dissertation by Naomi Howell Sivosh

turning from grey to green

Cover image: <https://www.instagram.com/p/ngdg5iLS1C/?taken-by=maraserene> Photo credit: Serena Mitnik-Miller A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the degree in BA Architecture, 2016. Copyright ÂŠ Naomi Howell Sivosh, 2016. All rights reserved. Newcastle University

Turning from Grey to Green an in-depth analysis of the transformation of disused, conrete, urban spaces into productive, green, planted landscapes Written by Naomi Howell Sivosh

abstract This dissertation directly compares six case studies, five of which are in the UK and one of which is in America. These case studies are all examples of local people pro-actively transforming disused, concrete spaces in their neighbourhood by growing plants in these spaces. The effect they have had on the landscape, on people at local scale and on people at much larger scale will be discussed. Why and how do people start these projects? Can simply growing plants really change a community?

contents

iii

abstract

introduction, setting the scene

The Rise of Grassroots Green Spaces

Project Methodology

The Two Challenges Addressed by Each Case Study

Challenge 1: the global food market, the disconnection of consumption from production

Challenge 2: Community Deterioration

The Activism of the Individual Solo-Start-Ups; no external support

1.1 Case Study 1: Bowery Houston Community Farm and Garden, New York City, 1973 1.2 Case Study 2: Perronet House flowerbeds, Elephant and Castle, London, 2004 2

18 24

“If you eat, you’re in!” Food Orientated Projects; moderate extrenal support

2.1 Case Study 3: Food from the Sky, Crouch End, London, 2010 2.2 Case Study 4: Incredible Edible, Todmorden, Yorkshire, 2007 3

Winning the Turner Prize Whole-Community-Regeneration; high-level, specifically adapted external support

35 40 51

3.1 Case Study 5: Granby Four Streets, Toxteth, Liverpool, 2010

Greening the Capital Micro-scale Projects; high-level, institution-led external support

4.1 Case Study 6: Capital Growth via Cranbrook Estate Community Garden, Tower Hamlets, London, 2009

Case Study Comparison:

conclusion

113

bibliography

119

list of illustrations

129

introduction setting the scene

introduction, setting the scene

The Rise of Grassroots Green Spaces All over the world today, local people are reclaiming unused, derelict and inaccessible urban spaces in their neighbourhood and transforming these grey, concrete spaces into productive, green, planted landscapes. Environments which aim to involve the local community in the growing of plants and, more specifically, the growing of food for human consumption.

‘Grassroots as well as institution-led agricultural projects are currently

mushrooming in the cities of the Global North, reshaping urban landscapes,

experimenting with alternatives to the capitalist organisation of urban life ’ 1.

Chiara Tornaghi, ‘Critical Geography of Urban Agriculture’, Progress in Human Geography (SAGE, 2014), p. 309132513512542 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0309132513512542>. 1

As cities undergo constant modernisation and growth, incessantly striving to increase their density in order to keep up with the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s exponentially increasing population, urban green spaces are diminishing. In the UK they are primarily limited to private home gardens and agriculturally unproductive parks, neither of which encourage community interaction: people can shut themselves away in their private garden and enjoy parks without the need to speak to anyone. Many spaces are also left without a given function or purpose, or without a clear owner, and can often fall into disrepair. For example, these spaces can take the form of roadside verges, roundabout islands or corners of car parks. Some people are seeing the potential in these unproductive spaces. By transforming them, people are hoping to strengthen community relationships and to educate others about growing local food. This may be in response to two challenges prevalent in many areas of the UK: the lack of knowledge regarding growing food and the fragmented state of many, predominantly disadvantaged, communities. The following sections will explore these challenges in more detail. Grassroots initiatives are trying to tackle these issues at a local scale, perhaps the only place to start.

introduction, setting the scene

Project Methodology In the following dissertation I will examine and analyse six case studies, mostly based in the UK, that demonstrate examples of local people transforming neglected spaces in their local area, into productive green spaces. Here, a productive green space is defined as land which yields produce but also as a space that achieves something significant. Whether something is significant will be determined by the impact it has had. The case studies range in scale, impact and context, but increase consecutively in the level of external support provided. I aim to identify whether the projects were initiated in response to the two challenges previously mentioned and whether they have been successful in addressing them.

By comparing projects that share similar themes I hope to find reoccurring patterns from which conclusions can be drawn. I will explore a range of literature and hopefully visit some of the projects myself, to obtain a thorough understanding of each case study. I realise that much of the literature detailing each case study has been produced by the project itself and will therefore have some level of bias. To attain a fair understanding, other sources, such as articles, describing each case study more critically must be included.

The variables of motive, person and means will be discussed in order to determine whether there are similar integral factors affecting how each project has developed.

Motive being the trigger or catalyst that started the project and the initial aims of the project; person being the projectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s initiator and contributors; and means being how their outcomes were achieved. Each case study consecutively increases in the level of external assistance however this does not link to the scale or ambition of the project.

The Two Challenges Addressed by Each Case Study

Challenge 1: the global food market; the disconnection of consumption from production In 21st Century Britain, the consumption of local, seasonal produce is a niche market. In 2012, only 23% of the fruit and vegetables bought in the UK were grown in the country 2 . Local, seasonal food is also often more expensive than other, more processed food which is produced in countries with lower output costs such as wages and land rent. These higher prices make local, seasonal food inaccessible to a large proportion of the population due to financial constraints. Moreover, if you live in an inner-city environment there is logistically far less produce available which has been grown locally.

The availability of produce from across the world in Britainâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s local supermarkets has also changed our relationship with food. Customers can buy exotic fruits and vegetables all year round, with little understanding of the social, economic and environmental effects associated with long distance trade in foods.

