I n t e r mo u n t a i n We s t Jo i n t Ve n t u r e 2 013 I m p l e m e n t a t i o n Pl a n Stre ngthe ning Scie nce a nd Pa r tne r ships
2 013 I m p l e m e n t a t i o n Pl a n S t r e n g t h e n i n g S c i e n c e a n d Pa r t n e r s h i p s
Intermountain West Joint Venture 1001 S. Higgins Avenue, Suite A1 Missoula, MT 59801 T. 406.549.0732 F. 406.549.0496 E. info@iwjv.org
www.iwjv.org Citation: Intermountain West Joint Venture. 2013 Implementation Plan – Strengthening Science and Partnerships. Intermountain West Joint Venture, Missoula, MT.
Cover Photos: Working Ranch Photo-John Ranlett; Rancher-Lori Reed; Sage-grouse-Ron Stewart; Northern Pintail-USFWS; Sandhill Crane-Utah Division of Wildlife Resources; Mule Deer-Mike Keller
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This Plan represents an important benchmark for bird habitat conservation in the Intermountain West, made possible by the tireless efforts of individuals who care deeply about the remarkable landscapes and natural resources of this region. The crafters of this Plan believe that the best way to sustain bird populations at desired levels is to conserve habitat through a science-driven, partnership-based approach that considers the needs of wildlife and people. We are forever grateful to the folks that graciously contributed their time and energy to this Plan. The partnership is truly stronger than the sum of its parts. – Dave Smith, Intermountain West Joint Venture Coordinator, March 2013
The 2013 Intermountain West Joint Venture (IWJV) Implementation Plan was developed through extensive collaboration among some of the best avian ecologists and habitat conservationists in the Intermountain West, organized through the IWJV Science Teams for Waterfowl, Shorebirds, Waterbirds, and Landbirds. This Plan is a product of the IWJV Science Team members, Management Board and staff, and other Joint Venture partners who contributed to its development and presentation. All played crucial roles in bringing this project to fruition, but the principal authors listed below truly did the heavy lifting – and for those contributions we are extremely grateful.
Special Recognition Goes To: Principal Authors • Brad Andres, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service • Daniel Casey, American Bird Conservancy
Plan Contributors IWJV Science Team Members Waterfowl Science Team
• Ashley Dayer, Strategic Communications Consultant
• Tom Aldrich, Utah Division of Wildlife Resources
• Patrick Donnelly, Intermountain West Joint Venture
• Brad Bales, Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife
• Alison Duvall, Intermountain West Joint Venture
• Brad Bortner, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
• Gary Ivey, International Crane Foundation
• Bruce Dugger, Oregon State University
• Don Paul, AvianWest, Inc.
• Joseph Fleskes, U.S. Geological Survey
• Mark Petrie, Ducks Unlimited, Inc.
• Don Kraege, Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife
• Dave Smith, Intermountain West Joint Venture
• Craig Mortimore, Nevada Department of Wildlife
• Kelli Stone, Two Birds One Stone LLC
• Mike Rabe, Arizona Game & Fish Department
• Sue Thomas, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
• Dan Yparraguirre, California Department of Fish and Game
• Josh Vest, Intermountain West Joint Venture • Tara Zimmerman, Kinglet Consulting, Inc
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Waterbird Science Team
Landbird Science Team (see note below)
• John Alexander, Klamath Bird Observatory
• John Alexander, Klamath Bird Observatory
• Suzanne Fellows, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
• Bob Altman, American Bird Conservancy
• Jenny Hoskins, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
• Geoff Geupel, PRBO Conservation Science
• Dave Mauser, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
• Michael Green, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
• Colleen Moulton, Idaho Department of Fish and Game
• David Hanni, Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory
• John Neill, Utah Division of Wildlife Resources
• Aaron Holmes, PRBO Conservation Science
• Andrea Orabona, Wyoming Game & Fish Department
• Larry Neel, Nevada Department of Wildlife
• Don Paul, AvianWest, Inc.
