ALGAE[CRETE] A Tectonic Hylozoism

ALGAE

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A TECTONIC HYLOZOISM FABIO RIVERA

ALGAE [ CRETE]

ALGAE

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A TECTONIC HYLOZOISM

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ALGAE [ CRETE] A TECTONIC HYLOZOISM // Author: Fabio M. Rivera // Supervisor: Marcos Cruz C-Biom.A Studio Master in Advanced Architecture II September 2018 Barcelona, Spain Thesis presented to obtain the qualification of Master in Advanced Architecture from the Institute for Advanced Architecture of Catalonia Š 2018 Fabio Rivera All Rights Reserved

WORDS F I B R O S I T Y C R E T E

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DESIGN

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FIBER REINFORCED CONCRETE >

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SPIROGYRA

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ABSTRACT The growing interest to develop biodegradable materials has pushed the boundaries of their applications in many sectors. The progression of climate change requires pertinent actions in order to mitigate its dangerous effects in the world’s ecological macro-system. Harmful algal blooms (HAB) are one of the consequences of global warming that directly threatens marine life by critically depleting the oxygen levels in bodies of water. In the need for sustainable alternatives, many industries are now considering algae-based materials due to its many properties, high performance and sufficient availability.

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This research proposes the use of biomass from filamentous algae [Spirogyra sp.] as a lightweight, hygroscopic and bio-receptive reinforcement for cementitious composites, to derive materially-efficient fibrous constructs. Material research has been conducted through flexural beams and cylindrical samples to evaluate the structural, hygroscopic, rheological and bio-receptive performance of concrete mixes prepared with different volumetric ratios of added algal fibers and different proportions of fine aggregates. The proposal was developed via intense computational form-finding techniques of multi-agent algorithmic strategies driven by natural growing behaviours that explore three-dimensional fibrous systems and define structure, porosity, water channelization and greenery exposure. The final prototypes are presented as a catalogue of decontextualized architectural primitives, based on the abstraction of fundamental geometrical elements for multiple programmatic possibilities: The Verticality [1 x Ă˜ 0.3 m], The Surface [1 x 0.5 m] and The Vessel [ Ă˜ 0.3 m ] Such elements are designed and conceived through different computational and fabrication methods: The surfaces and verticality by traditional casting, and The Vessel through non-gravitational printing. This novel way of articulated materiality allows the extrusion of three-dimensional continuous and porous elements that ultimately conceives a biopoietic scaffold capable of hosting its own cryptogamic ecosystem. ALGAE[CRETE] acts an artificial ecology that triggers the resurgence of marine life in places that requires it, and strategically responds to the pertinence of improving the environmental quality of highly-polluted urbanospheres.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor and tutor Marcos Cruz, for his guidance, dedication and inspirational support throughout this project. His remarks and suggestions were quintessential for the development of this thesis and will always be very much appreciated. I would also like to thank Mathilde Marengo and Maite Bravo for their unconditional advice and for their theoretical assistance which was always tremendously helpful. I would like also to acknowledge Kunaljit Singh Chadha, Sujal K. Suresh and S. Rizvi Riaz for their patience and digital fabrication support, and without whom I would have not achieved my final catalogue of prototypes. Finally I am immensely grateful to all the IAAC staff, my groupmates and everyone who assisted me throughout this project.

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KEY WORDS

ABSTRACT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

INDEX

INTRODUCTION

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16

18

28

34

AIMS & OBJECTIVES

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

HARMFUL ALGAL BLOOMS

CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

BACKGROUND

51

76

90

INITIAL EXPERIMENTS

ALGAE[CRETE]

BIORECEPTIVITY

40 S TAT E O F T H E A R T

44 FILAMENTOUS ALGAE

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96

102 114 124 126

GEOMETRIC STUDIES

S C R E E N TA X O N O M I E S

COLUMN TAXONOMIES

140

160 184

130 VISUAL STUDIES

204 NON-GRAVITATIONAL PRINTING

THE VERTICALITY

THE SURFACE

230 234 CONCLUSIONS

BIBLIOGRAPHY

C U B E S TA X O N O M I E S

TILES

FURNITURE TAXONOMIES

192 THE VESSEL

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INTRODUCTION C

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oncrete is undeniably one of the most used construction materials worldwide, whose production leads to the emission of tremendous amounts of carbon dioxide and greenhouse gases. The production of one tonne of Portland cement produces about one tonne of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases [1]. During this century, sustainability policies and environmental protocols have a pioneering role for the cement and concrete industry, leading to the control of production and limitations for engineering and architectural projects.

Not only the concrete industry has environmental issues regarding noxious gas emissions, but also the significant depletion of limestone as a substantial resource for cement production [2] and the presence of highly toxic and radioactive substances [3] and chemical additives.

Moreover, concrete is second to water in all materials consumed worldwide and accounts an influential amount of jobs by being the world’s most consumed man-made material [4].

In order to transform the concrete industry and create a sustainable development of the material, many scientists have proposed the use of natural fibers as an aggregate to cementitious mixtures. Interesting and novel industrial applications of natural fiber composites (NFCs) are yet to be presented. The first use of fibers in reinforced concrete has been dated to 1870’s. Since then, researchers around the world have been interested in improving the tensile properties of concrete by adding wood, iron and other wastes [5].

The traditional composites were usually made out of glass, carbon or aramid fibers with epoxy, unsaturated polyester resins and polyurethanes. Nevertheless due to serious environmental pollution problems, the interest to develop biodegradable materials has grown in order to preserve toxic petroleum-based products. If the biocomposites contain either a biodegradable polymer or natural fiber among binary component parts, the biocomposites have a partial or complete biodegradable ability in the environment [6]. Fibers used for textiles such as hemp, jute and flax, are now being used for industrial natural composites. By further processing plant sources, the diameter of the extracted reinforcement can be reduced thus improving its suitability for NFCs [7]. Many industries nowadays are considering biocomposites for structural applications in which the reinforcement offers good mechanical performance.

Natural fibers have been extracted from a large amount of land plants and from different sections from them such as seeds, fruits and leaves. The quality of these natural fibers as a reinforcement for composites depends on the production process, the location of this fibers and its composition. Their availability and hygroscopic nature of these fibers represent a significant factor for its usage in biocomposites. The principal components of natural fibers are Cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin [8]. Cellulose naturally presents itself in highest degree of crystallinity in algal cellulose, bacterial cellulose, cotton and ramie [9].

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httpswww.heidelbergcement.comencement https://cleanfax.com/rug-cleaning/know-jute-rugs/ https://media.istockphoto.com/photos/concrete-and-cement-factory-poland-picture-id542303962 https://images.indianexpress.com/2017/07/rsz_2carbonl-759.jpg http://rovingcrafters.com/wp-content/uploads/l0SBPY5.jpg

6. http://www.shaila.co.in/images/services/Fiber%20Reinforced%20Concrete1.jpg

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Still, scarce research has been done regarding algae fibers as reinforcement for cementitious composites.

Previous projects tested red [10] and green [11] algae where the tension and thermal properties acquired a higher performance when the fibers were incorporated.

Although green algae are an available source that can be treated and used as an alternative for these composites.

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The availability of this type of algae comes from various phenomena. Primarily, the alginate extraction permits to obtain 200 to 250 kilograms of raw material for each ton of dry algae. Since China is the world’s largest algae aquaculture country, it has an abundance of raw materials to produce alginate-based fibers. Each year the clean-up of the algae blooms is converted into a source of employment and quality products, with a proven value on the market [12]. Secondly, the rapid expansion of the algae biofuel market and the required utilization of the residual micro-algae produce large quantities of biomass, and thirdly is the rapid growth of algal blooms in stream near populated communities due to air and water pollution [13]. The clear demand for sustainable fuels such as biodiesel provides a market for algal biomass since the biomass market is expected to grow in the next 10 years.

Green Filamentous Algae (GFA) are available in abundance since it is found all around the world. It is considered as “macrophytes” since they often form floating masses than can be easily harvested, although many consist of microscopic, individual filaments of algal cells [14].

GFA are the most widespread of the photosynthetic plants, constituting the bulk of carbon assimilation through microscopic cells in marine and freshwater [15].

GFA are commonly referred as “pond scum”, “pond moss” or “blanket weed” for the natural formation of greenish mats upon the surface of the water. It is a fast-growing algae that can cover a pond in a short period of time, established first along the edges or bottom of the bodies of water, and quickly spreading to the surface. Harmful algal blooms (HAB) are often produced by GFA and are responsible of severely lowering the oxygen levels in bodies of water and blocking the sunlight, therefore killing marine life. These blooms can last from days to many months and after it dies, the decomposed microbes from the dead algae use more oxygen leading to fish die-offs. Moreover GFA can produce hazardous toxins, and in high concentrations the water treatment plants may be unable to remove the toxins.

Spirogyra sp. is one of the most common GFA and is named because of the helical or spiral arrangement of the chloroplasts. There are more than 400 species of Spirogyra sp. in the world. This genus is photosynthetic, with long bright grass-green filaments that grows in running streams of cool freshwater, and secretes a coating of mucous that makes it feel slippery [16]. As the blooms develop, a dense mat is observed to grow overtop other species turning the bottom water anoxic, causing a grassy odour and clog filters in water treatment facilities [17].

ALGAE [ CRETE]

This proposal aims to provide a sustainable solution for the depletion of natural resources in the construction industry due to the cement production and the harmful algal blooms phenomena, by creating a new material system based on the major by-products of these fundamental issues. ALGAE[CRETE] integrates biomass from noxious filamentous algae (Spirogyra sp.) as a lightweight and bioreceptive reinforcement for cementitious composites. The natural algae fibers improves the lithophytic properties of conventional concrete composites by potentially sustaining its own emerging cryptogamic ecosystem. Intense computational simulations based on multi-agent systems were executed to improve the structural and aesthetic qualities of the design and physical applications. The project is idealized under the concept of fibrosity in architecture in order to conceive materially-efficient artifacts with a high degree of three dimensional exploration.

The workflow is initially composed of material experiments and medium explorations to achieve a fibrous composite that could be reinforced with algal fibers. This stage examines into different viscous biopolymers, algal species and speculative morphological approaches, providing also references from different fields of interest and theoretical framework. Subsequently, the project evolves into visual and computational studies that will determine the design and applicability of the material, as well as the incorporation of cement as the decisive matrix for the algae-laden composite.

Image Source: https://www.thoughtco.com/green-algae-chlorophyta-2291973

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The final stage consists in the conclusion between digital simulations and physical prototyping that ultimately established the multiple programmatic possibilities of the material, as well as the digital fabrication techniques that include both casting and non-gravitational printing. The combination of material, geometric complexity and robotic manufacturing allowed the inception of a catalogue of decontextualized architectural primitives with multiple applications in the built environment.

1 1 1. Naik, T. R. (2005). Sustainability of The Cement and Concrete Industries. Global Construction: Ultimate Concrete Opportunities.

Dundee, Scotland. Retrieved from https://www4.uwm.edu/cbu/Papers/2004 CBU Reports/CBU-2004-15.pdf 2. Ibid.

3. Ademola, J. A., & Oguneletu, P. O. (2005). Radionuclide content of concrete building blocks and radiation dose rates in some dwellings in Ibadan, Nigeria. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity, 81(1), 107–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVRAD.2004.12.002 4. Naik, T. R. (2005). Sustainability of The Cement and Concrete Industries. Global Construction: Ultimate Concrete Opportunities.

Dundee, Scotland. Retrieved from https://www4.uwm.edu/cbu/Papers/2004 CBU Reports/CBU-2004-15.pdf 5. Awwad, E., Mabsout, M., Hamad, B., & Khatib, H. (2011). Preliminary Studies on the Use of Natural Fibers in Sustainable Concrete.

Lebanese Science Journal (Vol. 12). Retrieved from http://proquest. umi.com 6. Sim, K. J., Han, S. O., & Seo, Y. B. (2010). Dynamic mechanical and thermal properties of red algae fiber reinforced poly(lactic acid) biocomposites. Macromolecular Research, 18(5), 489–495. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s13233-010-0503-3

7. Constante, A., & Pillay, S. (2016). Compression molding of algae fiber and epoxy composites: Modeling of elastic modulus. Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites, 073168441664541. https://doi. org/10.1177/0731684416645410 8. Constante, A., Pillay, S., Ning, H., & Vaidya, U. K. (2015).

Utilization of algae blooms as a source of natural fibers for biocomposite materials: Study of morphology and mechanical performance of Lyngbya fibers. Algal Research, 12, 412–420. https://doi. org/10.1016/J.ALGAL.2015.10.005 9. Klemm, D., Heublein, B., Fink, H.-P., & Bohn, A. (2005). Cellulose: Fascinating Biopolymer and Sustainable Raw Material. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 44(22), 3358–3393. https:// doi.org/10.1002/anie.200460587 10. Lee, M. W., Han, S. O., & Seo, Y. B. (2008). Red algae fibre/ poly(butylene succinate) biocomposites: The effect of fibre content on their mechanical and thermal properties. Composites Science and Technology, 68(6), 1266–1272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2007.12.016 11. Johnson, M., & Shivkumar, S. (2004). Filamentous green algae additions to isocyanate based foams. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 93(5), 2469–2477. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.20794 12. Pauli, G. (2010). Fibers from Algae. Retrieved from https:// www.theblueeconomy.org/uploads/7/1/4/9/71490689/case_77_ fibers_from_algae.pdf 13. Anderson, D. M., Burkholder, J. M., Cochlan, W. P., Glibert, P. M., Gobler, C. J., Heil, C. A., … Vargo, G. A. (2008). Harmful algal blooms and eutrophication: Examining linkages from selected coastal regions of the United States. Harmful Algae, 8(1), 39–53. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.hal.2008.08.017 14. Hasan, M. R., & Chakrabarti, R. (2009). Use of algae and aquatic macrophytes as feed in small-scale aquaculture. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical paper (Vol. 531). Rome: FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/docrep/012/i1141e/i1141e.pdf 15. Ibid., 4.

16. Ibid., 5.

17. Ibid.

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Image Source: Sergi Martinez - Flickr

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AIMS & OBJECTIVES The aim of the thesis on sustainable materials is to investigate the use of natural fibers from algal blooms with cementitious mixes to improve the performance of fibrous components. It would intend to reduce the depletion of natural resources and reappropriate the organic by-products originated from the Harmful Algal Blooms phenomena. The output of this material research may fit the criteria of sustainable design since it is expected to: 1. Improve or equalise structural performance and physical characteristics thus requiring less material (By mixing algal fibers with Cement).

2. Provide a new material system with multiple properties for different environmentally-friendly programmatic applications.

3. Develop a catalogue of morphologies inspired on natural behaviours, based on multi-agent algorithms that aim to improve and optimize the aesthetic, environmental and structural qualities of the components.

4. Contribute to a more sustainable industry through the application of fast and precise digital fabrication techniques such as CNC Milling and Robotic pneumatic extrusion that will materialize complex fibrous geometries.

5. Design and manufacture catalogue of architectural primitives (The Verticality, The Surface and the Vessel) that are able to demonstrate the multiple applications and properties of the new material system.

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THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK BLOOM, BERLIN 2018 LARS PLOUGMANN

ALGAE [ CRETE]

MATERIALITY

TECHNOLOGY

PROGRAMMATIC POSSIBILITIES PRESSURE

[ROBOTIC PRECISION]

S TA N D A R I Z A T I O N

ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING

GEOMETRICAL CONSTRAINTS

FABRICATION

TECHNIQUE

MATERIAL VISCOSITY MEDIUM TEMPERATURE

PITHOPHORA

M A I N S P.