Most people are aware of the environmental impact of physically moving food over a large distance and of not shopping locally, directly through CO2 transport emissions which range from global air travel to even the CO2 emissions created when shoppers drive to large, out-of-town supermarkets.

HM Government, Food Statistics! Pocketbook 2013 in-Year Update, 2014 <https://www.gov.uk/government/ uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/315418/foodpocketbook-2013update-29may14.pdf> [accessed 24 November 2015]. 2

introduction, setting the scene

‘The CO2 emissions created by producing, processing, packaging and

distributing the food consumed by a family of four, comes to about eight

tonnes a year ’ 3 .

Less people know about how this adversely affects the way that the food is grown and treated: producers will concentrate on growing a small number of crops, focussing on ‘their ability to withstand long periods in transit and storage, or their suitability for processing ’ 4. Food is perishable and therefore needs to be treated for long distance travel. This can be done in three ways: via processing, pesticides and packaging.

‘The manufacture of processed foods from raw ingredients is an energy

intensive procedure, using up to ten times the energy needed to grow the

crop in the first place ’ 5.

In addition to this, half a billion dustbins of packaging waste, used to protect food and drink products, is produced in the UK each year 6.

The global food market also affects food producers, particularly small farmers and growers. In both the UK and developing countries, small producers are being squeezed out of the marketplace, as they are unable to compete with larger businesses that can produce cheaper crops in large quantities 7.

Katrin Bohn, Continuous Productive Urban Landscapes: Designing Urban Agriculture for Sustainable Cities, ed. by Joe Howe and Andre Viljoen, 2nd edn (Oxford: Elsevier Architectural Press, 2008). p. 44. 3

ibid. p. 41.

ibid. p. 42.

ibid. pp. 43-44

ibid. p. 44.

Although many people are aware of the issues caused by global food transit, they have little direct effect on the lives of most UK residents and therefore rarely influence shoppers’ buying decisions or conscious actions. The literal geographical separation of consumption from production can cause a psychological distancing of food producers from consumers resulting in a consumer ignorance that allows these habits to continue 8.

This disconnection seems most prolific amongst children, with the media publishing some shocking statements in recent years. According to a poll for the British Nutrition Foundation 9 : Almost a third of UK primary pupils thought that cheese is made from plants. Nearly one in ten secondary pupils thought that tomatoes grow under ground. Approximately a third of five-to-eight-year-olds thought that pasta and bread are made from meat. Approximately 10% of five-to-eight-year-olds thought that potatoes grew on bushes or trees. There is no proof that these statements are linked directly to the lack of exposure to locally grown produce, however it is clear that more education is needed amongst children about where their food comes from.

‘Exotic’ fruits and vegetables have become a staple and a joy in many people’s lives that cannot simply be removed and replaced with the UK’s seasonal produce. In today’s world people have come to expect choice, all year round. But there is a danger that this demand could lead to an irreversible disconnection with where food comes

Judith Burns, ‘“Cheese Is from Plants” - Study Reveals Child Confusion’, BBC Education & Family (BBC News, 3 June 2013) <http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-22730613> [accessed 24 November 2015]. 9

introduction, setting the scene

from unless action is taken to find a balance between local and global produce in people’s lives. Several campaigns have been established in recent years to address this issue 10, however do these changes need to come from more local, self-initiated sources to truly be effective? To understand whether this is an important factor, I have chosen to analyse a range of case studies where local people themselves instigate change in their immediate environment.

Challenge 2: community deterioration As well as a disconnection from the production of food, some say a disconnection from community is becoming more apparent in many parts of the UK. People are living less socially integrated lives; with the rise of the solo dweller and the surge in [online] social networks, people are changing the way they interact with others11 . Dr Andrew McCulloch, chief executive of the Mental Health Foundation has said,

“We have data that suggests people’s social networks have got smaller and

families are not providing the same level of social context they may have

done 50 years ago” 12.

Longer working hours, living further from family and higher rates of relationship separation are just some of the factors resulting in many people not knowing their neighbours. In addition to this, the rise of apartment living in the UK since the 1960s 13 has created a lack of shared semi-private spaces: front door steps and back gardens

‘Local Food - Campaign to Protect Rural England’, Campaign to Protect Rural England <http://www.cpre.org.uk/ what-we-do/farming-and-food/local-foods> [accessed 24 November 2015]. 10

Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs, ‘It’s Time to Eat Seasonably’, GOV.UK, 2010 <https://www.gov. uk/government/news/it-s-time-to-eat-seasonably> [accessed 24 November 2015]. Vanessa Barford, ‘Is Modern Life Making Us Lonely?’, BBC Magazine (BBC News, 8 April 2013) <http://www. bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-22012957> [accessed 24 November 2015]. 11

ibid. K. W. Schmitt, Multi-Storey Housing (London: Architectural Press, 1966).

were once places to engage with ones immediate community. The changing physical landscape and reduced social expectations have led to people living more secluded lives.

This does not only cause personal symptoms of isolation but can have negative impacts on the local, public environment. As Delanty states in his book Community,

‘…the big question is whether cities have totally lost their connection with

community having become absorbed into the global society, and as a result

the last vestiges of locality have been destroyed…’ 14.

When local people take responsibility for an area that was previously neglected and transform it into an environment where everyone is welcome, they encourage the strengthening of a community. Moreover, by involving the wider community in the creation of the environment, a sense of ownership and pride is instilled among residents. This respect can prevent spaces from being defaced. Local authorities try to develop this idea, however they are often unsuccessful. Many planning companies and architects also implement user participation schemes in their design process. In contrast, grassroots initiatives are started because people are demanding change. If local people have the drive to initiate something, they will most likely have the commitment to maintain it.