• Russ Norvell, Utah Division of Wildlife Resources
• Dave Shuford, PRBO Conservation Science
• Terry Rich, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
• Jennifer Wheeler, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
• Rex Sallabanks, Idaho Department of Fish and Game
Shorebird Science Team • Brad Andres, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service • Daniel Casey, American Bird Conservancy • Wendell Gilgert, Natural Resources Conservation Service • Suzanne Fellows, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
• Jaime Stephens, Klamath Bird Observatory Note: The Landbird Strategy was developed through collaboration with the Partners in Flight - Western Working Group. We give special thanks to the working group members that provided valuable input to the Strategy.
• Gary Ivey, International Crane Foundation • Dave Mauser, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service • Colleen Moulton, Idaho Department of Fish and Game • Larry Neel, Nevada Department of Wildlife • Don Paul, AvianWest, Inc. • Mark Petrie, Ducks Unlimited, Inc. • Bridget Olson, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service • Dave Shuford, PRBO Conservation Science • Kelli Stone, Two Birds One Stone LLC • Sue Thomas, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Other Contributions Graphic Design, Photos, Technical Assistance, and Management Board Leadership We extend our sincere appreciation to Sara Kauk, DesignMissoula, and Amy Farrell, times2studio, for formatting the Plan. We also recognize the individuals, organizations, and agencies that contributed photos: Daniel Casey, Colorado Division of Wildlife & Parks, Larry Kruckenberg, Jeremy Roberts of Conservation Media, Natural Resources Conservation Service, and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. We thank the following IWJV Staff members, contractors, or partners that contributed to the project: Barb Bresson, Susannah Casey, Geodata, Inc., Randall Gray, Katie Guenzler, Lori Reed, Terry Mansfield, Christopher Rustay, and former Waterbird Science Team Leader, Nanette Seto. We also thank the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for significant contributions from its Migratory Bird Management Program, Region 1, and the national North American Waterbird Conservation Plan Coordinator; these funds played an instrumental role in the shorebird and waterbird conservation planning.
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Further, we offer sincere thanks to the IWJV Management Board for leadership, direction, and guidance. Each and every member of the Management Board from 2007 to 2013 played an important role in this process, and we are eternally grateful for those contributions. We are especially indebted to the following Board Chairs for their leadership and savvy in the project: Alan Clark (20112013), Brad Bortner (2009-2011), and Larry Kruckenberg 2007-2009). Collectively, they brought many decades of experience to the development of this Plan. The staff of the IWJV offers sincere and heartfelt thanks for those contributions!
Contact Dave Smith Intermountain West Joint Venture Coordinator 1001 S. Higgins Avenue, Suite A1 Missoula, MT 59801 Dave_W_Smith@fws.gov 406.549.0287 (office) 406.370.7729 (cell) www.iwjv.org
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The mission of the Intermountain West Joint Venture is to conserve priority bird habitats through partnership-driven, science-based projects and programs. We bring people and organizations together to leverage technical and financial resources, building our collective capacity to achieve conservation at meaningful scales.
Photo by USF WS
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Photo by Rio de la Vista
The 2013 Intermountain West Joint Venture (IWJV) Implementation Plan (Plan) – the third in the history of the Joint Venture – establishes a framework for sciencebased, habitat conservation that supports the work of a diverse and substantial network of conservation partners. The Plan will direct efforts of the Joint Venture over at least the next five years. The Plan is built upon the model of Strategic Habitat Conservation (SHC – i.e. the iterative cycle of biological planning, conservation design, habitat delivery, monitoring, evaluation, and research). For migratory birds, this involves translating continental bird population objectives to ecoregional scales and identifying the quantity and quality of habitat needed to support priority bird populations at goal levels. The geographic and taxonomic scope of the IWJV requires a much different approach than has been used with the implementation plans of other Joint Ventures. The Intermountain West is characterized by an extremely high level of habitat heterogeneity, which requires establishing a relatively small number of focal species and carrying out biological planning and conservation design in focal landscapes or ii.2
ecoregions. This precludes the IWJV from developing a synthetic Implementation Plan for all priority birds, JVwide, at the present time. Nevertheless, the Plan lays out a vision for addressing IWJV science needs in a systematic, step-wise, and transparent manner. This approach is demonstrated through the presentation of populationhabitat modeling completed to date for specific groups of birds in specific landscapes for four major bird groups – waterfowl, shorebirds, waterbirds, and landbirds. Biological planning and conservation design required to establish defensible habitat objectives has been underway for several years and is complete for certain groups of birds at certain times during their annual life cycle in certain portions of the Intermountain West. For example, the Plan comprehensively identifies habitat needed to support spring-migrating waterfowl at North American Waterfowl Management Plan goal levels in Southern Oregon and Northeastern California. Likewise, it includes the results of the most detailed conservation strategy ever developed for shorebirds at the Great Salt Lake, one of the most important stopover sites for shorebirds in the Western Hemisphere.