BIOMASS

SPIROGYRA CLADOPHORA

filamentous algae

F R E S H W AT E R

NON-GRAVITATIONAL EXTRUSION

LIGHTWEIGHT

LIGHTWEIGHT | POROSITY | BIORECEPTIVE

prototyping

[PROPERTIES]

NATURAL FIBER REINFORCEMENT

ENHANCED BIOFOULING

[HYLOZOISM]

C O L U M N TA X O N O M Y

ALGAECRETE

VASE DESIGN

LITHOPHYTIC GROWTH

M AT E R I A L S Y S T E M

CEMENTITIOUS COMPOSITE

FIBER

ORGANIC EXTRACTION COMPOSITE WASTE AGGREGATE

LIGTHWEIGHT HYGROSCOPIC

DISSOLVED GEOMETRY LOGIC-BASED CONNECTIONS articulated structure m u lt i e l e m e n t d e s i g n

COLLISION

SEPARATION FLOCKING

T

MARJAN COLLETTI / REX-LAB

AR

SOFTKILL [aa] [2012] OF

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NICHOLETTE CHAN, GILLES RETSIN, AARON SILVER, SOPHIA HUA TANG

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FILATURES [UCL] [2016]

GEOMETRY

ELEMENTS

[ F. R . C ]

COHESION

ROBOTIC FOAMING [ui] [2013]

AMAURY THOMAS

V E S S E L

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FILAMENTS HAIR-LIKE GROWTH

24H BRIDGE PROJECT [2018]

THREE-DIMENSIONALITY

CATALOGUE

GELATIN MEDIUM

C YA N O B A C T E R I A

You Han Hu, Yuan Jiang, Cheng-Hsiang Liu, Xia Chen Wei

VERTICALITY

S U R F A C E

&/OR

PHENOMENA

GREEN-WALLs

INERT

S A LT W A T E R

NATURE INSPIRED

ARCHITECTURAL PRIMITIVES

GREEN-ROOF TILINGS

PERFORMANCE

PASSIVE

RHEOLOGICAL CONCEPTS

LINEAL WORKFLOW LOW RESOLUTION

PAVEMENTS OUTDOORS FURNITURE BIORECEPTIVE COATING

[Pa]

GEOMETRY

CONCRETE

CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

[H.A.B] HARMFUL ALGAL BLOOMS

PARAMETERS

FORMWORK DEPENDENCY

REINVENT

MAIN ISSUES

TIME

AGENT-BASED DESIGN PARTICLE SYSTEMS

FIBROUS TECTONICS

FACADE PANEL

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PHENOMENA

HARMFUL ALGAL BLOOMS

LAKE ERIE 2015 image by e.s.a - PETER RESSICK

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“Nihil vilior alga” - There is nothing fouler than an Alga Virgil (70-19 b.c)

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lgae, photosynthetic plant-like organisms that are either single or multi-celled, are organisms that are essential to marine life, building the base of the food chain and producing oxygen to sustain life in these ecosystems.

Algae is able to grow in visible colonies of widely varying sizes, growth rates and substratums. The rapid accumulation of these organisms are known as algal blooms, and the photosynthetic pigments present in the algal cells determine the color of the bloom. It can range from green, yellow and brown to red, and in some cases blue-green due to the presence of cyanobacteria. Blooms can host multiple species of algae at the same time and tend to grow beneath the surface of the water.

Phytoplankton organisms are capable of absorbing the necessary substances for growth and reproduction directly from the surrounding water [1]. For a species to bloom, environmental factors such as water temperature and salinity must be balanced, and essential nutrients must be available in the correct amounts [2]. Elements such as Phosphorus (P) and Nitrogen (N) are fundamental for algae to grow, which are commonly found in most of aquatic environments in different concentrations.

If such elements are not found in the proper amounts, the growth and reproduction of species will be limited. If such conditions are abundant and favorable, the bloom will take place. Many blooms are ephemeral events that tend to disperse after the source of nutrients is gone or when the environmental conditions are not favorable anymore.

When the nutrient source is abundant and continuous and the conditions remain optimal for the algal growth, the blooms become a long-term harmful phenomena that can directly affect the ecosystem. Sustained blooms can block out or reduce the amount of sunlight reaching seagrasses on the seafloor, which can stress or kill the plants [3]. Harmful Algal Blooms (HAB) are algal bloom events that could involve or host noxious or harmful species and produce toxins, which can cause health impacts in human and animals.

The immediate changes of global warming manifest alterations that directly impact surface water conditions in terms of temperature, precipitation and wind that causes changes in the phytoplankton community structure and composition. Included also under the HAB umbrella are largely human-caused high-biomass events that, while often comprising of non-toxic phytoplankton species, still critically alter ecosystems through hypoxia/anoxia, altered food web efficiencies, stimulation of pathogenic bacteria, or other ecological consequences [4].

Successful “invasions” of new HAB species will depend fundamentally on the species “getting there”, through spatial transport, “being there” as indigenous species (hidden flora) that potentially can grow in abundance within the phytoplankton community, and “staying there” by persistence through unfavorable conditions (e.g., high temperature, nutrient depletion, overwintering) [5].

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HAB can also be identified not only for their pigmentation but also for their physical qualities since they appear as scum, foam or mats on or below the surface of the water. As the algae grow, they deplete the oxygen levels in the water and block sunlight from reaching fish and plants. Moreover, this depletion of oxygen for a prolonged period of time can lead to hypoxic dead zones and eutrophication, destroying aquatic life in the affected area.

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MAP OF HYPOXIC AREAS - Reported cases of hypoxic areas due to Harmful Algal Bloom events worldwide. The difference between color intensities show the magnitude of the event.

Source: WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 2014

This phenomena has been observed to also cause multiple effects to a variety of aquatic organisms and its toxins can produce changes to their development, neurological or reproductive capacities. Due to their negative economic and health impacts, HABs are often carefully monitored. For human beings, it is not recommended to consume fish which has been exposed to algal blooms. A related phenomenon called ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP) occurs when toxic algae living on coral reef seaweeds are consumed by herbivorous fish, which pass the toxins onto larger predators, consequently delivering the neurotoxins to human consumers [6].

Van Dolah et al. (2001) (cited in [7]) report that, worldwide algal toxins of all types may be responsible for as many as 60,000 intoxication incidents per year. More cases have been reported where new species have been involved and more toxins have been identified [8]. HABs are also the consequence of the increased nutrient loading from human activities including both fertilizers and human waste.

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FILAMENTOUS ALGAE R E T R I E V E D F R O M h t t p : // v i b i g y e a r . c a / 2 0 1 5 / 0 4 / 2 5 / h e r e -t h e r e - a n d - e v e r y w h e r e /

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C L I M AT E C H A N G E

TEMPERATURE

IRRADIANCE

STRATIFICATION

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Physiological Responses

Grazing/ Mortality

pH/pCO2

NUTRIENTS

Phenology

Biogeography

HAB Trends and Responses

The Progression of climate change pressure on key variables and related HAB interactions that will drive HAB responses in the future ocean.

Source: Wells et al., 2015

These discharges contain highly-concentrated nutrients that enter the rivers and are later on transported to coastal waters, resulting in marine pollution. Such nutrients are quantified and associated to eutrophication cases in south Asia [9]. Every year HABs are responsible for the loss of millions of dollars to coastal communities and related organizations in the United States.

Section 602 (5) of the US.S Harmful Algal Bloom and Hypoxia Research and Control Act of 1998 [P.L. 105-383] stated that:

“Congress finds that . . . harmful algal blooms have been responsible for an estimated $1,000,000,000 in economic losses during the past decade.”

Millions of people around the world need and depend on freshwater or marine water for obtaining resources and services whose availability is strictly dependent on the protection of waterbodies [10]. Socio-economic effects caused by this phenomena have a great impact on human health (annual loss in the U.S.: $900 million [11]), the fishery industry (annual loss in Mid-Atlantic region USA: $100 million [12]), tourism and recreation (annual loss in the U.S.: $ 1.16 billion [13]), and on the monitoring and management costs (annual loss in German Baltic sea region € 9-34 million [14]). HAB events create adverse effects for the development of cities and its citizens, diminishing the quality of coastal environments through: the emanation of noxious odors from decomposing biomass, dead fish and other species accumulated on the water bodies, discoloration of water and projected mortalities of other protected organisms and their habitats. The information regarding HAB events is still fragmented and the reporting data should be formalized.

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FILAMENTOUS ALGAE BLOOM R E T R I E V E D F R O M h t t p s : // b i o l o g y w i s e . c o m / green-algae-facts

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Several major cases have been explored in order to understand the repercussions of these events in different parts of the world. In 2013, the largest algal bloom ever recorded in China turned the Yellow sea green. It has been reported that in the city of Qingdao, bulldozers were used to remove more than 7,000 tonnes of growth biomass from beaches [15].

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In 2017, a potential HAB covered more than 700 sqm of the western basin of Lake Erie. Dangerous levels of the toxin from the bloom caused the shutdown of the drinking water supply of a half-million residents for three days in the same location in 2014 [16]. A similar case outbreached on Lake Okeechobee in 2016, where NASA reported a cyanobacteria bloom that covered 33 sqm. The samples collected from the lake tested positive for high levels of toxins produced by the algae [17]. In a region closer to the area of research for this thesis, it has been reported in Cubelles, Spain, a seaweed bloom from seastorms [18]. The biomass from this event its not toxic but the presence of high quantities of decomposing algae also represent economic losses for the community.

QUINGDAO - CHINA 2013 13.000 SQUARE MILES SEAGRASS

LAKE ERIE - U.S. 2017 700 SQUARE MILES CYANOBACTERIA

OKEECHOBEE - U.S. 2016 33 SQUARE MILES CYANOBACTERIA

CUBELLES COAST SPAIN 2017 SEAGRASS

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LAKE ERIE 2017 A e r i a l A s s o c i at e s P h o t o g r a p h y, I n c .

by Zachary Haslick

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The understanding of the expenditures caused by HABs can be useful to evaluate and provide effective measures to address these events. The focus of this thesis is to present a sustainable solution to HAB events by creating a new material system based on the waste biomass produced by this phenomena. Currently, there is no profitable use for the accumulated biomass from blooms except for the composting industry, though there is a potential for this waste material which could be used for architectural purposes. To the best of found knowledge, this could be one of the first efforts to reappropriate the organic waste from HAB events into an innovative, cost-efficient and ecological alternative for the built environment.

1. Diersing, N. (2009). Phytoplankton Blooms : The Basics. Noaa.

Retrieved from http://sanctuaries.noaa.gov 2. Ibid.

3. Ibid.

4. Wells, M. L., Trainer, V. L., Smayda, T. J., Karlson, B. S. O., Trick, C. G., Kudela, R. M., … Cochlan, W. P. (2015). Harmful algal blooms and climate change: Learning from the past and present to forecast the future. Harmful Algae, 49, 68–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. hal.2015.07.009 5. Ibid.

6. Hoagland, P., Anderson, D. M., Kaoru, Y., & White, A. W. (2002).

The economic effects of harmful algal blooms in the United States: Estimates, assessment issues, and information needs. Estuaries, 25(4), 819–837. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02804908 7. Dolah, F. M. Van, Roelke, D., & Greene, R. M. (2001). Health and Ecological Impacts of Harmful Algal Blooms: Risk Assessment Needs.

Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 7(5), 1329–1345. https://doi.org/10.1080/20018091095032

8. Ibid.

9. Amin, M. N., Kroeze, C., & Strokal, M. (2017). Human waste: An underestimated source of nutrient pollution in coastal seas of Bangladesh, India and Pakistan. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 118(1–2), 131–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MARPOLBUL.2017.02.045 10. Sanseverino, I., Conduto, D., Pozzoli, L., Dobricic, S., Lettieri, T., & European Commission. Joint Research Centre. (2016). Algal bloom and its economic impact. Publications Office. Retrieved from https:// ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/publication/algal-bloom-and-its-economic-impact 11. Ralston, E.P., H. Kite-Powell, and A. Beet, An estimate of the cost of acute health effects from food- and water-borne marine pathogens and toxins in the USA. J Water Health, 2011. 9(4): p. 680-94.

12. Parsons, et al., The Welfare Effects of Pfiesteria-Related Fish Kills: A Contingent Behavior Analysis of Seafood Consumers Agricultural and Resource Economics Review, 2006. 35(1).

13. Cummins, R., Potential economic loss to the Calhoun Country oystermen Dolphin Talk, 2012.

14. Mewes, M., Diffuse nutrient reduction in the German Baltic Sea catchment: Cost- effectiveness analysis of water protection measures. Ecological Indicators, 2012. 22: p. 16-26.

15. Mathiesen, K.,(2013, July 4) China’s largest algal bloom turns the Yellow Sea green. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www. theguardian.com/environment/2013/jul/04/china-algal-bloom-yellow-sea-green 16. Patel, J. K., Parshina-Kottas, Y., (2017, October 4) Miles of Algae Covering Lake Erie. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/10/03/science/earth/ lake-erie.html 17. Hansen, K., (2016, July 6) NASA Earth Observatory using Landsat data from the U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved from https:// earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/88311/bloom-in-lake-okeechobee 18. Redacción, Barcelona (2017, January 23) Los desperfectos del temporal marítimo en el Garraf. La Vanguardia.

Retrieved from https://www.lavanguardia.com/local/vilanova/20170123/413626753046/temporal-maritimo-playas-costa-brava.html

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B A LT I C S E A 2 0 1 5 EUROPEAN SPACE AGENCY

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PHENOMENA CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

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ement is a gray and fine powder which sets after hours when mixed with water and then hardens in a few days into a strong, solid material. It is made by heating limestone with other materials (such as clay) to 1450° in a kiln. The resulting substance is then ground with a small amount of gypsum into a powder to make “Ordinary Portland Cement” [1]. Cement is usually mixed with fine aggregates like sand and coarse aggregates such as gravel, crushed stone or slag, and it is used to make concrete and mortars. Cement is a fundamental ingredient to combine together the different particles from aggregates constituents in a homogeneous matrix.

Cement and therefore concrete, bas become one of the most efficient building materials in architecture and engineering as it has radically transformed the way in which buildings are conceived. This material has contributed to the creation of skyscrapers, stronger dams and bridges, while its performance has allowed the inception of new geometries since it is formless when wet and can be manipulated into a any form. Although concrete is a versatile material with a high structural performance, its use has been questioned for several reasons including the replacement of indigenous materials due to its inexpensive cost, and its environmental impact.

“They swore by concrete. They built for eternity” - Gunter Grass

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Sustainability is becoming a worldwide phenomena, a trend that goes beyond the practice of design and construction, rooted in the awareness of citizens who are fundamental for the success of this concern. Sustainable building systems can have a direct implication on the betterment of livelihood conditions of communities [2].

The increasing extraction of natural resources for the concrete industry has led to negative consequences on nature and its surroundings.

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The sustainability of the cement and concrete industries is imperative to the well-being of our planet and to human development [3]. The production of cement is one of the primary producers of harmful greenhouse gases and carbon dioxide, and therefore the use of concrete engages multiple repercussions to the environment. In order to address this issue, more sustainable policies have to be applied in the construction industry with the production of innovative ecological materials.

Cementitious composites have been explored to reduce the amount of cement used for construction purposes.

Nevertheless the environmental strategies for cement cannot be strictly limited to the material research.

Construction techniques with derived-cement products were used since early stages of human civilizations, The industry has advanced considerably since then, although much of the methodology remains the same.

Moreover, architecture has engaged in a slow process of new adaptation and advanced construction techniques. This adaptation has included new digital fabrication technologies that intend to modernize and transform the current concrete application into a more efficient one.

Although these technologies have improved the way cities are being built, they are based on subtractive methods causing material waste at a fabrication level. Concrete construction engages several other constraints such as a dependency on formwork leading to the tendency of the standardization and limitation geometric elements.

Additive processes should be the main driver of these new techniques for more sustainable and materially smart solutions. Such explorations are known as “printing�, which are recently becoming more attractive to many architects and engineers.

However, some of these advanced manufacturing strategies both fail to adapt to a sustainable agenda and fail to predict the material behaviour and performance.