Gerard Delanty, Community, 2nd edn (New York: Taylor & Francis, 2009). p. 51.

introduction, setting the scene

1 The Activism of the Individual Solo-Start-Ups; no external support

1 The Activism of the Individual

Guerrilla Gardening, the illicit cultivation of someone else’s land 15, highlights the demand for cultivating unused public space. Not only does it show people’s need to garden, but it is also a statement against the scarcity of land and the amount of land wasted. It shows how people can take ownership of their local public space to encourage community cohesion. It is fundamentally anarchistic.

‘Gardening on any land without permission is seen as vandalism, in the

UK it is defined as criminal damage’ 16. Guerrilla gardening comes not without risk; this further reiterates people’s need to

garden.

Richard Reynolds, On Guerrilla Gardening: A Handbook for Gardening without Boundaries (London: Bloomsbury Publishing PLC, 2009). p. 5. 15

ibid. p. 134.

In its most primitive state guerrilla gardening, specifically for the cultivation of food, is for survival. When people do not have land of their own, or money to buy food, they may illegally cultivate other private or public land to put food on the table 17. This is more common in poorer parts of the world, however a growing awareness about the benefits of locally grown, organic food has seen a steady rise in guerrilla food gardening in wealthier countries and cities. In Britain, for example, vegetable seed sales are now outstripping flower seeds for the first time since the Second World War18. Although this does not show a rise in guerrilla gardening specifically, it indicates a shift in attitude towards growing our own food.

Most guerrilla gardeners aim to overcome two main challenges regarding land:

scarcity and neglect 19 . ‘Since 2006, half the world’s people live in cities ’ 20. These cities are becoming increasingly denser resulting in an increasing lack of gardening space. In many cities, those who do have a front garden are paving over them to make room for their car. Scarcity of private gardening space provokes people to look elsewhere for cultivatable space. People have therefore started to make use of the unused scraps of land available in their neighbourhood, which leads on to neglect. Public space can be neglected because people assume it is someone else’s responsibility. However, those that are responsible for it, be that private landowners or public authorities, may not maintain the space. They may consider transforming the space a waste of time and money so it is left untouched. The maintenance of green spaces can also be expensive; for example Phil Hurst [a horticultural contractor for Transport for London] has said

Richard Reynolds, On Guerrilla Gardening: A Handbook for Gardening without Boundaries (London: Bloomsbury Publishing PLC, 2009). p. 19. 17

ibid. p. 22.

ibid. p. 39.

ibid. p. 42.

1 The Activism of the Individual

it costs ÂŁ600 every time the yellow spindle trees in the central reservation of the Old Kent Road dual carriageway are watered. This amount of money could buy 150 more trees 21. Green spaces are therefore frequently left unattended.

Guerrilla gardeners can take advantage of these forgotten spaces. If the quality of a space has been improved the garden is likely to go unchallenged.

Richard Reynolds, On Guerrilla Gardening: A Handbook for Gardening without Boundaries (London: Bloomsbury Publishing PLC, 2009). pp. 47-48. 21

fig. 1 A group of volunteers begin landscaping the cleared plot, 1973.

fig. 2 Liz Christy sits amongst her finished garden, 1973.

1.1 Case Study 1:

Bowery Houston Community Farm and Garden, New York City, 1973 During the 1970s, inner-city neighbourhoods in New York were quickly deteriorating: buildings were neglected and derelict and crime rates were incredibly high. The middle-classes were leaving Manhattan and moving to the suburbs of New Jersey. Even Central Park fell into disrepair as a result of disinvestment in the city 22.

Lynden B Miller, Parks, Plants, and People: Beautifying the Urban Landscape (New York: WW Norton & Co, 2009). pp. 8-10. 22

Liz Christy, a local artist and young ‘hippie’ spotted a small child playing in a vacant lot filled with miscellaneous rubbish. Upset by what she had seen and by the neglected state of the whole neighbourhood, Christy, with the help of friends, began transforming it into the Bowery Houston Community Farm and Garden [fig. 1 & 2]. Initially, the predominantly black and Hispanic community were uncertain about this group of middle-class, white hippies [fig. 3], but they won the support of local teenagers who convinced their families by bringing home free fresh produce 23 [fig. 4].

Christy worked part time in public relations which allowed her to attract the attention of the press: The New York Daily News reported their successful story and the group were soon helping others start community gardens in their area [fig. 5]. Following the success of these local green spaces, the parks department set up the organisation

Green Thumb in 1978. It offered plants, tools and horticultural expertise, as well as one-dollar-a-year leases to community groups wanting to cultivate their own productive community gardens. The movement continued to grow, with New York boasting over 800 community gardens at its peak in the late 1980s. A survey by Green Thumb found that these projects were producing over $1million worth of produce each year 24.

The Bowery Houston Community Farm and Garden was legitimized after fifteen months and since 2005 the garden has had the same protection as Central Park25 .

Steve Brooks and Gerry Marten, ‘Green Guerillas: Revitalizing Urban Neigborhoods with Community Gardens (New York City, USA) |’, The EcoTipping Points Project <http://www.ecotippingpoints.org/our-stories/indepth/usanew-york-community-garden-urban-renewal.html> [accessed 19 November 2015]. 23

ibid.

Richard Reynolds, On Guerrilla Gardening: A Handbook for Gardening without Boundaries (London: Bloomsbury Publishing PLC, 2009). pp. 75-76. 25

1 The Activism of the Individual

The project was totally self-funded, with horse manure donated from the local police station and seeds scavenged from park department giveaways 26.