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Remaining data gaps clearly hinder our ability to develop habitat objectives or spatially explicit decisionsupport tools for many priority species. However, this Plan consolidates our current knowledge of certain priority avian species, species-habitat relationships, and the quantity and location of habitat needed to support populations of those birds at goal levels – beginning in landscapes with the greatest continental significance to shorebirds and waterfowl. It will be immediately valuable to habitat mangers in those landscapes and will provide a framework for future efforts to establish habitat objectives for other species or in other landscapes. The Plan includes a Habitat Conservation Strategy (Chapter 8) that defines the IWJV approach to habitat conservation delivery through establishment of habitat goals, objectives, and priorities. This chapter is included to reflect the emphasis and strength of the IWJV partnership in delivering on-the-ground habitat protection, restoration, and enhancement. Habitat conservation delivery has long been the hallmark of the IWJV partnership. Today, the Management Board allocates a significant amount of funding and staff resources to strengthening the habitat delivery capacity and effectiveness of a wide array of IWJV partners. We are actively engaged with partners in facilitating effective delivery of Farm Bill conservation programs; assisting state fish and wildlife agencies in habitat conservation through partnerships; working with the land-protection community to foster strategic habitat protection for priority avian habitats; and delivering a Capacity Grants Program intended to help IWJV partners capitalize on existing funding sources from public and private conservation programs.
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The Habitat Conservation Strategy provides an overview of the mechanisms available to the IWJV partnership for conservation delivery implementation – a key cog in the SHC wheel. This chapter describes, to the best of our ability at the present time what needs to be done to facilitate landscape-scale habitat conservation. As such, it provides a critical connection to the science platform established in the Waterfowl, Shorebird, Waterbird, and Landbird Chapters and provides an overview of some of the programmatic and funding mechanisms needed to influence avian habitats in key landscapes. Finally, the Plan includes a comprehensive Strategic Communications Plan to promote effective integration of biological planning, conservation design, on-theground habitat conservation, and monitoring, evaluation, and applied research among an incredibly diverse and extensive array of conservation partners. The Strategic Communications Plan will facilitate transfer of key findings of this Implementation Plan to the vast array of partners working to conserve avian habitats in the Intermountain West. This Plan represents a significant step in the evolution of the IWJV toward science-based, partnership-driven habitat conservation. Its defining characteristic isn’t the number of explicit decision-support tools it contains, but rather the foundation it provides for increasingly tightening the linkage between science and habitat conservation delivery. Foremost, it establishes a strategic framework for the future business of this diverse Joint Venture across the vast landscapes of the Intermountain West.