Concrete printing is a versatile method that allows flexibility in terms of creating complex three-dimensional shapes, but depends on the rheological composition of the material that in many cases requires toxic add-mixtures and synthetic substances in order to be optimal for pneumatic extrusion. Additive manufacturing follows a linear workflow where a predetermined geometry is turned into a physical object through a process of layered material deposition. This practice represents a departure from primitive casting techniques since the concrete-flow is not determined by the formwork restraint but by it’s self-supporting capacities.

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“Concrete is heavy; iron is hard but the grass will prevail.”

- Edward Abbey (2015)

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In order to adapt this advanced manufacturing technique to an ecological discourse, this thesis is particularly concerned with the implications of harmful add-mixtures through the exploration of an algae-based biomaterial, and the creation of intricate fibrous tectonics without the limitations of layered processes and additional structural supports. For this purpose, the material deposition takes place within a gel suspension, allowing the extrusion of three-dimensional large scale customized artifacts.

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The addition of a highly-viscous medium develops extremely fast printed objects in a precise controlled environment. This fabrication strategy comes from previously analyzed projects such as the Rapid Liquid Printing from the Self-Assembly Lab at the MIT and the 24H Bridge project by Amaury Thomas.

This advanced technique, labeled on this thesis as “non-gravitational printing�, solves the time-frame conventional manufacturing from molding or casting, allows the creation of large scale objects and engages high resolution geometries. This thesis is the result of multiple interlaced studies, that involves not only biomaterials but also fibrous geometrical explorations and advanced digital fabrication techniques, which for the length of the research period, could not be fully explored. Further research is required in order to understand the full potential of non-gravitational printing.

This project results as an introductory effort for the applicability of biomaterials into precise and innovative printing strategies.

1. Aylard, R., & Hawson, L. (2002). The Cement Sustainability - our agenda for action. Geneva: Agenda for Action. https://doi.org/ISBN 2-940240-24-8 2. Awwad, E., Mabsout, M., Hamad, B., & Khatib, H. (2011). Preliminary Studies on the Use of Natural Fibers in Sustainable Concrete.

Lebanese Science Journal (Vol. 12). Retrieved from http://proquest. umi.com 3. Naik, T. R. (2005). Sustainability of The Cement and Concrete Industries. Global Construction: Ultimate Concrete Opportunities.

Dundee, Scotland. Retrieved from https://www4.uwm.edu/cbu/Papers/2004 CBU Reports/CBU-2004-15.pdf

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BACKGROUND REAPPROPIATION OF ORGANIC WASTE MATERIALS A NOTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL RE-ACCEPTANCE COLLABORATION WITH: CATALINA PUELLO & JOHANA MONROY

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uring the last decades there has been an increasing interest by many organizations, both governmental and non- governmental, regarding the ecological stamp, especially in the architectural and construction industry. Greener design strategies have been established in order to mitigate the vasts amounts of pollution in the world. The objective of this chapter is to understand the genesis of organic waste as a material for architectural and design applications. Multiple socio-political events since the 1760’s were chronologically arranged to create a timefield deeply rooted with the traces of the Industrial Revolution, World War II and analogous others related with an increasing notion towards waste and environmental awareness. The timefield systematically arranges other important categories such as communications, materials, architecture and production technologies, displaying different relations between each other and their significant traces over time. The analysis suggests that in recent years there has been an increasing effort towards recycling and the use of waste as building materials, in such a way that this phenomena manifests itself as re-appropriation of waste as a second nature.

DIAGRAM: Time Field - Reappropiation of Organic Waste Materials Monroy, J., Puello, C., Rivera, F,. (2018)

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he cycle of waste and life are deeply related since there is no time in humankind and its origins where waste was not produced. The generic perception of waste is widely assumed as a material content that has no value and use that is left to be discarded or promote sanitary problems attempting to threaten public health or the aesthetic quality of communities. Management of public health has been a significant driver to the influence of waste systematization, and such behavior emerged from ancient Roman civilizations where waste had two notions: as a valuable resource and as being a public health problem. It is the first one that is the subject of focus for this chronological analysis, starting from the manifestation of the Industrial Revolution.

Urban history reveals that the transition from middle ages to renaissance, continued the detritus flow unabated wherein people had to, “wade through the slime and grime of urban life� [4]. During this period there was increasing issues regarding the cumulative effects of contaminated urban ground filled with putrefying refuse that later on led to interventions aimed at decreasing putrefaction through a better management of urban excreta. During the 1800’s more instances towards institutionalized and organized waste management system appeared after the emergence from the middle ages to the renaissance period [5]. Policies were imposed to prevent waste accumulation on the streets and many sweeping systems were introduced in Europe.

It has been suggested by various researchers that the first waste was produced in the Garden of Eden [1] by the remains of the forbidden apple consumed by Eve. The waste management in primitive agrarian societies buried the solid residues outside its settlements. As many communities grew, the need of organized waste management started to improve since it was intended to avoid diseases and emanating odors. Rubbish pits were commonly used in the middle ages for the discharge of excrement and all kind of wastes [2]. Societies seemed to lack critical awareness to make significant changes to their environmental conditions, and by then, the common practice over centuries was to simply throw all the waste into the street or running water [3].

Succeedingly, during the Industrial Revolution, the arrival of factories developed a massive migration to the urban centers in most European cities. Such procession worsened the living environment leading to outbreak epidemics. Industrialization and urbanization significantly raised the issue of food resources and raw materials required for industrial use. PVC and fiberglass started to be widely applied, and technological developments had important repercussions in construction industry. Architecture and design took advantage of machine production and manufacture, leading to important events such as Brutalism and the construction of skyscrapers. Such movement described design as the raw use of concrete by the massification of modular components.

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Taller buildings could now be built as it started the replacement of wood, brick and stone for forged iron and milled steel. The production of cheap metals helped to change the urban landscape and heavy buildings covered the land and reduced the natural drainage of the city. Extensive street pavings permitted effective cleaning and strong sewers augmented the sanitary equipment. Production and architecture then became allies towards the exploitation of resources for easily fabricated pieces that worked as a whole, without any environmental concern or evidenced as a blind-eye notion.

The exponential growth of urbanites, required an increase in agricultural production [6]. In this period urban byproduct emerged from industrial products and ultimately by the turn of the nineteenth century, technological solutions began to appear in order to deal with the garbage problem. The creation of the first incineration plant, built in 1870 is one of the key developments in order to systematize the waste management. With industrialization came the rise of consumerism that in the 1900’s, coupled a tremendous increase of plastic and packaged goods [5]. Following the Second World War the accelerated construction of waste incinerator plants and landfills dumping became to be the selected solutions to deal with residues. The incrementation of pollution as a result of consumerism and toxic emissions from the incineration plants, started to become of public interest as the landfills grew and the smoke caused alarming health problems.

The entry of the environmental debates from 1970’s onwards marked a new approach towards seeking more environment friendly solutions to the problem of waste management [5]. The environment concerns gained a special momentum in the 1970’’s where organizations such as the Club of Rome shared a concern for the future of humanity. The club elaborated multiple reports in which the Earth was taken as a closed system where it is impossible for the population, industrialization and exploitation of natural resources to continue to experience exponential growth without collapsing at certain point. In order to prevent such disaster, it is imperative a collective commitment in order to control the growth of a chaotic economic growth in order to achieve global equilibrium.

Researchers started to address environmental issues by discovering the carcinogens qualities of fiberglass and silica exposure as being dangerous. Initial ambientalist manifestos started to emerge as this period gave impetus to the ideals of product reuse or recycling as innovative environmental movements. The period of the 90’s have been critically marked by the climate change debates and the move towards the idea of ecological cities that are totally grounded in the ecological concepts of urban development and therefore a closed loop on a cyclic process of waste management where waste generation is minimized through landfill diversions [5].

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In architecture, the notion of recycling materials didn’t join the industry until more contemporary years. After Kyoto Summit in 1997, other political conferences and regulations has addressed the need to recycle and the implementation of new biodegradable materials in order to reduce the waste production, but their physical efforts in the construction sector has not been significant. It is until the 2000’s that humankind has decided to apply recycled or bio-integrated materials in design and construction industry in punctual situations but charged with a lot of impact and critical response. The emphasis on resource recovery to reduce environment damage is clearly visible in waste management policies across the globe [5]. It is in this period where waste has started to be considered as a second nature.

Waste becomes a resource itself by the inevitable accumulation and non-stop massive production and construction. This re-appropriation of waste transforms the notion of waste as a discarded residue and comes back to the antique Roman notion of detritus as a valuable resource. It is conceived that society and nature are isomorphic whereas these two are connected, and contamination is understood as a perturbation of the inherent order mirrored in nature. Waste reflects the general structure of the economy from a society, as it is the materialization of an urban metabolism. The gathering of detritus, amount and composition are characteristic of the specific mode of production of a society [2], and the significant pollution from waste it is the reflex of the uncontrolled consumerism of the contemporary society.

The polluted environment has to be brought back to its natural conditions, and if this is not achievable, nature has to transcend and match the new social harmony.

Nature, with the appropriate and pertinent actions, can be repaired but waste is matter in the wrong place. Since such behavior is utopically attempted to cease, it is imperative to adjust the ways of production and construction by the adaptation to waste as a new nature.

1. Strasser, S. (1999), Waste and Want: A Social History of Trash, Metropolitan Books, New York, NY. 2. Winiwarter, V. (2002), “History of waste”, in Bisson, K. and Proops, J. (Eds), Waste in Ecological Economies, Edward Elgar Publishing, Cheltenham.

3. O’Brien, M. (2008), A Crisis of Waste? : Understanding the Rubbish Society, Routledge, New York, NY 4. Ibid.

5. Sandhu, K. (2014), Historical trajectory of waste management; an analysis using the health belief model, Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journal, Vol. 25 Iss 5 pp. 615 - 630 6. Barles S. (2014) History of Waste Management and the Social and Cultural Representations of Waste. In: Agnoletti M., Neri Serneri S. (eds) The Basic Environmental History. Environmental History, vol 4. Springer, Cham 7. Ibid.

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IMAGE: Waste-Products Campaign Collage

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STATE OF THE ART

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SOFTKILL NICHOLETTE CHAN, GILLES RETSIN, AARON SILVER, SOPHIA HUA TANG

ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION 2012 From Architectural Association, the project researches generative methods of material formation in additive manufacturing through the design of a prototypical house. The project enables weak materials to become stiff structures that define qualitative spaces with an ornate character. The topological formation minimize the deployment of material and allows the design a range of architectural and material scales. This reference is important to this thesis since it explores fibrosity in architecture but it encounters issues such as a lack of control in porosity. It also exemplifies the use of agent-based algorithms to create an intricate design strategy.

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FILATURES You Han Hu, Yuan Jiang, Cheng-Hsiang Liu, Xia Chen Wei

BARTLETT UCL 2016 Developed in Bartlett UCL, the project aims at robotically printing a facade screen made out of cellulose-based composite that promotes mycelium growth in specifically determined areas. The design derives from a simplified point cloud turned into a linear mesh. The design and manufacturing process results in a filamentous geometry that creates a pavilion where mycelium growth patterns strengthen and bind the surface areas of the facade. The influence of this design approach represents a rich source of inspiration since the final outcome and theory behind it is similar to what this proposal intends. Filatures clearly proves the influence of growing microorganisms in precisely design structures, can strengthen and improve its mechanical properties.

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ROBOTIC FOAMING MARJAN COLLETTI, rex-lab

UNIVERSITY OF INNSBRUCK 2013 From Marjan Colletti at the REX-lab Robotic Experimentation laboratory at the University of Innsbruck, along with Alisson Wieller, Georg Grasser and Kadri Tamre. The project investigates the synergy between robotic fabrication through 6-axis robots combined with the material properties of polyurethane foam. Particularly, self supporting filamentous foam structures, explore robotics as a design interface for nonlinear fabrication process. This project is highly valuable to this thesis since it explores the the manufacturing of fibrous structures through the use an elastic polymer. This thesis will take in consideration the initial guidelines of the fabrication process and geometry with a different matrix.

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24h bridge project AMAURY THOMAS

2018 The project proposes to explore a non-standard process by simultaneously design and fabricate in the same time. It aims to robotically print a concrete composite in a viscous material in order to create modular pieces for a bridge. This fabrication strategy involves pneumatic extrusion with a 6-axis robot in a gel medium that allows three-dimensional flexibility and fast prototyping. The final geometry is the result of a serie of iterations, each one considering the previous operation without damaging the integrity of the existing extrusion. The composite extrusion affords the ability to print complex shapes in any direction, without the need of conventional processes like supports, molding, casting, etc. The polymer gel acts like a mould and keeps the material in place until it’s completely cured. This thesis will explore this fundamental fabrication process in order to materialize fibrous constructs.

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sea me nienke hoogvliet studio

2014 From the dutch designer Nienke Hoogvliet, is a rug made from algae yarn, knotted by and in an old fishing net. The design intends to contrast the polluting plastic waste with the natural blooms that the sea has to offer. It is one of earliest and more representative projects from the designer, where she wanted to draw attention to a new material. Here, she highlights the use of algae as a sustainable solution for the textile industry. Sea algae can grow much faster and needs less nutrients than cotton and other fibers. From her extensive research in different algal species she develop her own methodology to process the algae fibers and transform into an avant-garde piece for interiors. SEA ME is one of the very few projects which use algae fibers as a new material for design purposes.

BIO-CONCRETION TOBIAS GRUMSTRUP LUND HRSTROM

IAAC 2015 Developed in IAAC, the thesis deals with buildings that hosts nature by using seagrass as a roof material.

Seagrass has been used as a hatching material in Denmark, but the tradition has not yet been integrated in a contemporary context. The project uses computational design tools with logics from bio-mimicry in order to introduce an innovative and sustainable way of constructing living roofs with seagrass. The thesis proposes a new roof typology for seagrass which also can be functional in different inclinations, aesthetics and environmental performance. This project explores the relevance of using a biomaterial and applying it for architectural purposes, it represents a useful background of knowledge for material experiments.

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METHODS // MATERIALS

FILAMENTOUS ALGAE

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The most important parameters regulating algal growth are nutrient quantity and quality, light, pH, turbulence, salinity and temperature [2]. Filamentous species (Cladophora, Zygnema, Spirogyra, Mougeotia, Microspora, etc.) are commonly described as “water net”, “pond moss” or “Pond scum” and tend to form mats of green hair-like structures upon the water surface.This is a fast-growing algae and can cover a pond with a green slimy mat that usually grow along the bottom and edges of the pond and gradiently emerge to the surface. The filaments are a series of photosynthetic cells joined end to end which give the thread-like morphology.

This project takes place in Barcelona, Spain, an area close to the Empordà region where several species of Filamentous algal blooms have been identified by previous researchers due to the overload of fertilizers from agricultural activity [3].

his study has taken into consideration the influence of Harmful Algal Blooms events in urban environments and establishes its consequences and major repercussions in human activity. HABs can host several species at the same time and the pandemic growth of this phenomena often takes place with the fast dispersal of algal biomass.

This accumulation of organic matter is usually constituted by visible colonies of green and/or filamentous algae, the predominant focus of this study.