This case shows how the challenges faced by society can inspire individuals to try and make a difference. The garden was very productive agriculturally as it was started at a manageable scale. By successfully producing delicious fresh food for local residents, the project gained the approval of those around them. Although the group of gardeners did not fit into the demographic of the area, they were a part of the community.

If the project had not been noticed by the local newspaper the snowball effect would not have begun, which resulted in the project influencing a major physical and social change in the landscape of inner city New York. In this example, the production of locally grown food is not the critical outcome but a convenient by-product. The social implications on the wider environment have far greater importance.

Steve Brooks and Gerry Marten, â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Green Guerillas: Revitalizing Urban Neigborhoods with Community Gardens (New York City, USA) |â&#x20AC;&#x2122;, The EcoTipping Points Project <http://www.ecotippingpoints.org/our-stories/indepth/usanew-york-community-garden-urban-renewal.html> [accessed 19 November 2015]. 26

fig. 3 The initial group of volunteers were white, middle-class hippies.

fig. 4 Group of gardeners and local volunteers, 1974.

1 The Activism of the Individual

fig. 5 Inspired by Christy, hundreds of other community gardens sprung up in derelict plots throughout New York. This incredible 15,000 square foot was destroyed by local authority in 1985.

fig. 6 Sunflowers bloom in the flowerbeds outside Perronet House, August 2008.

1 The Activism of the Individual

1.2 Case Study 2:

Perronet House flowerbeds, Elephant and Castle, London, 2004 Another example comes from Richard Reynolds, author of On Guerrilla Gardening (2009). Reynolds has a gardening qualification from the Royal Horticultural Society and a Geography degree from Oxford. He was also the former head gardener at Exeter Cathedral School and had since been an account planner working at advertising agencies for 12 years developing campaigns 27.

â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Richard Reynoldsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, London Sustainable Development Commission, 2008 <http://www.londonsdc.org/ londonleaders/profile.aspx?ID=39> [accessed 5 December 2015]. 27

Five months after moving into a flat in a tower block in Elephant and Castle in 2004, Reynolds decided to stop waiting for the local council to sort out the split-level flowerbeds beneath his block which were a ‘tangle of old shrubs, builders’ debris and litter’ 28 and do it himself. He had overlooked the importance of gardening when moving into the flat and thought that by tending to the neglected public flowerbeds he could satisfy this gap in his life whilst improving the public space for all residents. So, at two o’clock in the middle of the night, Reynolds began clearing and replanting the space. He had wanted to avoid trouble with neighbours or the council. Reynolds created a blog, showing a photographic diary of the transformation, which he shared with the world online [fig. 6 & 7]. Over time, the website changed from a blog to a loose organisation for other guerrilla gardeners. Volunteers can sign up to help [fig. 8 & 9] and people can share their experiences and advice with one another.

Reynolds has also gone on to lead many other guerrilla gardening initiatives, inspiring others and transforming neighbourhoods nationwide 29 [fig. 10, 11, 12 & 13]. He also gives talks around the world, spreading his passion for guerrilla gardening. A volunteer helping Reynolds transform a roundabout in Elephant and Castle says,

“you want people to take pride in the area that they live in… if you’re walking

down the street and you see flowers, places that are taken care of…you’re

more likely to take more care ” 30.

Reynolds enthusiasm seems to be infectious.

Richard Reynolds, On Guerrilla Gardening: A Handbook for Gardening without Boundaries (London: Bloomsbury Publishing PLC, 2009). p. 81. 28

ibid. pp. 81-83.

John Domokos, ‘Guerrillas Conquer the Elephant’, The Guardian (The Guardian, 7 September 2015) <http:// www.theguardian.com/environment/video/2008/apr/25/guerrilla.gardening> [accessed 2 January 2016]. 30

1 The Activism of the Individual

This is another example where the drive and vision of one person has physically transformed a part of their local area and the lives of others. Later in the book Reynolds advises,

“ The media offer the most powerful propaganda tool for the guerrilla

gardener…I recommend you first create your own media outlet. Plant a

virtual garden…” 31.

The use of a blog to share his work created an online community that gave help and support, just like a physical community. Reynolds has not raised awareness about growing local produce, nor has he fixed a major social problem in his area, but he has found a way to connect people in a different sort of community: online.

Both these examples of guerrilla gardening, and many others, stem from the drive of an individual. Different factors may have sparked their actions; from personal needs to neglected local public spaces however the majority of examples aim to simply transform a space by growing plants. Rarely are there larger agendas.

By involving others, communities are brought together, and local spaces are respected and valued. It seems that often, illegal activity is required to kick-start action; waiting for permission or for someone else to transform a space could leave people waiting forever. In addition to this, when local residents take control of these spaces, the improvements are often more suitable and sustainable as they are aware of the needs of their local community.

Richard Reynolds, On Guerrilla Gardening: A Handbook for Gardening without Boundaries (London: Bloomsbury Publishing PLC, 2009). p. 163. 31

Project 1: Tower Block entrance planter, Perronet House, Elephant and Castle, London Last cared for: Spring 1987 Guerrilla Gardening: 26 October 2004 Budget: ÂŁ67.35

News 15 May 2005 Project 1 is maturing. The Summer bulb have shot through and the Convolvulus, Carnations and Lavender are getting thick and bushy. White Verbena have been planted amongst to complement a theme that should mature into predominantly white and orange colour amongst spikey and feathery leaves.

Project 1 Guerrilla Gardening: 20 & 24 April 2006 Budget: about ÂŁ10 My mother [008], Lexy [706] and I spruced up Project 1 with some new Japanese anenome cuttings, some climbing sweet peas and a few pom pom bellis daisies. The original plot is poised to burst into a great herbaceous mish mash over the coming weeks. fig. 7 Reynolds documented the progression of his guerrilla gardening via an online blog.