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Inside this Document
Ta b l e of Co n t e n t s
Chapter 1 Introduction........................................................................................................................... 1.2 Plan Overview.. ...................................................................................................................... 1.4 Foundation & Focus of the Plan............................................................................................ 1.5 Mission & Goals.. ................................................................................................................... 1.6 History................................................................................................................................... 1.7 •
1994-2005 Era.................................................................................................................. 1.7
•
2006-2013 Era.................................................................................................................. 1.7
Administrative Structure.. .................................................................................................... 1.10 Relationship to National Bird Plans & Initiatives................................................................. 1.11 •
North American Waterfowl Management Plan (NAWMP)................................................... 1.11
•
United States Shorebird Conservation Plan (USSCP)....................................................... 1.12
•
North American Waterbird Conservation Plan (NAWCP).. .................................................. 1.12
•
North American Landbird Conservation Plan.. .................................................................. 1.12
•
North American Bird Conservation Initiative (NABCI)........................................................ 1.13
Chapter 2 Introduction........................................................................................................................... 2.2 Ecological Setting................................................................................................................. 2.3 •
Northwestern Forested Mountains Ecological Region (162.2 million acres).. ........................ 2.3
•
North American Deserts Ecological Region (278.9 million acres).. ....................................... 2.4
•
Temperate Sierras Ecological Region (19.9 million acres)................................................... 2.7
Defining an Ecological Framework.. ...................................................................................... 2.9 •
Global/Intercontinental Scale (Level I Ecoregions).. ............................................................ 2.9
•
National/Sub-continental Scale (Level II Ecoregions).. ...................................................... 2.10
•
Regional Scale (Level III Ecoregions)............................................................................... 2.12
•
Local Scale (Level IV Ecoregions).................................................................................... 2.14
Conservation Estate & Landownership Patterns................................................................. 2.15 Literature Cited .................................................................................................................. 2.17
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Chapter 3 Introduction........................................................................................................................... 3.2
Ta b l e of Co n t e n t s
Biological Foundation Framework Overview ........................................................................ 3.4 Identify Priorities for Conservation Science.. ........................................................................ 3.5 •
A Strategic Framework for Conservation Science Priorities................................................ 3.5
Biological Planning . ........................................................................................................... 3.10 •
Assess Population Status.. .............................................................................................. 3.10
•
Determine Population Objectives.. ................................................................................... 3.10
•
Identifying Limiting Factors............................................................................................. 3.11
•
Estimating Net Landscape Change.................................................................................. 3.11
Conservation Design........................................................................................................... 3.13 •
Species-Habitat Models.................................................................................................. 3.13
•
Focus Areas................................................................................................................... 3.14
•
Characterize Past, Current and Potential Future Landscapes........................................... 3.14
•
Biological Capacity and Habitat Objectives..................................................................... 3.17
•
Decision Support Tools................................................................................................... 3.17
Monitoring & Evaluation...................................................................................................... 3.18 Assumption-driven Research ............................................................................................. 3.19 Initiating a Strategic Plan for Science Priorities ................................................................ 3.20 Literature Cited .................................................................................................................. 3.21
Chapter 4 Introduction........................................................................................................................... 4.2 Non-Breeding Waterfowl....................................................................................................... 4.4 •
Structure of Non-Breeding Waterfowl Plan.. ....................................................................... 4.4
•
Biological Planning........................................................................................................... 4.4
•
Conservation Design......................................................................................................... 4.6
•
Habitat Delivery................................................................................................................ 4.6
Southern Oregon & Northeastern California (SONEC).. ......................................................... 4.7 •
Biological Planning........................................................................................................... 4.7
•
Conservation Design....................................................................................................... 4.14
•
Habitat Objectives for SONEC: Spring............................................................................. 4.24
Great Salt Lake.................................................................................................................... 4.25 •
Biological Planning......................................................................................................... 4.25
•
Conservation Design....................................................................................................... 4.30
Columbia Basin.. .................................................................................................................. 4.37 •
Biological Planning......................................................................................................... 4.37
•
Conservation Design....................................................................................................... 4.42
Breeding Waterfowl............................................................................................................. 4.53 Literature Cited................................................................................................................... 4.55 Appendix A. Waterfowl Science Team Members.. ................................................................ 4.58
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Chapter 5
Ta b l e of Co n t e n t s
Introduction........................................................................................................................... 5.3 •
