% of pistachio acreage are using some form of mating disruption to control navel orangeworm.

that delivers on this concept by driving populations down generation after generation and year after year. Be cautious when considering discontinuing its use, whether due to reduced pest pressure or the need for cost-saving measures due to production and market uncertainties.

Consider the longer-term impacts and your investment to date as well as the fact that mating disruption is, at least in part, responsible for downward trends in NOW populations that many growers have been experiencing. Carefully evaluate whether other types of less desirable or more costly inputs can be reduced while maintaining a disruption environment.

Flexibility in mating disruption product choice may be increasingly important in 2022. The choice to commit to season-long products, such as aerosols and meso emitters, is made by early spring. If circumstances in a given operation are extremely uncertain (e.g., water allocation to be able to farm effectively for the entire season), it is reasonable to take a wait-and-see approach for crop input selection. The sprayable pheromone formulation allows for such flexibility. Crop producers can still gain the benefits of a mating disruption mode of action by applying products later in the season targeting one or more specific flights.

Over the course of the past few seasons, we have heard from academics, extension agents, growers and PCAs alike that NOW IPM programs incorporating mating disruption are working to suppress populations and generate quality bonuses, and that the industry should continue to keep the pressure on when it comes to this pest. There are many wonderful resources available for growers, operation managers and PCAs to support successful adoption of mating disruption into your IPM program.

Manufacturer technical service representatives, cooperative extension agents and others are readily available to meet with you and help determine the best fit for your operation and how to get the most out of your investment.

Comments about this article? We want to hear from you. Feel free to email us at article@jcsmarketinginc.com

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