1 The Activism of the Individual

fig. 8 & 9 Volunteers help Reynolds on a guerrilla gardening project by night.

fig. 10 Sunflowers planted by Reynolds grow in the central reservation of a road on Denmark Hill, London, 2011.

fig. 11 Lavender Fields, a fragrant traffic island in Lambeth, London planted by Reynolds and a group of volunteers, has taken six years to establish. The lavender is harvested yearly and sold.

1 The Activism of the Individual

fig. 12 Guerrilla tulips on the north roundabout, Elephant & Castle, 2011.

fig. 13 Guerrilla sunflowers and scarlet flax on Stamford Street, London, 2007.

2 “If you eat, you’re in!”

Food Orientated Projects; moderate external support

fig. 14 Fresh, colourful produce grown on the roof garden is photographed and posted online to promote Food From the Sky. * previous page: tagline from Incredible Edible, Todmorden.

2 “If you eat, you’re in!”

The following case studies are grassroots initiatives that focus more specifically on growing food rather renovating a specific space. Their aims stretch further than those of the guerrilla gardeners, hoping to do more than just physically transform a space.

2.1 Case Study 3:

Food from the Sky, Crouch End, London, 2010 Food from the Sky was started in May 2010 by advocate for the environment Azul-Valerie Thome. Thome has a degree in Ecological Design Thinking and was previously an art consultant 32. ‘Azul-Valerie Thome’, Linked In <https://www.linkedin.com/in/azul-valerie-thome-95b66a4> [accessed 24 November 2015]. 32

She had a vision of transforming the roofs in her local area so approached the owner of Thornton’s Budgens in Crouch End, North London. With the support and enthusiasm from the supermarket’s owner, Thome went about creating a permaculture community garden growing food on the roof of the supermarket to sell in the shop below [fig. 14], while providing a learning and education centre for the local community 33 [fig. 15, 16 & 17]. The program facilitates a foundation course on food growing, biodiversity and on living a sustainable life, called seed2seed. It aims to address issues surrounding ‘living a conscious, gentle and courageous life on our planet’ 34. Thome states the project aims to tackle ambitious, more abstract challenges such as ‘food security, deep biodiversity, resilience, retailing and how we can affect change from within the industry’ 35, using the growing of food to communicate with people.

The initiative is self-funded and volunteer led, however Haringey Council donated 300 green boxes and 10 tonnes of compost at the beginning of the project. 20 local residents volunteer regularly. The project appeared to be a great success. However, in February 2015, after running for five years, the roof garden was closed due to the roof needing complete repair. A new site has still not been found for the garden.

By using the outlet of a local, popular shop, the project was able to reach out to the wider community. The project involved over 500 children, various children’s charities, local residents and apprentices. It succeeded in educating children and adults about where food comes from.

Azul-Valerie Thome, ‘Food from the Sky’, 2010 <http://foodfromthesky.org.uk/about/> [accessed 19 November 2015]. 33

‘Seed2Seed Foundation Course’, 2013 <http://foodfromthesky.org.uk/seed2seed-grow-life-and-food-in-ourmost-cemented-places/> [accessed 19 November 2015]. 34

Azul-Valerie Thome, ‘Food from the Sky’, 2010 <http://foodfromthesky.org.uk/about/> [accessed 19 November 2015]. 35

2 “If you eat, you’re in!”

Thome said her ultimate aim was

‘to create a template to show that produce can be grown in cities, and

sold locally. One day, I want to see supermarket roof-gardens all over the

country’ 36. By starting at a local scale she had hoped to influence a wider sphere of people. However, the project was unsuccessful in surpassing its influence from the immediate local community.

Laura Barnett, ‘The Supermarket Growing Food on Its Roof’, The Guardian (The Guardian, 23 December 2015) <http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/mar/09/supermarket-rooftop-vegetable-garden> [accessed 19 November 2015]. 36

fig. 15 The roof garden in 2010, populated by a few containers and plants.

fig. 16 The roof garden in 2013, full of plants.

2 “If you eat, you’re in!”

fig. 17 The garden is in full bloom in Summer 2013.

fig. 18 Todmorden Green Route Map, guides visitors to the town around the green sites, boosting tourism.

2 “If you eat, you’re in!”

2.2 Case Study 4:

Incredible Edible, Todmorden, Yorkshire, 2007 Unlike Food from the Sky, this example had a huge impact nationally and even globally, creating a much larger sphere of influence.

During the 19th Century the small, rural town of Todmorden in West Yorkshire grew rapidly, both in size and economically, as a result of its booming wool and cotton industry. The decline of the textile industry in the 20th century left Todmorden

blighted by economic decline. As shops and pubs closed, local traders were being forced out by large supermarkets and unemployment increased 37.

In 2007 two women, Pam Warhurst and Mary Clear, got together and shared concerns not just about the problems facing Todmorden but also about much bigger global issues such as the financial crisis, rising fuel costs and erratic weather patterns. They decided that something had to be done that would not only help the town face some of its challenges but would open up a conversation about wider issues amongst local residents. They wanted to find a unifying language that would surpass boundaries of age, class and culture, a language that would enable people to see land differently, to think about local resources more and to interact with their neighbours more frequently. This language was food 38.

Rather than producing a strategy document, or asking others for permission or support, they proceeded to make changes themselves 39. As Warhurst herself said in a recent lecture for TED talks,

“We’ve not asked anyone’s permission, we are not daunted by the

sophisticated arguments that say these small actions are meaningless in

the face of tomorrow’s problems because I have seen the power of small

actions” 40.