Guiding Documents.......................................................................................................... 5.3
•
Partnership Guidance....................................................................................................... 5.4
•
Planning Approach: Key-Site Strategy, Bioenergetics Modeling.. ........................................ 5.4
•
Description of the Region.. ................................................................................................ 5.4
An Introduction to Biological Planning for Shorebirds.......................................................... 5.5 Shorebirds of the Intermountain West.. ................................................................................. 5.6 Shorebird Habitat Types........................................................................................................ 5.9 Population Status & Trends................................................................................................. 5.11 Threats & Limiting Factors.................................................................................................. 5.13 •
Water Quantity and Quality.. ............................................................................................ 5.13
•
Habitat Loss or Degradation.. .......................................................................................... 5.13
•
Agriculture.. .................................................................................................................... 5.13
•
Rural Urbanization.......................................................................................................... 5.14
•
Invasive Species............................................................................................................. 5.14
•
Contaminants and Disease Outbreaks............................................................................. 5.15
•
Other Anthropogenic Factors.......................................................................................... 5.15
•
Climate Change.............................................................................................................. 5.15
Population Estimates & Objectives..................................................................................... 5.16 •
Population Estimates...................................................................................................... 5.16
•
Assumptions and Limitations of Data.. ............................................................................. 5.16
•
Regional Population Objectives....................................................................................... 5.16
Key Sites for Shorebird Conservation................................................................................. 5.19 •
The Great Salt Lake Key Site Conservation Strategy........................................................ 5.21
•
Blanca Wetlands Shorebird Habitat Strategy.. .................................................................. 5.22
Breeding Shorebird Focal Species...................................................................................... 5.22 •
Focal Species Profiles.. ................................................................................................... 5.23
Literature Cited................................................................................................................... 5.25 Appendix A. Shorebird Science Team Members.................................................................. 5.27 Appendix B. Status of Shorebird Species.. .......................................................................... 5.28 Appendix C. Common & Scientific Names of Shorebird Species Listed in this Document.. ..................................................................................................... 5.30
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Chapter 6 Introduction........................................................................................................................... 6.3
Ta b l e of Co n t e n t s
Waterbirds & The Intermountain West Region.. ..................................................................... 6.6 Overview of Planning Approach............................................................................................ 6.9 Waterbird Population Status & Trends.. ............................................................................... 6.10 •
Eared Grebe................................................................................................................... 6.12
•
Double-Crested Cormorant............................................................................................. 6.12
•
White-faced Ibis............................................................................................................. 6.13
•
Sandhill Cranes.............................................................................................................. 6.13
•
Caspian Tern.................................................................................................................. 6.15
Threats & Limiting Factors.................................................................................................. 6.16 •
Loss and Degradation of Wetland Habitat........................................................................ 6.16
•
Water Supply and Security.............................................................................................. 6.16
•
Water Quality.. ................................................................................................................ 6.18
•
Loss of Foraging Habitat................................................................................................. 6.18
•
Climate Change.............................................................................................................. 6.18
Population Estimates & Objectives..................................................................................... 6.20 Focal Species...................................................................................................................... 6.21 •
Focal Species Approach................................................................................................. 6.21
•
Focal Species and Conservation Planning....................................................................... 6.24
•
Focal Species Profiles.. ................................................................................................... 6.25
Population Inventory & Monitoring...................................................................................... 6.28 •
Western Colonial Waterbird Survey, 2009–2011............................................................... 6.28
•
North American Marsh Bird Monitoring............................................................................ 6.28
•
Continental Marsh Bird Monitoring Pilot Study.. ............................................................... 6.29
•
Periodic or Annual Waterbird Surveys.. ............................................................................ 6.29
•
Species-Specific Surveys.. .............................................................................................. 6.30
Next Steps........................................................................................................................... 6.32 Literature Cited................................................................................................................... 6.33 Appendix A. Waterbird Science Team Members.................................................................. 6.39 Appendix B. Double-Crested Cormorant Breeding Pairs in the Intermountain West.......... 6.40 Appendix C. Caspian Tern Breeding Pairs in the Intermountain West.. ............................... 6.41 Appendix D. White-faced Ibis Breeding Pairs in the Intermountain West........................... 6.43 Appendix E. Focal Area Profiles – Descriptions & Threats.................................................. 6.46 Appendix F. Literature Cited in Appendices........................................................................ 6.64
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Chapter 7 Introduction........................................................................................................................... 7.3
Ta b l e of Co n t e n t s