Filamentous algae are usually considered “macrophytes”, being form floating masses that can be easily harvested, although many consist of microscopic, individual filaments of algal cells [1]. Filamentous green algae and seaweeds have several environmental requirements depending on their location or specie and are one of the most widespread photosynthetic plants, constituting the carbon assimilation in fresh and marine water habitats.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION SPIROGYRA FILAMENTOUS GREEN ALGAE

COMPOSITION (%)

MINERALS (%)

Dry Matter

Dry Matter

MOISTURE (%)

CP Crude Protein

EE Ether Extract

Ash

CF Crude Fibre

NFE Nitrogen Free Extract

Ca

95.2

17.1

1.8

11.7

10.0

-

-

Chemical analyses of some common algae and seaweeds Hasan, M. R., & Chakrabarti, R. (2009 cited Boyd 1968) [7]

P

-

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KINGDOM P L A N TA E

NUTRITION

GREEN ALGAE

L O C AT I O N : VA L L B O n a // R E C C O M TA L

SPIROGYRA ZYGNEMA

intERNAL CONSTITUTION

CLADOPHORA

MAJOR SPECIES

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MOUGEOTIA

EXTRACTION

HEMICELLULOSE T>2H

CLEANING

CHEMICAL PROCESSING

HYDROGEN PEROXIDE AVOID DECOMPOSITION

NATURAL DRY

T>3 DAYS

T>2MIN

DESINFECTION

MICROSPORA

WATER

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A site recognition was performed in order to identify the native and prominent species in Barcelona city, establishing that Spirogyra sp. is one of the most invasive organisms by being present in parks and recreational bodies of water in Summer and Spring seasons. Spirogyra is one of the most common green filamentous algae, hailing its name from its spiral arrangement of chloroplasts. It is a photosynthetic organism with long bright-green filaments with its genus containing more than 400 species in the world. Spirogyra grows in running streams of cool freshwater, and secretes a coating of mucous that makes it feel slippery [4]. In natural ecosystems, this alga is found in shallow ponds and at the edges of large lakes. Blooms of spirogyra can cause a grassy odour and cause problems in certain human activities such as pumping impairment for drip irrigation in farm ponds or hampering traditional fishing in lakes [5].

Fibers from Spirogyra were extracted from the Rec Comtal canal located in Vallbona outside Barcelona. This area is known from its proximity to local farms and markets, and El Besòs river. The genus of the fibers were identified by a qualitative comparison from the literature review. Local sources from the Green Maintenance office in charge of the landscaping activities, expressed their concern regarding the abundant algae in the canal that interferes with the water flow, and in cold seasons, tends to decompose and emanate putrid odours. The abundance, physical quality and the length of the fibers, taking in consideration its consequences for the surrounding neighborhood, were optimal for the further development of this project. The fibers were collected and then cleaned thoroughly with tap water to remove the additional organic matter that came attached to the algae.

This process was repeated several times (3 to 5) until the fibers gained their original natural bright-green colour. Once the filaments were cleaned, the fibers were again submerged in a solution of distilled water with 0.35 wt.% Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2) for 5 minutes.

This stage followed the initial steps for the Pulp and Paper Making Industry contemplated in Constante, et al. (2015) [6]. It was necessary for the cellulose extraction and disinfection of the filaments from noxious microorganisms in charge of decomposition. The algae was then dispersed for 10 min in tap water and pressed to remove the excess moisture. The cleaned fibers were left to sun-dry (3 to 6 days) while being periodically rearranged to prevent decomposition for excess of humidity.

1.Hasan, M. R., & Chakrabarti, R. (2009). Use of algae and aquatic macrophytes as feed in small-scale aquaculture. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical paper (Vol. 531). Rome: FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/ docrep/012/i1141e/i1141e.pdf 2. Ibid, 5-6.

3. Cambra, J., & Domínguez-Pañella, A. (1990). Datos para el Estudio de las Algas Filamentosas en Arrozales de L’Alt Empordà (Girona, N.E. de Espanya). SCIENTIA Gerundensis, 53, 43–53.

4. Hasan, M. R., & Chakrabarti, R. (2009). Use of algae and aquatic macrophytes as feed in small-scale aquaculture. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical paper (Vol. 531). Rome: FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/ docrep/012/i1141e/i1141e.pdf, 6.

5. Gallego, I., Casas, J. J., Fuentes-Rodríguez, F., Juan, M., Sánchez-castillo, P., & Pérez-martínez, C. (2013). Culture of Spirogyra africana from farm ponds for long- term experiments and stock maintenance. Biotechnology, Agronomy, Society and Environment, 17(3), 423–430. Retrieved from http://ecologia.ugr.es/pages/publicaciones/publicaciones-pdfs/2013/ cultureofspirogyraafricana/%21 6. Constante, A., Pillay, S., Ning, H., & Vaidya, U. K. (2015). Utilization of algae blooms as a source of natural fibers for biocomposite materials: Study of morphology and mechanical performance of Lyngbya fibers. Algal Research, 12, 412–420. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ALGAL.2015.10.005 7. Boyd, C. E. (n.d.). Fresh-Water Plants: A Potential Source of Protein.

Economic Botany. Springer New York Botanical Garden Press. https://doi. org/10.2307/4252996

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PROCESSED ALGAE FIBERS

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DRIED ALGAE FIBERS

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INITIAL EXPERIMENTS ACQUIRED FIBROSITY CILIATIC STUDIES

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EXPERIMENTS

DELAMINATION TESTS

2 LAYERS BASE

RESIN DEPOSITION

DELAMINATION

TENSION FILAMENTS

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VISCOSITY TESTS

2 LAYER BASE 1 PERFORATED LAYER

RESIN DEPOSITION

GRAVITY FILAMENTS

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o optimize the strategies using algae fibers, new material approaches had to be explored. The composition and physical properties of the fibers are not efficient to be used by themselves, therefore the creation of an algae-reinforced material is necessary. A biocomposite requires a composite material formed by a matrix and a reinforcement of natural fibers, in this case the algae biomass. These kind of materials intend to mimic the structure of living materials where fibers strengthen the properties of the matrix and provide biocompatibility. The matrix phase is formed by polymers which are important to hold the fibers together and protect them from degradation and mechanical damage.

Previous researchers have contemplated the use of algal fibers with epoxy composites [1], Isocyanate based foams [2] and polypropylene [3]. Their studies concluded that the dynamic mechanical and thermomechanical properties of the polymers showed noticeable improvement with increasing algae fibers loadings, and such results support that the use of algae can be used as excellent reinforcement in biocomposites [4]. Although the algae provided a percentage of biodegradability, the matrices used on such projects were synthetic. This thesis proposal aimed for a more ecological approach by using natural materials thus aspiring for similar results from previous approaches. The first materials explored were natural resins (Colophony, Tar and Gum Arabic) and later on biopolymers with different natural compositions.

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M AT E R I A L : c o l o p h o n y R E S I N METHOD: DELAMINATION VISCOSITY LEVEL: MEDIUM FIBROSITY: MEDIUM-LOW DRYING TIME: 1 MIN FRAGILITY: HIGH

M AT E R I A L : c o l o p h o n y R E S I N + J U T E F I B E R S METHOD: DELAMINATION VISCOSITY LEVEL: MEDIUM FIBROSITY: MEDIUM DRYING TIME: 1 MIN FRAGILITY: HIGH

M AT E R I A L : TA R METHOD: DELAMINATION VISCOSITY LEVEL: MEDIUM FIBROSITY: MEDIUM DRYING TIME: 1 MIN FRAGILITY: HIGH

M AT E R I A L : c o l o p h o n y R E S I N + H I M A N T H A L I A F I B E R S METHOD: DELAMINATION VISCOSITY LEVEL: HIGH FIBROSITY: MEDIUM-HIGH DRYING TIME: 1.2 MIN FRAGILITY: HIGH

M AT E R I A L : c o l o p h o n y R E S I N + W O O L F I B E R S METHOD: DELAMINATION VISCOSITY LEVEL: MEDIUM FIBROSITY: MEDIUM DRYING TIME: 1.2 MIN FRAGILITY: MEDIUM-HIGH

M AT E R I A L : c o l o p h o n y R E S I N + G U M a r a b i c METHOD: DELAMINATION VISCOSITY LEVEL: MEDIUM FIBROSITY: MEDIUM DRYING TIME: 1 MIN FRAGILITY: HIGH

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M AT E R I A L : C O L O P H O N Y R E S I N METHOD: VISCOSITY VISCOSITY LEVEL: MEDIUM FIBROSITY: MEDIUM-HIGH DRYING TIME: 1 MIN FRAGILITY: HIGH

M AT E R I A L : TA R METHOD: VISCOSITY VISCOSITY LEVEL: MEDIUM FIBROSITY: MEDIUM-HIGH DRYING TIME: 1 MIN FRAGILITY: HIGH

M AT E R I A L : G U M a r a b i c + S U G A R METHOD: VISCOSITY VISCOSITY LEVEL: LOW FIBROSITY: LOW DRYING TIME: 30 MIN FRAGILITY: HIGH

ALGAE [ CRETE]

This initial material exploration was also driven by two different fabrication methods that would allow the creation of a fibrous prototype and the appropriate matrix to be algae-reinforced. For the first method, also known as Delamination Test, two wood and/ or acrylic bases were used to lay the matrix in one or both of the faces. Later, the faces were separated by manually tensioning the fresh material and maintaining the position while it set. According to each material, the hardening process requires more or less time with a range between 1 to 30 minutes. The delamination process allowed the analysis of the fibers created by physical qualities such as: width, morphological change (straight, curve), elasticity, strength, density and opacity. This method is neither an additive nor a subtractive process but rather a simulation of natural growth achieved by stretching the composite matrix. At this stage, acquiring filamentous algae strains was challenging with these blooms not being available in the winter season, therefore in order to perform this methodology, other natural fibers such as wool, jute and himanthalia were used to reinforce the resins and explore the density and strength from the created fibers. This methodology exploits the phase changing capabilities of viscous materials and the resulting prototypes resemble natural and biological structures such as sponges, bones and other organic tissues.

The second method, the Viscosity Test, required a two wood layer base separated with steel rods 30 cm from each other, in which one layer was perforated with a 3mm array of apertures. The composite matrix was laid on the perforated layer and left to filtrate by gravity through the openings, thus creating the fibrous effect. This exploration method was more efficient for the natural resins with the time of hardening being faster than the biopolymers which due to their viscosity tended to remain stagnant on the surface. In terms of materiality, it was concluded that the natural resins are not an optimal material to be used as a composite matrix.

The resins tend to be semi-fluid at the temperature of boiling water or just above it, and are then able to harden very fast in a time range of 3 to 5 minutes. The results are described per resin a follows: Colophony: also called rosin, is the solid resin obtained from pines and other conifers. It has a piny odour, is semi-transparent, and varies in color from yellow to black. The colophony was melted with oil and later used with the methods previously described. It is was concluded that the colophony, when hardened, is too brittle and friable, tending to break easily thus the fibers produced by its delamination were fragile. Jute, wool and himanthalia fibers were added to the melted resin and then delaminated to test if the fibers improved the physical properties of the material. Although, the fibers added a general support to the whole prototype, they were still delicate, and with time tended to collapse. The colophony also engages several other issues since it is very flammable and when melted it could release strong fumes.

Arabic Gum: is the resin collected from the Acacia species. Its physical characteristics are very similar to those of Colophony, and is used in the food industry. It was concluded that the properties from the arabic gum were similar to the ones obtained with the colophony. The fibers were brittle and the melting time was higher in comparison with the colophony, making it inconvenient to be used as a matrix.

Tar: is a dark brown, highly viscous liquid obtained from several organic materials. It can be produced from wood, petroleum or coal.

Tar is flammable and it can produce noxious effects if its melted and used without adequate measures. This material has been used as a component to seal roads, Delamination and Viscosity tests were performed on this material and it was concluded that the fibers produced were more fragile than the other resins.

5 5

ALGAE [ CRETE]

5 5

M AT E R I A L : C O L O P H O N Y R E S I N METHOD: VISCOSITY VISCOSITY LEVEL: MEDIUM FIBROSITY: MEDIUM-HIGH DRYING TIME: 1 MIN FRAGILITY: HIGH

ALGAE [ CRETE]

5 5

ALGAE [ CRETE]

5 5

M AT E R I A L : C O L O P H O N Y R E S I N METHOD: VISCOSITY VISCOSITY LEVEL: MEDIUM FIBROSITY: MEDIUM-HIGH DRYING TIME: 1 MIN FRAGILITY: HIGH

ALGAE [ CRETE]

5 5

ALGAE [ CRETE]

6 6

M AT E R I A L : TA R METHOD: VISCOSITY VISCOSITY LEVEL: MEDIUM FIBROSITY: MEDIUM-HIGH DRYING TIME: 1 MIN FRAGILITY: HIGH

ALGAE [ CRETE]

6 6

ALGAE [ CRETE]

S

6 6

ince all the resins explored were not suitable for a strong matrix to be reinforced with algal fibers, other materials had to be studied and designed. A series of bioplastics and biopolymers were contemplated in order to recreate similar results from the literature review.

The biopolymers needed to be carefully prepared as they required a particular viscosity, leading to the use of Biofoams as the main driver for these experiments. The basic ingredients for these tests were: gelatin, glycerol, water with the foaming agents being Hydrogen Peroxide and Baking Soda. Other secondary ingredientes were added to the mix such as different organic starches and vinegar to improve the structural resistance and consistency of the polymer. It was concluded from these experiments that the biofoams were stronger than the resins although only delamination tests were performed. Due to their physical properties, the fiber creation was limited. The biofoams are lightweight and strong but as they set with time the samples tended to curve and change their initial morphology. Wool fibers were added to some of the samples and were used to measure the degree of curvature from the cured material. It was concluded that the fibers did not constrain the bioplastic samples to curve or retract. The unpredictable behaviour and their solubility in water prevented the biofoams to be a suitable material for this project. It was also taken into consideration that the organic composition of the biofoam makes it a biocompatible material therefore, uncontrolled proliferation of several fungal and bacterial species was expected.

It was also concluded that the delamination and viscosity tests are not the appropriate fabrication method for fibrous prototypes, since it is restricted to a linear process and the fibrosity rate is uncertain and cannot be controlled.

1. Constante, A., & Pillay, S. (2016). Compression molding of algae fiber and epoxy composites: Modeling of elastic modulus. Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites, 073168441664541. https://doi. org/10.1177/0731684416645410 2. Johnson, M., & Shivkumar, S. (2004). Filamentous green algae additions to isocyanate based foams. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 93(5), 2469–2477. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.20794 3. Sim, K. J., Han, S. O., & Seo, Y. B. (2010). Dynamic mechanical and thermal properties of red algae fiber reinforced poly(lactic acid) biocomposites. Macromolecular Research, 18(5), 489–495. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s13233-010-0503-3 4. Ibid, 7.