Pamela Warhurst and Joanna Dobson, Incredible! Plant Veg, Grow a Revolution (United Kingdom: Matador, 2014). p. xiii 37

ibid. pp. xiv-xv.

Lindsay Smales, Incredible Edible Todmorden: Changing the World One Corner at a Time.

Pam Warhurst, ‘How We Can Eat Our Landscapes’ (Google+, 2012) <https://www.ted.com/talks/pam_warhurst_ how_we_can_eat_our_landscapes?language=en> [accessed 24 November 2014]. 40

2 “If you eat, you’re in!”

They rebranded guerrilla gardening, propaganda gardening. Their aim was

‘To transform leftover, underutilised, poorly managed and boring, green,

empty spaces into herb gardens, vegetable patches and orchards for use by

the whole community’ 41.

As well as the direct benefits such as involving the community and producing free, healthy food for the town, propaganda gardening was used as a tangible expression for a set of bigger ideas. The scheme aimed to educate the people of Todmorden about the provenance of food, eating seasonally and locally and the effect this can have on a global scale. Again in her lecture for TED talks, Warhurst states,

“So many people don’t recognise a vegetable unless it is in the

supermarket.. we are all part of a local food jigsaw, we are all part of a

solution.”

Propaganda gardening was a huge success, and with a volunteer team of around 20, Warhurst and Clear went on to create cultivated raised beds in areas that were underused and ‘unloved’ 42, for example outside the train station, local college, disused health centre, and even the police station [fig 18, 19, 20 and 21]. Incredible Edible was born, hugely impacting Todmorden. A recent research project found that 67% of local residents collect food and herbs from these public spaces and 97% local residents say they buy more local food today compared to five years ago 43. There are also growing projects in both the primary and secondary schools in Todmorden, helping to educate children.

Lindsay Smales, Incredible Edible Todmorden: Changing the World One Corner at a Time.

Project ASPECT, ‘Incredible Edible Todmorden- Mary’s Story’, YouTube (YouTube, 2011) <https://www.youtube. com/watch?v=4FmviVi10bU> [accessed 24 November 2015]. 42

Lindsay Smales, Incredible Edible Todmorden: Changing the World One Corner at a Time.

Todmorden has also exploded on a national scale with their model being copied by over 100 other towns, cities and neighbourhoods in the UK. In 2012 more than 1,000 people visited the town from across the world44 and 800,000 people have watched Pam Warhurst speak passionately about the project on TED Talks. Their message has resonated across the world as an important issue that must be addressed. So why was it so successful? Can this model really be applied to any area and reap the same rewards? Pam Warhurst was formerly Chair of Forestry Commission Great Britain 45, which is the largest land management commission in the country. She later became Labour council leader on the Calderdale Council, the local council for Todmorden. These are just two of the several high authority positions Warhurst has filled in many influential organisations. Mary Clear had been a community development worker at Calderdale Council. Both women already possessed the skills and contacts to help make Incredible Edible succeed. A good website was also set up right from the start to share their message with the world; moreover, tours of the town and lectures given across the country promote the project 46. At the very beginning of the project, B&Q, the British multinational DIY giant, donated £5000 worth of wooden boards which are still being used eight years later to build raised beds around the town 47. Although Incredible Edible has certainly inspired many and sparked many similar schemes, I question whether this would have been possible in different circumstances.

Lindsay Smales, place-making lead of Incredible Edible Todmorden, on guided tour of Todmorden, November 2015. 44

Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs, ‘Forestry Commission Chair’, GOV.UK, 2012 <https://www. gov.uk/government/news/forestry-commission-chair> [accessed 24 November 2015]. 45

Lindsay Smales, Incredible Edible Todmorden: Changing the World One Corner at a Time.

Lindsay Smales, place-making lead of Incredible Edible Todmorden, on guided tour of Todmorden, November 2015. 47

2 “If you eat, you’re in!”

The people of Todmorden have used food as a way of controlling a part of their local environment and a part of what they eat, in a world where people ‘feel increasingly alienated from the forces that shape their lives, whether that’s governments, banks, oil companies or agribusinesses’ 48.

I visited Todmorden on a very wet November day and toured the town with Lindsay Smales [fig 22], place-making lead of Incredible Edible, and first contact for students. The town was not filled with luscious green beds of tempting food. The physical impact on the town itself seemed minimal, contrary to how it is described by Warhurst. I asked Smales if there was ever the aim of self-sufficiency, could they ever feed the whole town? He said that that was practically unfeasible, the main aim was of education; to teach children about where food comes from and about bigger global issues, something that is being tackled head on in local schools.

Although the project has not brought a community together through creating a shared space, it has succeeded in addressing the challenge of the disconnection between food production and consumption. One of the key principles of Incredible Edible is ‘Thinking Globally, Acting Locally.’ This is perhaps the ethos that has led to the unprecedented success of many grassroots projects. What has happened in Todmorden is a key example of how starting at a small scale can lead to far greater things, inspiring and educating people locally and worldwide.

Pamela Warhurst and Joanna Dobson, Incredible! Plant Veg, Grow a Revolution (United Kingdom: Matador, 2014). pp. xiv-xv. 48

fig. 19 Raised beds outside the local college.

fig. 20 Police embrace the fresh produce growing in raised beds outside their station.

2 “If you eat, you’re in!”

fig. 21 Plants are clearly labeled giving residents information about what is grown there and when to pick it and even how to cook with it.

fig. 22 Lindsay Smales, place-making lead and first contact for students, takes me on a tour around the town’s Green Route on a wet November day, 2015.