Definition of Biological Planning Units.. ................................................................................ 7.4 Species Prioritization............................................................................................................ 7.5 •
PIF Species Assessment Database and Continental Plan................................................... 7.5
•
PIF State Plans................................................................................................................. 7.5
•
Fish and Wildlife Service Birds of Management Concern (BMC).. ........................................ 7.6
•
State Wildlife Action Plans................................................................................................ 7.6
Habitat Prioritization & Characterization............................................................................ 7.10 •
IWJV Terrestrial Habitat Overview (Landscape Characterization).. ..................................... 7.10
•
Habitat Classification Scheme: Crosswalk of Vegetative Associations.............................. 7.11
•
Decision Support Tool: The HABPOPS Database.. ............................................................ 7.12
Bird Population (Step-down) Objectives............................................................................. 7.13 •
Step-down Objectives by BCR/State Polygons ............................................................... 7.13
Habitat-based (Bottom-up) Objective Setting & Targeting Landscapes.............................. 7.25 •
Sagebrush Objectives..................................................................................................... 7.25
•
Grassland Objectives...................................................................................................... 7.36
Priority Actions . ................................................................................................................. 7.43 •
Recommended Approaches for Conservation, by BCR/State............................................ 7.43
Literature Cited................................................................................................................... 7.54 Appendix A. Landbird Science Team Members................................................................... 7.55 Appendix B. Landbird Species of Continental Importance in the Intermountain West Avifaunal Biome . ................................................................................................................ 7.56 Appendix C. Total Acreage by IWJV Habitat Type by State and BCR.. ................................. 7.57 Appendix D. Crosswalk of Vegetative Associations by IWJV Cover Types......................................................................................................................... 7.64 Appendix E. Overlaps Between Mapped Ranges of IWJV Focal Species and BCR/State Polygons............................................................................................................ 7.74 Appendix F. Population Trends of Focal Landbird Species, IWJV States, 1967–2007.......... 7.76 Appendix G. Priority Actions for Additional Habitats and Focal Species in BCRs 9, 10 and 16.. .............................................................................................................. 7.77 Appendix H. BBS Trend Maps for IWJV Focal Landbird Species......................................... 7.83
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Chapter 8 Introduction........................................................................................................................... 8.2
Ta b l e of Co n t e n t s
Targeting Conservation......................................................................................................... 8.3 Wetland Habitat Conservation............................................................................................... 8.4 •
Priority Wetland Dependent Bird Species.. ......................................................................... 8.6
•
Key Threats to Wetlands................................................................................................... 8.6
•
Southern Oregon and Northeastern California (SONEC)................................................... 8.10
•
Great Salt Lake (GSL)..................................................................................................... 8.13
•
Status of Conservation Planning and Science for Wetland Focal Areas............................. 8.16
•
Funding Opportunities.................................................................................................... 8.16
•
Resources...................................................................................................................... 8.16
Sagebrush Habitat Conservation.. ....................................................................................... 8.17 •
Priority Sagebrush Bird Species...................................................................................... 8.18
•
Key Threats to Sagebrush Habitat................................................................................... 8.18
•
Funding Opportunities.................................................................................................... 8.24
•
Resources...................................................................................................................... 8.24
Grassland Habitat Conservation.. ........................................................................................ 8.25 •
Priority Grassland Bird Species....................................................................................... 8.25
•
Key Threats to Grasslands.............................................................................................. 8.25
•
Funding Opportunities.................................................................................................... 8.27
•
Resources...................................................................................................................... 8.27
Literature Cited................................................................................................................... 8.28
Chapter 9 Introduction........................................................................................................................... 9.2 Summary of the Communications Plan................................................................................. 9.3 Approach............................................................................................................................... 9.4 •
Background to Strategic Communications......................................................................... 9.4
•
Capacity Building & Engagement Approach....................................................................... 9.4
History & Past Accomplishments of IWJV Communications................................................. 9.5 Needs Assessment for Defining 5-Year Goals....................................................................... 9.6 Audience Assessments & Situational Analyses..................................................................... 9.8 Communications Campaigns.. ............................................................................................. 9.12 •
Communications Goals................................................................................................... 9.12
•
Communications Objectives and Messages .................................................................... 9.17
•
Tactics & Tools.. .............................................................................................................. 9.27
•
Evaluation...................................................................................................................... 9.35
Implementation.. .................................................................................................................. 9.38 Future Vision.. ...................................................................................................................... 9.40 Literature Cited................................................................................................................... 9.41 Appendix A. Desired Characteristics of JV Matrix for Communications, Education, & Outreach...................................................................... 9.42 Appendix B. Audiences Referenced.................................................................................... 9.43
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