ALGAE [ CRETE]

5 0 g r g e l at i n 3 0 g r g lY c e r o l 20gr h20

30gr 20gr 50gr 20gr 10gr 20gr

c o r n s ta r c h baking soda g e l at i n g lY c e r o l H2O2 h20

M A T E R I A L : b i o p o ly m e r METHOD: DELAMINATION IN WOOD VISCOSITY LEVEL: high FIBROSITY: medium DRYING TIME: 10 min FRAGILITY: MEDIUM

M A T E R I A L : b i o p o ly m e r f o a m METHOD: DELAMINATION IN ACRYLIC VISCOSITY LEVEL: high FIBROSITY: medium-HIGH DRYING TIME: 5 min FRAGILITY: low

20gr 40gr 10gr 20gr

20gr 30gr 20gr 20gr 20gr

c o r n s ta r c h g e l at i n g lY c e r o l h20

c o r n s ta r c h g e l at i n g lY c e r o l BAKING SODA h20

M A T E R I A L : b i o p o ly m e R METHOD: DELAMINATION IN WOOD VISCOSITY LEVEL: high FIBROSITY: LOW DRYING TIME: 5 min FRAGILITY: HIGH

20gr 20gr 40gr 20gr 20gr

M A T E R I A L : b i o p o ly m e r f o a m METHOD: DELAMINATION IN ACRYLIC VISCOSITY LEVEL: high FIBROSITY: medium DRYING TIME: 6 min FRAGILITY: LOW

30gr 10gr 20gr 10gr 30gr 20gr

GELATIN baking soda MARSHMALLOW g lY c e r o l h20

c o r n s ta r c h baking soda g e l at i n g lY c e r o l H2O2 h20

M A T E R I A L : b i o p o ly m e r f o a m METHOD: DELAMINATION IN WOOD VISCOSITY LEVEL: high FIBROSITY: LOW DRYING TIME: 1 HOUR FRAGILITY: MEDIUM

M A T E R I A L : b i o p o ly m e r f o a m + WOOL FIBERS METHOD: CASTING IN ACRYLIC VISCOSITY LEVEL: high FIBROSITY: medium-HIGH DRYING TIME: 5 min FRAGILITY: low

6 6

ALGAE [ CRETE]

6 6

30gr 20gr 80gr 20gr 20gr 20gr

c o r n s ta r c h baking soda g e l at i n g lY c e r o l H2O2 h20

M A T E R I A L : b i o p o ly m e r f o a m VISCOSITY LEVEL: high FIBROSITY: medium-high DRYING TIME: 5 min FRAGILITY: low DENSITY: MEDIUM

30gr 20gr 40gr 10gr 20gr 20gr

c o r n s ta r c h baking soda g e l at i n g lY c e r o l VINEGAR h20

M A T E R I A L : b i o p o ly m e r f o a m VISCOSITY LEVEL: high FIBROSITY: medium DRYING TIME: 5 min FRAGILITY: low DENSITY: LOW

30gr 20gr 40gr 20gr 30gr 20gr 20gr

c o r n s ta r c h baking soda g e l at i n g lY c e r o l H2O2 VINEGAR h20

30gr 40gr 20gr 20gr 30gr

baking soda g e l at i n g lY c e r o l BUBBLE GUM h20

M A T E R I A L : b i o p o ly m e r f o a m VISCOSITY LEVEL: high FIBROSITY: medium-LOW DRYING TIME: 10 min FRAGILITY: low DENSITY: LOw

20gr 40gr 10gr 20gr 20gr 20gr

baking soda g e l at i n g lY c e r o l AGAR h202 h20

M A T E R I A L : b i o p o ly m e r f o a m VISCOSITY LEVEL: high FIBROSITY: medium DRYING TIME: 6 min FRAGILITY: low DENSITY: MEDIUM

30gr 10gr 20gr 10gr 30gr 20gr

c o r n s ta r c h baking soda g e l at i n g lY c e r o l H2O2 h20

M A T E R I A L : b i o p o ly m e r f o a m VISCOSITY LEVEL: high FIBROSITY: medium DRYING TIME: 5 min FRAGILITY: low DENSITY: HIGH

M A T E R I A L : b i o p o ly m e r f o a m VISCOSITY LEVEL: high FIBROSITY: medium DRYING TIME: 5 min FRAGILITY: low DENSITY: HIGH

ALGAE [ CRETE]

6 6

M AT E R I A L : B I O F O A M + W O O L F I B E R S METHOD: DELAMINATION

ALGAE [ CRETE]

6 6

M AT E R I A L : B I O F O A M METHOD: DELAMINATION

ALGAE [ CRETE]

6 6

ALGAE [ CRETE]

6 6

ALGAE [ CRETE]

T

4 0 g r g e l at i n 3 0 g r g lY c e r o l 20gr h20

M A T E R I A L : b i o p o ly m e r + F I B E R S METHOD: CASTING DRYING TIME: 10 min FRAGILITY: MEDIUM

wo experiments took place with algae-reinforced biopolymer and biofoam. The fibers were extracted from an initial culture and dried out naturally; the algae fibers were not arranged following any specific matrix, however, they were dispersed as homogeneously as possible throughout the mixture. The biocomposites were casted in glass petri dishes and left to dry until they were solid. The translucent qualities of the biopolymer with visible algae fibers, made it possible to contemplate the idea of crystal-like objects, following traditional glass-blown methods.

The transparent object would be composed of the biopolymer and the veil-like patterns would be the algae fibers arrangement. Unfortunately, this idea would explore the use of algae fibers merely as an aesthetic approach rather than a functional one; even if the arrangement were considered structurally, they would require an unproportional quantity to retain the shape. From these experiments, it was concluded that the fibers were not able to control in anyway the physical deformations of the biopolymers. The retraction and bending forces from the matrices occur while the material sets in an unpredictable way, leaving no functional properties to the added fibers.

30gr 20gr 50gr 20gr 10gr 20gr

c o r n s ta r c h baking soda g e l at i n g lY c e r o l H2O2 h20

M A T E R I A L : b i o p o ly m e r f o a m + F I B E R S METHOD: CASTING DRYING TIME: 5 min FRAGILITY: low

6 6

ALGAE [ CRETE]

F

7 7

or this phase of experiments, the project was focused on logical fibrous formations, and since the Delamination and Viscosity tests were not able to produce a functional, aesthetic and controlled fibrous structure, other advanced fabrication methods such as 3D Printing were explored. It was decided that in order to control the density, arrangement and morphology of the fibers, they had to be designed and geometrically simulated through novel emergent systems. The previous material testings demonstrated that resins and biofoams are not qualified materials to be 3D printed as they would require a series of additional conditions to maintain their viscous state.

These series of experiments were printed manually with a silicone gun, creating different fibrous 2D and 3D matrices (conceived as meshes). An additional 3D printed prototype was also used which was recycled from a 3D printed mistake with an excess of supports and material waste. This piece was used to test if the synthetic composition of the PLA was somehow useful to be used as a biological attractor. At this instance, the idea of using a biodegradable 3D printable plastic was contemplated to fabricate the final prototype.

To the best of found knowledge, there are two major developments in 3D printing algae-based materials: Algae bioplastic from Eric Klarenbeek and Maartje Dros (which intends to replace synthetic plastics over time) and ALGIX 3D, a filament company which intends to address algal blooms events.

Both materials were considered to drive this thesis project to produce fibrous structures and possibly create a new type of green filamentous algae-based 3D printing material. Unfortunately, exploring such a meticulous process would require precise equipment and long-term manufacturing procedures, therefore this way of thinking was set aside while new ideas took place.

Simultaneously, cultures of Cyanobacteria and Filamentous algae were grown, considering some species were found from an extensive area recognition. These initial samples were taken from the Llobregat river and a channel located in Valldaura, outside Barcelona. Both samples were cultivated in acrylic tanks with a 1:1 liquid growth substratum of tap water and native springwater. Nutrients from an organic fertilizer were dissolved in tap water and added to the tanks and kept closed, exposing it to both direct warm artificial light and indirect sunlight.

The artificial light also contributed to maintaining a warm temperature in the tanks and an air pump was introduced to circulate air inside. Different growth conditions were examined for each species since the filamentous algae requires low-intensity light and running waters; whereas the cyanobacteria requires direct warm light and a stagnate medium. The cultures showed positive growth results in the first weeks, and were cultivated for the use of further experiments.

ALGAE [ CRETE]

M AT E R I A L : S I L I C O N E METHOD: EXTRUSION VISCOSITY LEVEL: high DRYING TIME: 1 min FRAGILITY: MEDIUM SHAPE: CONE

M AT E R I A L : S I L I C O N E NUTRIENTS: GELATINE + FERTILIZER S P E C I E : C YA N O B A C T E R I A GROWTH TIME: 2 DAYS DRYING TIME: 1 HOUR

M AT E R I A L : S I L I C O N E METHOD: EXTRUSION VISCOSITY LEVEL: high DRYING TIME: 1 min FRAGILITY: MEDIUM SHAPE: CILINDER

M AT E R I A L : S I L I C O N E NUTRIENTS: GELATINE + FERTILIZER S P E C I E : C YA N O B A C T E R I A GROWTH TIME: 2 DAYS DRYING TIME: 1 HOUR

M AT E R I A L : S I L I C O N E METHOD: EXTRUSION VISCOSITY LEVEL: high DRYING TIME: 1 min FRAGILITY: MEDIUM SHAPE: CIRCLE

M AT E R I A L : S I L I C O N E NUTRIENTS: GELATINE + FERTILIZER S P E C I E : C YA N O B A C T E R I A GROWTH TIME: 2 DAYS DRYING TIME: 1 HOUR

7 7

ALGAE [ CRETE]

7 7

ALGAE [ CRETE]

The experiments intended to prove if the 3D printed structure could work as scaffolds for algae and cyanobacteria growth, which could ultimately reinforce the structure. Cyanobacteria was contemplated at this stage since it is also present in most events of noxious algal blooms, and some species are able to create biofilms; it was also tested if this biofilm had any physical properties. For these experiments several inconveniences were found: The algae or Cyanobacteria required an organic substratum to be attached or to feed from; even if the substratum is organic-based, it needs proper nutrients to grow from.

A gelatine and organic fertilizer paste were mixed and then applied to the silicone matrices and were left to dry for 30 minutes until the paste was solid and properly attached to each object. The prototypes were submerged for 2 Days in the liquid medium of Cyanobacteria and algae, concluding that only cyanobacteria was able to attach itself to the matrices. The cultures of filamentous algae did not show any growth difference and perished due to excessive nutrient concentrations. It was also concluded that the biofilm from cyanobacteria did no have any physical properties and once the liquid dried-out; the film tended to dry as well and lose its tactility. As the filamentous algae perished, no structural reinforcement test was made. Both species showed an initial fast growth condition but this factor would not be practical and efficient in a harmful algae bloom scenario, since it would contribute to the overabundance of nutrients for the organisms and, by extension, to this noxious phenomena.

B I O F I L M F R O M C YA N O B A C T E R I A S U B S T R AT U M : 1 : 1 TA P WA T E R - N A T I V E S P R I N G WA T E R NUTRIENTS: ORGANIC FERTILIZER GROWTH TIME: 1 WEEK

7 7

ALGAE [ CRETE]

7 7

ALGAE [ CRETE]

7 7

M AT E R I A L : P L A NUTRIENTS: GELATINE + FERTILIZER S P E C I E : C YA N O B A C T E R I A / S P I R O G Y R A GROWTH TIME: 2 DAYS DRYING TIME: 1 HOUR

ALGAE [ CRETE]

7 7

ALGAE

[ CRETE ]

CEMENTITIOUS SCAFFOLD FOR LITHOPHYTIC GROWTH HYLOZOIC STUDIES

ALGAE [ CRETE]

7 7

ALGAE [ CRETE]

A

7 7

fter considering all the previous materials as matrix possibilities to be algae-reinforced, concrete was then contemplated due to its historical implications with fibers.

The concept of reinforcing concrete with fibers is not new since horsehair was used in mortars in ancient times. The first use of fibers in reinforced concrete has been dated to 1870’s [1]. Many researchers tried to improve the tensile properties of concrete by adding iron, wood and different wastes. Other natural organic and mineral fibers have been also explored such as jute, bamboo, coconut, sisal and hemp. In the early 1900’s asbestos fibers became popular and after discovering the health risks associated with this material, natural fibers were introduced as composite reinforcement. Nowadays, glass, steel and synthetic fibers are used in concrete and are the most populars in terms of structural efficiency. Fibers are usually used in concrete to control cracking from plastic and drying shrinkage. They also reduce bleeding of water and the permeability of the mixture; while some types produce greater shatter-resistance and impact-abrasion in concrete. The benefits of reinforcing concrete with fibers depends on the material, size and arrangement of the fibers. Previous studies with natural fibrous agents support the use of industrial or local hemp fibers in concrete mixes, as it would result in promising compression and flexural strength values and behaviour and reduction in the consumption of coarse aggregates [2]. Such projects were a valuable source of knowledge to guide further experiments with natural fibers and concrete. Furthermore, these projects rigorously support the notion that fibers improve certain mechanical properties of conventional concrete mixtures.

Concrete does not deal with issues from the previous material explorations. Compared to the resins and biopolymers, it is not brittle or fragile; it is not soluble in water and the curing process does not lead to unexpected plastic deformations. The viscosity of the mixture depends on the aggregates and its proportions, and since this project has been driven towards 3D printing technologies, the consistency of concrete makes it the appropriate material to be used for pneumatic extrusion. The environmental repercussions from the excessive cement production has also been taken in consideration, guiding this thesis towards a solution to both Harmful Algal Blooms and the depletion of natural resources from the cement industry. To the best of found knowledge, there is only one research project that applied brown algae with a concrete mix, showing that at 8% addition of marine algae, there is an increase in strength properties, while at 10% such properties started to decrease [3]. Nevertheless, scarce research has been done towards concrete composites with green filamentous algae, allowing this proposal to be one of the first attempts to develop a new sustainable material system.

1. Awwad, E., Mabsout, M., Hamad, B., & Khatib, H. (2011). Preliminary Studies on the Use of Natural Fibers in Sustainable Concrete. Lebanese Science Journal (Vol. 12). Retrieved from http://proquest.umi.com 2. Ibid, 116.

3. Ramasubramani, R., Praveen, R., & Sathyanarayanan, K. S. (2016).

Study on the Strength Properties of Marine Algae Concrete, 9(4), 706–715.

Retrieved from http://www.rasayanjournal.comhttp//www.rasayanjournal.co.in

ALGAE [ CRETE]

7 7

ALGAE [ CRETE]

8 8

M AT E R I A L : A L G A E C R E T E BINDING: high proportions: 2c : 1a : 1h20 STRENGTH: MEDIUM

M AT E R I A L : A L G A E C R E T E BINDING: high proportions: 1c : 2a : 1h20 STRENGTH: mEDIUM

M AT E R I A L : C O M P O S I T E B A N A N A P E E L BINDING: low proportions: 2c : 1B : 1h20 STRENGTH: LOW

M AT E R I A L : C O M P O S I T E P I N E L E AV E S BINDING: low proportions: 2c : 1P : 1h20 STRENGTH: LOW

ALGAE [ CRETE]

T

he first experiments performed aimed to test the binding capabilities of the algal fibers with a conventional concrete mixture. Not all natural fibers can be mixed with concrete as most fibers contain different levels of cellulose that might affect the binding process between particles. High cellulose fibers might carry along issues regarding excessive moisture absorption. The materials used for this initial samples were ordinary portland cement, potable water, natural sand and in some cases crushed marble powder as a coarse aggregate. The algae fibers were used as a partial replacement of conventional crushed coarse aggregate. Larger sizes of coarse aggregates such as stone or gravel were not used for this experiments since the idea of fabrication through pneumatic extrusion was always kept in mind, and such particles could obstruct the extrusion process or convey homogeneity issues. For these samples, the algae fibers were not chemically processed, however, they were soaked in water and kept wet until mixed with the concrete. Wood moulds of internal dimensions of 25x25x100 mm were used for casting beams with concrete and 3 different natural fibers: Algae, in two different proportions, pine leaves and banana peels. The test showed positive results for both algae fibers samples, however, for banana peel and pine leaves, the binding was poor with a high percentage of fragility and brittleness. The experiment proved that it is possible to mix cement in different proportions with Spirogyra sp. Algae fibers.

Once proven this fact, it was decided to perform several structural tests. Wood moulds of the same inner dimensions were used to cast concrete with more precise quantities of algae fibers. It was also taken in consideration the physical state of the algae fibers: natural length, ground fibers and processed. Marble powder was also added to some of the samples as a coarse aggregate and to test the fibers behaviour with bigger aggregates in the mixture. Control samples without algae were kept for comparison and all the samples were tested at 14 and at 28 days of curing process.

The biocomposite was mixed manually and then laid on the moulds while arranging the fibers along the cast. For some of the samples with major quantities of algae, the fibers were noticeably exposed since they partially attached to the moulds while the curing process was happening; however, this did not compromise any for the physical qualities of the samples, as they remained held together. The processed algae fibers followed the chemical treatment described previously on the Filamentous Algae chapter.

The samples were tested under one point loading for deflection and crack formation in a flexural strength test machine.