To see whether this hugely influential model could be applied in a completely different context I explored two examples that had been inspired by Incredible Edible Todmorden. They were located in Southwark and Lambeth, two inner-city London boroughs that differed greatly from the rural Yorkshire town of Todmorden.

The website of Incredible Edible Lambeth states that

‘[it] is a collection of people and organisations who work together to make

sure that healthy, sustainable, locally produced food is available to everyone

living in Lambeth, regardless of income, both now and in the future’ 49.

It boasts over 123 growing projects, including Rosendale allotments 50 and a park that underwent a £3million investment in 2010 and now has a greenhouse 51 . It is unclear whether Incredible Edible simply unites all these schemes onto one forum, undoubtedly a valuable role for sharing advice, or in fact started the projects. Unlike in Todmorden, the different schemes seem to have been started at different times, by different people. Whilst it is important to connect existing projects and create an online presence to advertise the schemes, the organisation does not appear to do much else.

Incredible Edible Southwark states that they are ‘a network and tool to help people in Southwark to connect with each other and issues around food and community’ 52. They currently have two directors and one volunteer, and an uninformative website.

‘About Us’, Incredible Edible Lambeth, <http://www.incredibleediblelambeth.org/aboutus/> [accessed 24 November 2015]. 49

‘Growing Rosendale’, Incredible Edible Lambeth, 2015 <http://www.incredibleediblelambeth.org/growingrosendale/> [accessed 24 November 2015]. 50

‘Myatt’s Fields Park Greenhouse Project’, Incredible Edible Lambeth, 2015 <http://www.incredibleediblelambeth. org/myatts-fields-park-greenhouse-project/> [accessed 24 November 2015]. 51

‘Incredible Edible Southwark’ <http://www.incredible-edible-southwark.org.uk/about> [accessed 24 November 2015]. 52

2 “If you eat, you’re in!”

Connecting like-minded people is again important but they do not seem to be drastically changing their local environment.

One can only speculate as to why these Incredible Edible schemes have not been as prolific as Incredible Edible Todmorden. The areas certainly differ in many ways. The population of Todmorden stands at only 17,000, compared to both Southwark and Lambeth each having a population of approximately 300,000 53. The London boroughs are also much more ethnically diverse, with the Todmorden demographic being almost completely white British. It may be more difficult to unite such a large and diverse population. The population density of Southwark and Lambeth is again much higher, with many people living in blocks of flats. This could result in the need for functional green space being prioritised over promoting profound messages. In addition to this, resident turnover in Southwark and Lambeth is far greater which could result in weaker community links, as it is more difficult to form relationships with your neighbours if they are frequently changing. However, in Todmorden, where the population is much smaller and resident turnover is far less, a strong, inclusive community was no more apparent.

During my trip to Todmorden, Lindsay Smales told me that the majority of volunteers are retired women; this suggests that they have a lot of free time and are financially comfortable. Although Southwark and Lambeth are more economically deprived areas all three examples suffer from high levels of unemployment. Moreover people with disposable time and income exist in any location in the UK, irrespective of the area’s level of deprivation. Perhaps the context of a project fundamentally defines its outcomes.

Stuart Taylor, ‘Census 2011 Briefing’ (Southwark Council, 2012) <http://www.southwark.gov.uk/info/200223/ census_2011/2723/census_2011_briefing> [accessed 11 January 2016]. 53

3 Winning the Turner Prize Whole-Community Regeneration; high-level, specifically adapted external support

3 Winning the Turner Prize

The examples of transforming communities with grassroots, green initiatives that have previously been considered are, for the majority, self-started, self-governed and self-funded. Where they are successful is often where local people have the ability and experience to implement change. This chapter will focus on a case study where local people may not have that same knowledge but do still have drive and passion. With the aim to improve their local community both socially and physically, local people have used growing plants to instigate far greater changes. Moreover, working with external organisations has enabled the local community to do much more than they were capable of alone.

fig. 23 The majority of houses in the area are empty, derelict and boarded up.

3 Winning the Turner Prize

3.1 Case Study 5:

Granby Four Streets, Toxteth Liverpool, 2010 Granby Four Streets [comprising of Ducie Street, Jermyn Street, Cairns Street and Beaconsfield Street 54] [fig. 24, 25, 26 and 27] lies in Toxteth, a forgotten neighbourhood in inner-city Liverpool. The area is populated with rows of terraced housing, however today only 70 of the 200 households are inhabited. Race riots in 1981 saw buildings torched and up to 500 people arrested in the area 55. After the riots, houses were not repaired and the area fell into neglect from both its residents and the local council [fig. 23].

Ronnie Hughes, ‘Granby 4 Streets: Telling the Story’, 2015 <http://www.asenseofplaceblog.wordpress. com/2015/06/10/granby-4-streets-telling-the-story> [accessed 24 November 2015]. 54

Ed Vulliamy, ‘Toxteth Revisited, 30 Years after the Riots’, The Guardian (The Guardian, 20 May 2014) <http:// www.theguardian.com/uk/2011/jul/03/toxteth-liverpool-riot-30-years> [accessed 24 November 2015]. 55

Bins stopped being collected, litter was not removed and crime escalated. A series of failed regeneration plans have merely added to the area’s decay, demolishing houses without rebuilding them as projects were abandoned.

This all changed in 2010 when a group of the remaining residents organised a guerrilla gardening group and started to fill the streets with tubs full of plants [fig. 28, 29, 30 & 31]. They transformed their own front gardens, and those of the derelict, empty houses. On the plot of a demolished house, they planted a wild flower meadow 56 [fig. 32 & 33]. The initiative went on to win a Northwest in Bloom award and began organising a monthly market, selling clothes, cakes and Caribbean food 57 [fig. 34 & 35]. The scheme, kick-started by a group of keen individuals, completely transformed the atmosphere of the neighbourhood and was a huge local success, however no one could have predicted the scale to which it would develop.