The maximum flexural strength obtained at 14 days for standard Algae[Crete] mix is A1 Ground sample with a resistance of 2.0 Bar (0.2 N/mm2); and at 14 days A1 Ground with 4.7 Bar of resistance (0.47 N/mm2). A1 Processed showed also a noticeable resistance above average with 2.0 Bar (0.2 N/mm2) at 28 days. For the Biocomposite with Marble aggregate, at 14 days A1 showed a resistance of 1.3 Bar (0.13 N/mm2) while at 28 days, A1 Processed showed the highest resistance with 3.0 Bar (0.3 N/mm2); A1 Ground also demonstrated an above average of 2.4 Bar (0.24 N/mm2). Based on the results of this experiments, the study concluded that the unproportional replacement of conventional aggregates with algae fibers results in a decrease in flexural strength. Algae fibers shows low strength development at early age but later shows rapid strength development. The experiments also demonstrated that the basic chemical treatment for the algae fibers contribute to the bending modulus resistance; as it reduces the percentage of cellulose present in the algae. Ground algae fibers showed the highest resistance from all the samples, concluding that in order to use Algae[Crete] as a load-bearing material, it is necessary to ground the fibers as it contributes to the homogeneity of the mixture, instead of focused and uneven organic material along the samples.

8 8

ALGAE [ CRETE]

CEMENT + SAND + ALGAE

FLEXURAL STRENGTH TEST

TEST 14 DAYS

8 8

CONTROL

A1

A2

A1 GROUND

M AT E R I A L : C O N C R E T E proportions: 1C : 2S : 0.7H20 R E S I S TA N C E : 4 . 0 B A R

M AT E R I A L : A L G A E C R E T E proportions: 1C : 1A R E S I S TA N C E : 0 . 6 B A R

M AT E R I A L : A L G A E C R E T E proportions: 1C : 2A R E S I S TA N C E : 1 . 0 B A R

M AT E R I A L : A L G A E C R E T E proportions: 1C : 1A R E S I S TA N C E : 2 . 0 B A R

A2 GROUND M AT E R I A L : A L G A E C R E T E proportions: 1C : 2A R E S I S TA N C E : 0 . 4 B A R

A1 PROCESSED M AT E R I A L : A L G A E C R E T E proportions: 1C : 1A R E S I S TA N C E : 0 . 3 B A R

A2 PROCESSED M AT E R I A L : A L G A E C R E T E proportions: 1C : 2A R E S I S TA N C E : 0 . 8 B A R

CEMENT + SAND + ALGAE

ALGAE [ CRETE]

FLEXURAL STRENGTH TEST

TEST 28 DAYS

CONTROL

A1

M AT E R I A L : C O N C R E T E proportions: 1C : 2S : 0.7H20 R E S I S TA N C E : 4 . 5 B A R

A2

M AT E R I A L : A L G A E C R E T E proportions: 1C : 1A R E S I S TA N C E : 0 . 4 B A R

M AT E R I A L : A L G A E C R E T E proportions: 1C : 2A R E S I S TA N C E : 0 . 1 B A R

A1 GROUND M AT E R I A L : A L G A E C R E T E proportions: 1C : 1A R E S I S TA N C E : 4 . 7 B A R

A2 GROUND

A1 PROCESSED

A2 PROCESSED

M AT E R I A L : A L G A E C R E T E proportions: 1C : 2A R E S I S TA N C E : 0 . 8 B A R

M AT E R I A L : A L G A E C R E T E proportions: 1C : 1A R E S I S TA N C E : 2 . 0 B A R

M AT E R I A L : A L G A E C R E T E proportions: 1C : 2A R E S I S TA N C E : 0 . 5 B A R

8 8

ALGAE [ CRETE]

CEMENT + SAND + MARBLE + ALGAE

FLEXURAL STRENGTH TEST

TEST 14 DAYS

CONTROL 8 8

M AT E R I A L : C O N C R E T E proportions: 1C : 1S : 1m : 0.7H20 R E S I S TA N C E : 5 . 0 + B A R

A2 GROUND M AT E R I A L : A L G A E C R E T E proportions: 1C : 2A R E S I S TA N C E : 0 . 3 B A R

A1

A2

A1 GROUND

M AT E R I A L : A L G A E C R E T E proportions: 1C : 1A R E S I S TA N C E : 1 . 3 B A R

M AT E R I A L : A L G A E C R E T E proportions: 1C : 2A R E S I S TA N C E : 0 . 8 B A R

M AT E R I A L : A L G A E C R E T E proportions: 1C : 1A R E S I S TA N C E : 0 . 5 B A R

A1 PROCESSED M AT E R I A L : A L G A E C R E T E proportions: 1C : 1A R E S I S TA N C E : 0 . 8 B A R

A2 PROCESSED M AT E R I A L : A L G A E C R E T E proportions: 1C : 2A R E S I S TA N C E : 0 . 6 B A R

CEMENT + SAND + MARBLE + ALGAE

ALGAE [ CRETE]

FLEXURAL STRENGTH TEST

TEST 28 DAYS

CONTROL

A1

A2

A1 GROUND

M AT E R I A L : C O N C R E T E proportions: 1C : 1S : 1M : 0.7H20 R E S I S TA N C E : + 5 . 0 B A R

M AT E R I A L : A L G A E C R E T E proportions: 1C : 1A R E S I S TA N C E : 1 . 0 B A R

M AT E R I A L : A L G A E C R E T E proportions: 1C : 2A R E S I S TA N C E : 0 . 7 B A R

M AT E R I A L : A L G A E C R E T E proportions: 1C : 1A R E S I S TA N C E : 2 . 4 B A R

A2 GROUND M AT E R I A L : A L G A E C R E T E proportions: 1C : 2A R E S I S TA N C E : 0 . 9 B A R

A1 PROCESSED

A2 PROCESSED

M AT E R I A L : A L G A E C R E T E proportions: 1C : 1A R E S I S TA N C E : 3 . 0 B A R

M AT E R I A L : A L G A E C R E T E proportions: 1C : 2A R E S I S TA N C E : 0 . 2 B A R

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ater absorption tests were also performed in samples catalogued as before. Beams of 25x25x100 mm were soaked in tap water for 1 minute; the samples were weighed before and after the immersion. The experiments showed an impressive difference between the ordinary concrete sample and the Algae[Crete] ones. While the control sample had an average water absorption of 5.05%, A2 showed an absorption of up to 34%, and A2 of 33.4%. Samples with marble powder aggregate showed an absorption in A2 Processed of 36.25%.

It was concluded that the replacement of aggregates by algae fibers makes the concrete lighter since it reduces its density by 35%. The samples became remarkably hygroscopic as the algae fibers increased in ratio in comparison with concrete.The incorporation of marble powder also improved the hygroscopic properties of the samples since the size of the particles allow a faster permeability rate, although the lightweightness of the material was compromised.

From this experiments, the study concluded that Algae[Crete] could be used as a structural material if algae fibers were ground and/or processed. The material also demonstrated a gradient of different properties as the ratio between algae and cement was altered. Major quantities of algae fibers in the samples showed a more hygroscopic and lightweight behaviour, while compromising the structural resistance. The samples were tested as beams since this project aims towards fibrous artifacts, composed of thin elements which could ultimately be in tension. As contemplated above, the advantages of these material system are many, including efficient utilization of waste biomass from harmful algal blooms, and the reduction in natural resource depletion. The use of algae fibers in concrete composites seems to be a feasible option. Algae[Crete] can be used for a variety of programmatic possibilities as it conveys flexibility in terms of material behaviour which is cost-effective and useful for advanced manufacturing. A gradient in concentration of algae fibers introduces possibilities for versatile artifacts with multiple integrated performance.

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ALGAE [ CRETE]

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C : S : H 2 0 + A w at e r a b s o r p t i o n t e s t

CONTROL

A1

A2

A1 GROUND

M AT E R I A L : C O N C R E T E D RY W E I G H T: 1 1 5 g r | 1 1 6 g r A B S O R P T I O N W E I G H T: 1 2 1 g r | 1 2 2 g r AVERAGE: 5,05%

M AT E R I A L : A L G A E C R E T E D RY W E I G H T: 7 6 G R | 7 5 G R A B S O R P T I O N W E I G H T: 9 4 G R | 9 0 G R AVERAGE: 21,5%

M AT E R I A L : A L G A E C R E T E D RY W E I G H T: 6 8 G R | 4 5 G R A B S O R P T I O N W E I G H T: 8 3 G R | 6 6 G R AVERAGE: 34%

M AT E R I A L : A L G A E C R E T E D RY W E I G H T: 9 2 G R | 8 2 G R A B S O R P T I O N W E I G H T: 1 0 2 G R | 9 5 G R AVERAGE: 12.9%

A2 GROUND

A1 PROCESSED

A2 PROCESSED

M AT E R I A L : A L G A E C R E T E D RY W E I G H T: 6 5 G R | 5 4 G R A B S O R P T I O N W E I G H T: 7 9 G R | 6 4 G R AVERAGE: 20%

M AT E R I A L : A L G A E C R E T E D RY W E I G H T: 6 3 G R | 7 6 G R A B S O R P T I O N W E I G H T: 8 2 G R | 9 2 G R AVERAGE: 25.5%

M AT E R I A L : A L G A E C R E T E D RY W E I G H T: 6 8 G R | 6 1 G R A B S O R P T I O N W E I G H T: 8 9 G R | 8 3 G R AVERAGE: 33.4%

ALGAE [ CRETE]

C : S : M : H 2 0 + A w at e r a b s o r p t i o n t e s t

CONTROL

A1

A2

A1 GROUND

M AT E R I A L : C O N C R E T E D RY W E I G H T: 1 2 7 G R | 1 2 6 G R A B S O R P T I O N W E I G H T: 1 3 2 G R | 1 3 1 G R AVERAGE: 3.9%

M AT E R I A L : A L G A E C R E T E D RY W E I G H T: 8 3 G R | 7 7 G R A B S O R P T I O N W E I G H T: 9 6 G R | 9 6 G R AVERAGE: 20.1%

M AT E R I A L : A L G A E C R E T E D RY W E I G H T: 7 3 G R | 7 3 G R A B S O R P T I O N W E I G H T: 9 0 G R | 9 0 G R AVERAGE: 23.2%

M AT E R I A L : A L G A E C R E T E D RY W E I G H T: 7 8 G R | 8 8 G R A B S O R P T I O N W E I G H T: 8 6 G R | 9 9 G R AVERAGE: 11.35%

A2 GROUND

A1 PROCESSED

A2 PROCESSED

M AT E R I A L : A L G A E C R E T E D RY W E I G H T: 6 0 G R | 6 6 G R A B S O R P T I O N W E I G H T: 7 4 G R | 8 1 G R AVERAGE: 23%

M AT E R I A L : A L G A E C R E T E D RY W E I G H T: 7 3 G R | 8 4 G R A B S O R P T I O N W E I G H T: 8 8 G R | 9 9 G R AVERAGE: 19.15%

M AT E R I A L : A L G A E C R E T E D RY W E I G H T: 6 3 G R | 5 6 G R A B S O R P T I O N W E I G H T: 8 4 G R | 7 8 G R AVERAGE: 36.25%

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BIORECEPTIVTY

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rban development requires urgent solutions to improve the environmental quality of contemporary cities. Urban public green spaces varies significantly between cities and the increasing interest for designing these areas result in challenges for available resources and development. The architectural envelope has been targeted as an opportunity for additional greenery; where several strategies that integrate vegetation and a wide variety of other photosynthetic organisms, provide water collection management, passive climatic control and CO2 atmospheric absorption. However, such proposals result in expensive solutions with high maintenance costs, poor aesthetic values, and risks for endangered species, threatening to create imbalances in the ecosystem.

Different approaches have been taken in consideration towards building materials that act as hosts to propagate living microorganisms and other complex plants. Such approaches offer a different interface between building and the environment with clear negotiations with nature and architecture through material biocompatibility. This concept derives from specific phenomena in nature that goes beyond a funcional mimesis, allowing complex applications with nature-inspired and nature-integrated/embedded architectural elements. Surface growth of photosynthetic organisms upon materials is commonly known as biological colonisation.

Most building materials exposed to the environment are prone to vegetative covering at some point, specially with cryptogams and other organisms that coexist in abundance in the soil, air and water.

Initially, the first microorganisms to colonise are phototrophs such as algae and cyanobacteria; lichens and mosses follow the natural growth succession as the previous microorganisms have already interacted with the material substrate. The strains present in these emergent microbiomes depend on the air quality that contains a diversity of species from the environment. The material substrate and its physical and chemical composition are relevant factors for surface growth as previous research demonstrates that rough and porous materials are ideal attachment systems for spores and air dust to settle; pH and mineral composition are also considered to be important properties for the colonisation [1].

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Materials that are prone to bio-colonisation are determined by their level of “Bioreceptivity”. It has been defined

by Olivier Guillitte (1995) as “ the aptitude of a material (or any other inanimate object” to be colonised by one or several groups of living organisms without necessarily undergoing any biodeterioration” [2]. The bioreceptive design aims to explore the relationship between the material substratum and focused exhibited surface growth, as well as the selection of biota and its specific environment.

The design with living organisms represents a challenge since it is a dynamic process subject to seasonal changes, physical and chemical variations, and the interaction between native or reintroduced species. Hence, bioreceptivity is an innovative strategy that is naturally time-based with self-regulating conditions in sustainable design.

There are [3] three different defined types of bioreceptive conditions based on a chronological state: the “Intrinsic bioreceptivity”, which is the initial potential of a material to be colonised, the “Secondary bioreceptivity”, that refers to the bio-colonisation of a material that has already changed over time, and a “Tertiary bioreceptivity”, which the potential colonisation has been altered due to human activity. A special notion for architecture has also been addressed by Guillitte which is “Extrinsic bioreceptivity”, where a type of colonization is not related with the original state of the material, but to organic deposits accumulated in the surface upon several microorganisms are able to grow.

The strategies and challenges of bioreceptive design should create a sense of scaffolding that should aim to provide biocompatible levels of pH, surface roughness, functional porosity, water distribution and retention, and provide favourable conditions for microorganisms such as algae, cyanobacteria, lichens, ferns and other bryophytes to grow. Cementitious materials are important contributors in bioreceptive scenarios around the world being the most used material nowadays. The initial levels of pH for concrete are too alkaline for living systems to endure, but gradual degeneration from outdoor exposure decreases these levels and becomes optimal for bio-colonisation.

Algae[Crete] is a cementitious composite that involves different proportions of Spirogyra sp. fibers throughout its composition. This biomass represents an efficient biocompatible catalyzer that not only provides biodegradability and several other material properties, but also intensifies the bioreceptive capabilities of the remaining concrete sections. Algae[Crete] is a porous composite with an inherent rough surface that allows organic matter to strategically sediment and develop extrinsic bioreceptivity. The programmed arrangement of algae fibers improves the lithophytic properties of the cementitious material, a phenomena that can also be promoted in the internal cavities of the material, identified as a cryptoendolithic colonisation.

ALGAE [ CRETE]

Previous studies [4] have demonstrated that algae fibers and residual algae biomass can be used as biofertilizers through composting methods, therefore the incorporation of Spirogyra sp. fibers for this research proposal is highly beneficial, representing a rich substratum of organic nutrients to be metabolized by the emergent ecosystem.

For this research project, a biofouling test and a moss spreading technique has been conducted to evaluate the bioreceptive capabilities of an Algae[Crete] sample. The biofouling test followed the methodology explored by previous researchers [5] using a cultured strain of Chlorella Vulgaris sp.; the strain was kept under sterile conditions in Erlenmeyers containing 1 L of distilled water and 0.2 mL of algae culturing medium provided with the culture. The Erlenmeyers were exposed to sunlight and air was provided with air pumps. The Algae[Crete] sample was casted following the proportions previously addressed from the A2 mixture in a foam mold, and demoulded after a day of curing process.

The accelerated algal test was carried out by means of circulating the algal cultures with hydraulic pumps in the samples, positioned with an inclination of 45°, and collecting the remaining solution with an acrylic container. The run-off period started every 12 hours and ran constantly for 1 hour, and kept for a 2 week period. The specimen showed biofouling after the first week of algae exposure. This might be a consequence of a change in pH levels and chemical composition, concluding that Algae[Crete] is a suitable bioreceptive material for photosynthetic microorganisms.

WEEK 0

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WEEK 1

WEEK 2

ALGAE [ CRETE]

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MOSS

algae

YOGURT

SUGAR

BEER

CORN SYRUP

BLEND

A P P LY

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A second test was conducted with a moss spreading technique which intended to prove if the surface material from Algae[Crete] samples is suitable for the transplantation of moss growth. A moss “milkshake” was prepared with yogurt, sugar, beer, corn syrup and algae fibers used for the Algae[Crete] sample. The moss was soaked in tap water and ground in a grinding machine; algae fibers were added to the ground moss while adding the rest of the ingredients until a viscous consistency was achieved. The Algae[Crete] sample was fabricated as previously described for the accelerated biofouling test. The moss paste was then applied on the surface from the sample and sprayed every 12 hours with tap water. The experiment showed after 2 weeks the first apparition of rhizoids and in some cases, green leaves. However, moss requires long periods of time in order to flourish properly, and due to time constraints the experiment had to be ceased. In order to explore the full potential of the moss receptivity of the composite, further additional research is strongly recommended.

1.Ortega-Calvo, J. J., Ariño, X., Hernandez-Marine, M., & Saiz-Jimenez, C. (1995).

Factors affecting the weathering and colonization of monuments by phototrophic microorganisms. Science of The Total Environment, 167(1–3), 329–341. https://doi. org/10.1016/0048-9697(95)04593-P 2. Guillitte, O. (1995). Bioreceptivity: a new concept for building ecology studies. Science of the Total Environment, 167(1–3), 215–220. https://doi. org/10.1016/0048-9697(95)04582-L 3. Ibid, 216.

4. Han, W., Clarke, W., & Pratt, S. (2014, July 1). Composting of waste algae: A review. Waste Management. Pergamon. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2014.01.019 5. Manso, S., De Muynck, W., Segura, I., Aguado, A., Steppe, K., Boon, N., & De Belie, N. (2014). Bioreceptivity evaluation of cementitious materials designed to stimulate biological growth. Science of The Total Environment, 481, 232–241. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.02.059

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GEOMETRIC ANALYSIS STIGMERGIC BEHAVIOUR FIBROUS STUDIES

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he traditional structural based design is a passive design strategy that concentrates on engaging the needs of structural laws and regulations, where designers are led specifically by structural engineers who evaluate and meticulously approve the design to make the building comply with the standard requirements. However, over the recent decades, innovative advancements in technology and computation have allowed the structural performance to be simulated, optimized and analysed in a fast and more precise manner. These innovations brought opportunities for architects and designers to extend the boundaries of architectural design and create a synergic relationship between space and structural quality. The post-digital era had made possible to recognize complex spatial conditions and showed a wide variety of possibilities in addition to its technical use and beyond its practicality. Furthermore, it also provides a workable solution for emerging algorithmic design such as agent-based design practices to find potentially sophisticated and adaptive structural solution for hyper-complex geometry [1]. Structural performance-based design intends to highlight new possibilities in conceiving complex morphologies while articulating materiality, space and functionality with high performance and efficiency.

Agent-based design has been previously studied and rapidly developed, however it has always presented a dichotomy between its design methodology and its fabrication techniques. The agent-based strategies have radical implications for the generation of architectural form, structure and tectonics [2].

This behavioural formations from non-linear operations enables architectural systems to perform within an interactive ecology rather than a consecutive hierarchical order. The design through non-linear systems, challenges these hierarchies that are inherent within design methodologies allowing the architecture to emerge from these processes. The distributed non-linear operation of swarm systems intrinsically resists the discrete articulation of hierarchies such as those within modern architecture and contemporary parametric component logic [3].

These systems refocus on tectonics concerns and enables a polyscalar behavioural interaction among composite elements with sequential relationships; swarming systems allows a synthetic organizational logic inspired from complex natural processes. Elements such as structure and ornament, through these systemic formations, could be considered subservient from each other, where their relationship could operate as a single component of material rather than discrete isolated constituents. The interaction of structural and ornamental behaviours can operate either through the interaction of two discrete populations of agents (one structural and one ornamental) operating within an ecology, or a single population that is capable of local differentiation - contextually sensitive rules that shift between structure and ornament depending on local conditions [4].

Agent-based design requires smart materials with high performance and versatility in order to conceive fibrous constructs which work as both structure and ornament.

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ALGAE [ CRETE]

1 1 1

Researchers have contemplated the possibility of the materialization of agent-based designs with advanced fabrication techniques such as 3D printing and additive manufacturing. However, this progress has not yet pushed the boundaries of small scale objects due to high costs of fabrication. Modern advancements in material research reconstructed the assumptions of matter as a dense composition of micro-fibers rather than a monolithic structure.

The micro-behaviour of multi-agent systems enables architectural matter to be considered and designed in similar ways [5]. The agency of matter goes beyond the consideration of other secondary formations such as geometric and architectural agency, which ultimately focuses on individual assemblage of discrete elements at the micro-material level.

Within fibrous assemblages and their fabrication as composite materials, the role of geometry is not discrete or reducible. Instead, geometry negotiates complex behaviours such as structure and ornament [6]. Stigmergic tectonics are defined by subsequent hierarchies of elements, defined by different correlated parameters such as intensity, density and/or capacity. This immersed symbiosis of elements diffuses the discrete articulations that emerged from modernism; the non-categorization merges the distinction between multiple elements where every fiber operates as both ornament and structure. The design of performative agent models offers a wide variety of conceptual, aesthetic and fabrication implications, while dissipating the distinction between tectonic hierarchies and generating continuous intricate constructs.

This research proposal explored advanced computational models and simulations through complex multi-agent algorithmic strategies that were ultimately applied to the design and fabrication of the final prototypes. This study introduced a work-flow between agent-based architecture and the specific aesthetic and behavioural properties of the material experiments; It also proposes a viable framework for design methodology development and digital fabrication with biomaterials. Initial computational studies were driven as a form-finding strategy. Inspired by the hair-like shape from the filamentous algae, this project contemplates the possibility of design through fibrous assemblies, both digitally and physically. Three-dimensional explorations were conducted in order to understand the growth and behaviour of filament-like structures, aiming for structural and aesthetic harmony. Particle simulations are generated through several computational algorithms based on biological systems; space colonisation is achieved from a single point of projection that evolves into free linear formations that ultimately are translated into applicable architectural artifacts.

Different taxonomies were studied and conducted through multi-agent assemblies. The first one being screen taxonomies, which studies the particles behaviour in 2D environments. Different controlled forces for particle interaction were applied to understand the iterations and path generation.

ALGAE [ CRETE]

The column taxonomies studies vertical particle behaviour and also explores different surface and meshing strategies for variable fiber thicknesses. The Cubes taxonomies, explores stigmergic conditions in an enclosed bounding perimeter and uses similar parameters previously considered from the screen taxonomies. The Table taxonomies used the knowledge acquired from previous studies in order to identify how this digital processes could influence furniture design for a feasible table prototype. The final explorations, were a series of visual studies with more advanced multi-agent simulations and design strategies, which intended to visually exemply filamentous algal growth.

1. Hu, Y., & Li, Q. (2014). Integrating the Tectonics in Architecture Design. In Architectural Research through to Practice: 48th International Conference of the Architectural Science Association (pp. 433–442). Retrieved from http:// anzasca.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/09_34_86.pdf 2. Ibid.

3. Snooks, R. (n.d.). Fibrous Assemblages and Behavioral Composites by Roland Snooks - THE FUNAMBULIST MAGAZINE. Retrieved September 22, 2018, from https://thefunambulist.net/architectural-projects/guest-writers-essays-25-fibrous-assemblages-and-behavioral-composites-by-roland-snooks 4. Ibid.

5. Ibid, 2.

6. Ibid, 3.

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ALGAE [ CRETE]

SCREEN TAXONOMIES

1 1 1

BOUNDARY PARTICLE EMITTER SINGLE POINT ATTRACTOR SEPARATION -CENTER-

BOUNDARY PARTICLE EMITTER BOUNDARY ATTRACTOR -BOTTOM CENTER-

BOUNDARY PARTICLE EMITTER SINGLE POINT ATTRACTOR - BOTTOM LEFT-

ALGAE [ CRETE]

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TWO POINT PARTICLE EMITTER SINGLE POINT ATTRACTOR -CENTER RIGHT-

MULTIPLE POINT PARTICLE EMITTER MULTIPLE POINT ATTRACTOR -CENTER-

BOUNDARY PARTICLE EMITTER SINGLE POINT ATTRACTOR COHESION - CENTER -

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PARTICLE

ITERATIONS

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FIBROUS ITERATIONS

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PARTICLE

ITERATIONS

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FIBROUS ITERATIONS

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PARTICLE

ITERATIONS

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FIBROUS ITERATIONS

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PARTICLE

ITERATIONS

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FIBROUS ITERATIONS

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PARTICLE

ITERATIONS

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FIBROUS ITERATIONS

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COLUMN TAXONOMIES

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VOXELS

ITERATIONS

FIBROUS ITERATIONS

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VOXELS

ITERATIONS

FIBROUS ITERATIONS

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VOXELS

ITERATIONS

FIBROUS ITERATIONS

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CUBE TAXONOMIES

CUBE TAXONOMIES

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FURNITURE TAXONOMIES

RIGHT VIEW

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TOP VIEW

FRONT VIEW

FIBROUS ITERATIONS

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VOXEL ITERATIONS

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VISUAL STUDIES

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FREYR & FREYJA THE VERTICALITY CATALOGUE OF PROTOTYPES

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CATALOGUE OF VERTICALITIES ALGAE [ CRETE]

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FRONT VIEW

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PERSPECTIVE

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CURLY NOISE

ITERATIONS

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DIFFERENTIAL GROWTH ITERATIONS

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BRANCHING

ITERATIONS

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METABALLS ITERATIONS

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HOLLOW INTERIOR SPACE FOR ADDITIONAL STRUCTURE

NARROW TOP LIGHTWEIGHT

ALGAE-LADEN INNER LAYER HOMOGENEOUS FIBROSITY

1000 MM

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CONCRETE FRAME STRUCTURAL SUPPORT 4MM DEPTH

WIDE BASE S T R U C T U R A L S TA B I L I T Y

FINAL DESIGN

FREYR & FREYJA

300 MM

ALGAE [ CRETE]

FABRICATION PROCESS

CNC MILLING FOAM MOULDS

INITIAL CONCRETE LAYER

ALGAE FIBERS DEPOSITION

UNCASTED PIECES

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GROTTO

PILASTER

COLUMN

K U S A R I -T O I

TRELLIS

GARGOYLES

F O U N TA I N

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his research proposal has been presented as a decontextualized catalogue of prototypes, materialized with a biodegradable and versatile biocomposite, designed with advanced multi-agent algorithmic strategies and fabricated through innovative digital fabrication techniques. This catalogue rethinks the basic architectural primitives present in all sorts of built manifestations.

These primitives are fundamental elements based on geometric forms and mark the basic rules of proportion and symmetry in architectural design. This project aims for a variety of artifacts where multiple programmatic applications can be achieved and applied in practical situations. The architectural primitives have been categorized as follows: the verticality, the surface and the vessel. Each category exemplifies different conditions that explore the multiple properties and advantages from the material. The prototypes have been named after Greek and Norse water deities, considering that this project is strongly related to freshwater algae with designs that are inspired by water-associated phenomena.

The firs architectural primitive explored is The Verticality. This is the geometrical abstraction of elongated elements that have an acute sense of three-dimensionality. These are linear artifacts present in everyday built environments and exist since the earliest stages of architecture. The verticality is based on the basic generator of form in geometry: the line; it has two directions where a point has been translated in space. Lines in geometry have a relevant role in the construction of visual compositions since they regulate forms and patterns. They are considerate to be the primary expressions when defining space, as they effectively highlight areas and volumes. The verticality is a linear element that functions with other primitives to support, surround or join other visual elements in the space. They belong to axial systems where organization, direction and symmetry is given through an arrange visual constructs along a line.These systems have played an important role since ancient times by setting the bases for monumental architecture with the projected articulation forms and spaces.

The verticality could be conceived as any architectural element that is self-standing, free hanging or perpendicularly positioned in space (columns, channels, fountains, grottoes, etc.)

The verticality, named FREYR & FREYJA (Twins from Norse mythology), is the symmetric axial prototype explored for this thesis proposal. It is the result of extensive computational simulations, supported by a design catalogue that explored different design strategies that have merely been drawn apart from the previous fibrous studies. The design established the shape of the verticality to be wide in the bottom (to provide structural stability) and narrow in the top (to provide lightness); the artifact is composed by two layers: a structural frame of concrete, designed with particle and branching systems, and a algae-laden inner layer, to provide an strategically-reinforced piece.

The interior of the design was left hollow as this prototype could be used for different scenarios where additional structure or piping would be required. Four low-density foam (1000 x 500 mm) moulds were sculpted through a CNC milling machine, creating a four-part casting mould for the prototype. The foam was then cleaned and covered with 2 layers liquid latex to protect it from the casting process. Vaseline was also sprayed thoroughly after the latex was dry to facilitate the future demoulding phase. The initial structural frame layer was casted using a OPC mixture (previously tested) and later on the Algae[Crete] as also applied. The fibers were distributed following a gradient of structural performance: the top has more quantity of fibers to provide lightness, and the bottom a controlled arrangement was carefully positioned, following the previously tested load-bearing mixes. The symmetrical pieces were uncasted after two days of cured process.

This prototype was initially intended to be robotically-extruded following the non-gravitational technique, however, due to scale and time constraints, this approach was left behind and a traditional casting method was used. FREYR & FREYJA explores the structural capabilities of Algae[Crete] and the effective application of the unexposed algae reinforcement where is needed. The final prototypes have a dimension of 1000 mm height by 300 mm of diameter.

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SALACIA T H E

S U R F A C E

CATALOGUE OF PROTOTYPES

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CATALOGUE OF SURFACES PERSPECTIVE

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FRONT VIEW

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SALACIA

CLYMENE

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ELECTRA

EURYNOME

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STYX

PERSEIS

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CALLIRHOE

IDYIA

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CURLY NOISE 1.0 ITERATIONS

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CURLY NOISE 2.0

ITERATIONS

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DIFFERENTIAL GROWTH ITERATIONS

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METABALLS

ITERATIONS

ALGAE [ CRETE]

THICKNESS 60MM

ALGAE FIBERS POSITIVE GEOMETRY FOR WATER ABSORPTION & BIORECEPTIVITY

GRIND ALGAE INNER LAYER FOR LIGHTNESS

1000 MM

1 1 1

WATER CHANNELS NEGATIVE GEOMETRY

FINAL DESIGN

SALACIA

500 MM

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FABRICATION PROCESS

CNC MILLING FOAM MOULD

ALGAE FIBERS DEPOSITION

FINALIZED FOAM MOULD

UNCASTING THE PIECE

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GREEN ROOF

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FACADE PANELS/sidings

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WATER-POND TRANSITION

P AV E M E N T / T I L I N G S

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he second decontextualized architectural primitive is The Surface, named Salacia (Greek goddess of the sea with an algae crown). This primitive pertains to the second most common element in architecture: the plane. It is the extension of a line in any direction within the same dimension and it is determined by the contour of edges of a plane. The shape of a plane is inherently associated to perspective since its true shape can only be appreciated frontally. The plane defines the limits and boundaries of a space and it deals with the formation of volumes and forms. The surface is conceived as any two-dimensional element in architecture that conforms space: walls, roofs, floors, divisions; and also elements in cotidianity with similar geometrical and spatial implications: tables, paintings, tombs, lattices, etc.

The surface explores the lightweight and bioreceptive capabilities of the material system. It has been designed following the curly noise pattern for water channelization purposes. The topography of the prototype has been designed to create cavities for cryptogamic growth; the cavities provide protection from direct sunlight while keeping the optimal moisture levels for the emerging ecosystem. A single mould of low-density foam was CNC milled following the topographical conditions of the design. The moulds then were protected with two layers of liquid latex and covered after with sprayed vaseline to prevent any further physical damage in the demoulding process.

Following the A2 mix, the algae fibers were positioned along the milled channels; it was intended this way since this would be the exposed face to the exterior. The algae fibers needed to be in contact with the exterior to provide the nutrients for the cryptogamic growth, while taking advantage of the hygroscopic properties of the mix to maintain the high levels of humidity in the channels. The exposed fibers and the rough surface of the material provides the appropriate textural conditions for the aerial spores attachment. A second layer, following the A1 ground mixture, was added after the first layer was properly positioned. This second layer would constitute the body of the prototype while benefiting from the lightweight capabilities of the material. A final third layer was also applied following the A1 ground with marble composite, to provide a structural strong back surface for the piece. The prototype was demoulded after three days of curing process.

The surface explores the full potential of lithophytic (exposed algae) and endolithic (embedded algae) growth. This prototype also challenges the notion of high-maintenance and uneffective green walls and roofs systems, by providing a sustainable biocompatible solution that will ultimately, with the hosted emergent ecosystem, aerial-bioremediate the surrounding environment. The final prototype has a dimension of 1000 mm length by 500 mm width and 60 mm of height.

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NEREIDS T H E

S U R F A C E

CATALOGUE OF PROTOTYPES

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A

second set of prototypes for The Surface primitives were also explored. Four tiles, named the Nereids (Greek sea Nymphs) were also fabricated. The Nereids intended to materialize the different conditions from selected mixes of Algae[Crete] in a larger scale.

The prototypes were designed following noise surface conditions where different depths and a fluid finishes were achieved. Four moulds of low-density foam were CNC milled and coated with two layers of liquid latex and sprayed with vaseline when the latex was dry.

Each mix Algae[Crete] was prepared following the previous material experiments and casted in the moulds. The tiles were demoulded after two days of curing process. The prototypes were used to compare the differences between each mix and its weight for live demonstrations. The algae fibers exposed in the outer layers were positioned following the initial swarm particles studies. The tiles exemplify the use of Algae[Crete] as a pervious material for pavements and urban skins.

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CALYPSO

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THETIS

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GALATEA

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AMPHITRITE

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THE T H E

NAIADES

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CATALOGUE OF PROTOTYPES

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CURLY NOISE 1.0 ITERATIONS

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CURLY NOISE 2.0 ITERATIONS

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DIFFERENTIAL GROWTH ITERATIONS

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METABALLS

ITERATIONS

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CHALICE

VESSEL

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BUDDHIST SINGING BOWL

H O LY W A T E R F O N T

GUI VESSEL

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YONI

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he final architectural primitive explored is The Vessel.

These prototypes corresponds to the last element to generate form in geometry. It is the concept of solid with three dimensions and consists of edges, vertices and surfaces. Solids are the physical expression of projected three dimension elements of space. Solids could be completely composed by all its matter like a stone, might be hollow like buildings; although, the visual quality remains unaltered. Solids have several different characteristics like shape, which highlights the surface configuration of the form; texture, as the scale and arrangement of the constituent particles of the surfaces pertaining to the solid; and light, which emphasizes the nature of the shape. Solids and by extension, volumes, are defining characteristics of architecture; it is the main quality that allows distinction between assembled matter.

Solids construct space since it permits enclosure through established boundaries, and it gives shapes to what is not conformed. This thesis proposal conceives solids as containing geometries, and without reaching the full habitable scale, the proposal explores a container as a vessels. However, this vessels are still decontextualized objects since they are non-sited nor specifically applied (there are different types of vessels with different applications). Vessels pertain to primitive architectural objects with high value in history since they are the early manifestations of ceramic art.

Vessels have multiple uses in culture and might be smallest scale achievable for a containing object. These artifacts cannot be classified between decorative and functional since there is no difference that can define and categorize vessels.

They are everyday objects that have acquired symbolic and commemorative meanings.

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NON-GRAVITATIONAL PRINTING

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ROBOTIC ARM COMPOSITE EXTRUSION

or this prototypes eight vessels were designed following previous computational swarming techniques. The fabrication of these vessels was intended to follow the innovative non-gravitational printing strategy. Traditional printing manufacturing requires the addition of external supports, and for its layering construction, a fast-hardening material is required. In order to fabricate fibrous elements, the addition of supports would be incommensurable and would convey unreasonable material waste and printing time. Concrete mixes with a a fast-curing process (usually applied for conventional pneumatic extrusion), requires toxic admixtures that contradict the biocompatible and biodegradable intentions of the researched material. It has also been noticed that the earliest experiments with viscous-medium extrusions use synthetic materials that work as a scaffold for the printing mixture, that ultimately reacts with said mix and hardens it faster. As the aim of this thesis involves a sustainable framework that also comprises the selected digital fabrication technique. For this purpose, the means of fabrication had to change into a more ecological agenda.

GELATIN MEDIUM TEMPORARY SCAFFOLD

FIBROUS TECTONICS 3d printing

A gelatin mixture (based on previous biopolymer studies) was used as the scaffolding medium for the pneumatic extrusion. The mixture was prepared with a 80 gr of commercial powder gelatine per Liter, and cooked with tap water until the powder dissolved. The liquid gelatine was then poured in plastic containers of different sizes. For the initial tests, the extrusions were made using a 100 ml syringe, and the concrete was prepared following the Algae[Crete] material experiments. The extrusion had to be made when the gelatine was facing a change of state from liquid to solid; as the concrete mixture had to buoy in the medium and not fall by gravity or mixed with the gelatine. This was a very meticulous and precise process since the gelatine requires a long period of time (approximately 2 hours depending on the container) to solidify, which led to a slow printing process. The initial printing tests proved that concrete can be extruded in viscous gelatine, and that the process does not alters the chemical composition or physical properties of the concrete.

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POSITIONING IN ROBOTICS EXTRUSION SOURCE

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EXTRUSION SOURCE

PERPENDICULAR PLANE 90째

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EXTRUSION SOURCE PERPENDICULAR PLANE C U R VA T U R E R E S T R I C T I O N

ANGULAR NOT POSSIBLE D U E T O V I S C O S I T Y o f m at e r i a l

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Issues regarding the viscosity of the concrete were also faced, since the concrete contains granular sand particles, these would block the nozzle from the syringe as they were accumulated by pressure.

The concrete mix had to be changed in order to reduce the amounts of sand until a smooth mixture was achieved.

The experiments also engaged issues with different emerging morphologies from the concrete extrusion as they were printed. The manual injection of the mixture inside the gelatine caused protrusions of different sizes and shapes due to the difference of viscous state in the medium. The imperfection of the manual injection also was a relevant factor that contributed to this phenomena; a varying amounts of pressure had to be exerted in consequence of the blocked particles from the syringe and the counterpressure of the heterogeneous state of the gelatine. The result of this inconsistencies generated an non continuous print with fragmented pieces. These experiments allowed the realization that precise tools had to be used in order to control constant levels of pressure and versatility towards the printing process.

The experiments produced a catalogue of several pieces with different morphologies. In order to adapt the printing strategy towards a more advanced and precise stage, an ABB 6-Axis robotic arm was used. The development of an extruding nozzle was also carried out using selected parts from an industrial silicone gun and adapted to be connected with an air pressure machine. The extruder tank and nozzle design and fabrication was done in collaboration with Kunaljit Singh Chadha, Johanna Monroy and Zeina Alkhani.

The initial printing tests took in consideration different parameters contemplated in conventional pneumatic extrusions such as: pressure, speed, line thickness, height of the layer and capacity of the containing tank. The robotic extrusions represented a challenging phase for this project since several issues regarding the concrete’s viscosity prevented complete prototypes. The geometry also played an important role during the fabrication process as in terms of positioning in robotics; it is essential that the angle of extrusion should always be in 90° respect the plane of curvature, otherwise additional issues with differences between pressure might be involved. Moreover, environmental factors such as temperature had direct implications on the printing as higher temperatures decreased the solidifying process of the gelatine and the extruded prototype tended to collapse.

The final vessels were intended to be 3D printed following this advanced manufacturing technique. However, the pieces were not complete due to the high degree of complexity of this fabrication process and the environmental factors. This methodology requires a precise and controlled environment where all the external factors would not directly affect the procedure. This final phase of this research proposal opens up the possibility of further explorations with a sustainable and advanced digital fabrication technique.

Final tests using Algae[Crete] mixes for the final prototypes were not conducted, however, initial extruding experiments proved that it is possible to extrude Algae[Crete] with a homogeneous mix where all the fibers were ground and properly incorporated.

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The addition of algal fibers did not represent any inconvenients for pneumatic extrusion processes. It was proven with this exploration that architectural fibrosity can be achieved through robotic non-gravitational printing, and that further research is strongly suggested to continue the initial conditions that this project has presented.

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The presented prototypes are two vessels with different mixes of Algae[Crete]. The first vessel, named Moria, was casted using a low-density foam mould. The mould was CNC milled with a 500 mm of diameter half-sphere shape and prepared following the techniques described with previous prototypes. The mix of A1 ground Algae[Crete] was poured in the mold as a scaffold for the following layers. Long strings of the filamentous algae and concrete (A2 mix) were used to cover and create a two-layered cast. Using a syringe, a concrete mix was injected following the pattern designed for the vessel. The mould was removed after two days of curing process from the inside-out. For the second vessel, named Cyane, a similar strategy was used. The prototype used an acrylic semi-sphere of 300mm diameter. The mould was covered in liquid latex and vaseline. Using the fabricated tank for the ABB robot, the Algae[Crete] composite was extruded manually with the pneumatic pump. The extrusion followed the design for the vessel as much as possible creating a series of continuous lines. The composite was extruded by layers following the previous pattern, reaching the desired thickness. The finalized prototypes exemplify the use of Algae[Crete] as a lightweight material system for decontextualized containers with multiple indoor or outdoor applications.

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ROBOTIC EXTRUSION SIMULATION

ROBOTIC NON-GRAVITATIONAL PRINTING

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MORIA

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CYANE

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CONCLUSIONS

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he implications of algae biomass in this project engages a dynamic abiogenetic life cycle divided in three main phases: the first one where the noxious biomass is extracted from endangered water bodies attempting to exterminate the existing marine species (living to death condition); the second phase where the algae decays in a synthetic environment (death to living condition) and the third phase were the decayed matter allows an emerging healthy ecosystem (living to living condition). This is almost an artificially-conceived ontogenetic approach in which algae is transformed from a harmful infestation to a complex and interactive macrobiome. The filamentous algae is meant to continue its natural decomposition process in a different contextual condition without endangering other organisms.

Algae[Crete] is a biopoietic material system where life arises from nonliving matter and where an artificial bioremediation process is achieved; the human being actuates as the living specie that physically degrades the noxious material from a “contaminated� area, nearly as a cost-effective reversed phyto-remediating strategy.

This project has attempted to pioneer traditional notions of architecture, commonly associated to rigidity and durability, towards an interdisciplinary work between biology, material science, chemistry and design in order to produce an innovative and sustainable solution. Algae[Crete] is defined as a tectonic hylozoism where matter is inspired and performs in similar ways a biological systems, reaching the state of being alive through a synthetic-organic escenario.

Algae[Crete] is an innovative material system that aimed to reuse the waste biomass from harmful algal blooms events, product of an imbalance in the environment caused by human activity. It has addressed the incorporation of freshwater natural fibers from Spirogyra sp. algae to a cementitious material, creating lightweight, hygroscopic and bioreceptive composite. The geometrical studies for this thesis proposal explored fibrous tectonics within the fabrication and design of bio-integrated materials for large scale architectural elements. This dynamic methodology allows the inception of complex behaviours that determine the material performance in an immersed symbiosis of continuous elements with subsequent and homogeneous hierarchy. Such fibrosity explores emergent morphologies from generative multi-agent simulations where each constituent is non-categorized and blurs the definition between both ornamental and structural components. This systemic approach allows topological formations with imperfect and irregular aesthetics opposed to common readable tectonics that govern the current architectural scene. Algae[Crete] is framed to robotically fabricate materially-efficient artifacts through the deposition of the biocomposite in a highly viscous gelatin medium. The system allows through non-gravitational printing, the assembly of three-dimensional elements designed with multi-agent algorithmic techniques that engages novel fibrous aesthetics. This project reinterprets materiality to the retrofitting of specially designed tectonics, allowing a wide range of programmatic possibilities from ornamental to high-complexity components.

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The development of an algae-reinforced cementitious biocomposite opens new frontiers for emerging fields such as biotechnology in architecture. Based on the conducted research there are several possible explorations to continue with this challenging strategy. The first one contemplates the use of different species of filamentous algae; since this project only recognizes Spirogyra sp. as the selected fibrous agent. There is a wide variety of filamentous algae that could replace Spirogyra fibers or provide additional properties to the composite. The use of several species with different sizes of fibers could improve the material behaviour and address algal bloom events with a wider scope. This could also implicate a variation in terms of textural conditions and visual impact with different species that could produce different pigments. This project created a catalogue restricted to architectural elements with different geometries, but the incorporation of other types of algae could provide a selection of products based in their chromatic aesthetics.

Another possible scenario for this research could explore the potential of Algae[Crete] for agricultural contexts. The highly bioreceptive properties of the composite could be the catalyzer for sustainable agricultural techniques. The food industry nowadays represent a big challenge for the development of cities, therefore new strategies have to be explored. This project could provide a solution for eco-friendly farms that could require highly-absorbent substrates and reduce the use of toxic and invasive fertilizers that would ultimately contribute to Harmful algal blooms phenomena.

A third exploration could take place if Algae[Crete] could incorporate biophotovoltaic technologies. The cryptogamic ecosystem embedded in the surface would work as the biological device to generate electricity from photosynthetic activity. The growing algae could replace solar cells and when in absence of light, a set of chemical reactions could continue the production of electricity.

Biophotovoltaic technologies places algae cells on electrodes that allow the continuous movement of electrical charges through them.

The result current flow from the circuit could be employed for external electronic devices.

The physical elements from this research could also be informed by precise environmental and structural conditions. Geometry through fibrous systems could be programmed to work under different structural deformations that could improve the overall load-bearing capabilities of the prototypes, therefore directly improving the properties of the material. Environmental factors and collected data from the city could also be used to influence and place the exposed algae fibers for an specific and successful bioreceptive growth. Solar radiation paths, rain drainage analysis and CO2 concentrations could inform the geometry to create highly-efficient and performative elements for personalized environments. Further explorations with non-gravitational printing of a bio-integrated composite is highly suggested, since the possibilities are endless aiding the materialization of complex geometries with a fast and low-cost fabrication process.

Algae[Crete] explored the possibilities of design with living materials necessary to transform the built environment. The geometrical performance and behavioural qualities of the material, integrated with high-precision robotic manufacturing techniques, demonstrates the pertinence and feasibility of innovative designs and sustainable strategies. This challenging approach is an alternative to traditional design methodologies that could represent many advantages for the future of highly polluted areas.

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ALGAE[CRETE] VIDEO https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MLbrDzIo9Zw

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Pauli, G. (2010). Fibers from Algae. Retrieved from https://www.theblueeconomy.org/uploads/7/1/4/9/71490689/case_77_fibers_from_algae.pdf Ramasubramani, R., Praveen, R., & Sathyanarayanan, K. S. (2016). Study on the Strength Properties of Marine Algae Concrete, 9(4), 706–715. Retrieved from http://www.rasayanjournal.comhttp//www.rasayanjournal.co.in Sanseverino, I., Conduto, D., Pozzoli, L., Dobricic, S., Lettieri, T., & European Commission. Joint Research Centre.

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https://indianexpress.com/article/technology/science/concrete-may-helpcurb-air-pollution-says-study-4743670/

http://www.wikiwand.com/en/Pilaster

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