In 2011, the campaign group formalised themselves by creating Granby Four Streets Community Land Trust, with the help of local housing campaigner Ronnie Hughes. Hughes has years of experience working with communities and enterprises, to help them improve their local environment 58. He has expertise in how to achieve the community’s aims and offered the support they needed to progress their idea.

‘Cultivation Street 2014 - Transformation Street Winners’, Cultivation Street (David Domoney, 2014) <http:// www.daviddomoney.com/2014/10/13/2014-transformation-street-winners-bloomin-triangle/> [accessed 3 January 2016]. 56

Oliver Wainwright, ‘The Liverpool Locals Who Took Control of Their Long-Neglected Streets’, The Guardian (The Guardian, 28 November 2014) <http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2014/nov/27/liverpool-locals-tookcontrol-long-neglected-streets> [accessed 24 November 2015]. 57

Ronnie Hughes, ‘What I Do’ (a sense of place, 2013) <https://asenseofplaceblog.wordpress.com/what-i-do/> [accessed 24 November 2015]. 58

clockwise from top left: fig. 24-27 Ducie Street, Jermyn Street, Cairns Street & Beaconsfield Street; Granby Four Streets.

3 Winning the Turner Prize

fig. 28 A group of local guerrilla gardeners fill the streets with tubs filled with plants.

fig. 29 Residents began transforming their front gardens and those of the derelict houses.

fig. 30 Residents began transforming their front gardens and those of the derelict houses.

3 Winning the Turner Prize

fig. 31 Blossom trees blanket the area in pink petals. The area went on to win the Northwest in Bloom award.

fig. 32 Residents decide to transform the vacant plot of a destroyed terraced house.

fig. 33 The area is transformed into a wild flower meadow.

3 Winning the Turner Prize

fig. 34 & 35 Residents hold a monthly market selling clothes, cakes, Caribbean food and bric-a-brac, Cairns Street.

3 Winning the Turner Prize

A Community Land Trust [CLT] is

‘a not for profit community-based organisation run by volunteers that

delivers housing and other community facilities at permanently affordable

levels for local people’ 59.

It does this by separating the value of the land from the building that stands upon it meaning that houses are sold or rented at a rate that is permanently linked to local incomes. The creation of the CLT brought with it media attention, getting the community noticed nationally.

At the same time the CLT launched its website, developing an important online presence. The website is clear and exciting. It is informative both about the story of the scheme and about how to get involved 60. Graphically the website is also successful by making it accessible to everyone [fig. 36]. The CLT attracted funding from a Jerseybased social investor, Steinbeck Studios, who in turn introduced Assemble, a young London-based collective of spatial-practitioners, to the project. Assemble often take on projects to rejuvenate neglected sites and have since drawn up plans to renovate ten derelict properties in Granby Four Streets [fig. 37 - 43], to be sold and rented affordably. Their designs aim to

“Celebrate the idiosyncrasies of the existing derelict buildings” says

Assemble’s Lewis Jones. “If a floor is missing, why not leave it out and have a

double-height space? There isn’t the usual pressure to extract the maximum

possible value from the site and put profit before people” 61.

‘Whats a CLT?’, Granby Four Streets CLT <http://www.granby4streetsclt.co.uk/whats-a-clt/> [accessed 24 December 2015]. 59

‘Granby Four Streets’ (Granby Four Streets CLT) <http://www.granby4streetsclt.co.uk> [accessed 24 November 2015]. 60

Oliver Wainwright, ‘The Street That Might Win the Turner Prize: How Assemble Are Transforming Toxteth’, The Guardian (The Guardian, 15 May 2015) <http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/architecture-design-blog/2015/ may/12/assemble-turner-prize-2015-wildcard-how-the-young-architecture-crew-assemble-rocked-the-art-world> [accessed 24 November 2015]. 61

Their refurbishments are to be done on a tight budget and were soon attracting nationwide attention. In early 2015 Assemble’s work with the Granby Four Streets CLT was shortlisted for the coveted Turner Prize. This unconventional nomination gained the project huge media attention and further promoted the scheme. They went on to win the prize, a remarkable achievement and one that will draw global attention.

In this example, like ones noted previously, passionate local individuals have been the catalyst for a far greater phenomenon. Greening a neglected area injected life into Toxteth and instigated a project that has exceeded original expectations. Growing food here was never an aim, however transforming a disused space to create a better community is still a common thread. In this example, the residents themselves possessed few of the skills needed to expand the project, yet they had the drive to keep the project moving forward. By then working with external organisations, the community was able to get the recognition, funding and expertise needed to really make a difference. The project is now joint-funded by Steinbeck and nine other investors, including central government’s Empty Homes initiative and the Nationwide Foundation 62.

“Assemble are the only ones who have ever sat and listened to the residents,

and then translated their vision into drawings and models, and now into

reality,” says Erika Rushton, chair of the CLT. “Regeneration is always

this blunt, abstract, over-professionalised thing,” she adds. “But Assemble

have shown how it can be done differently, by making things that people

‘Funders / Partners’, Granby Four Streets CLT <http://www.granby4streetsclt.co.uk/funders-partners> [accessed 24 November 2015]. 62

3 Winning the Turner Prize

can see, touch, understand and put together for themselves” 63.

There are many examples of architects and planners involving residents in the design process however only a minority seem to have captured the imagination of residents like Granby Four Streets has. This could be due to the fact that it was the residents themselves who initiated the redevelopment. Ultimately, it is the residents themselves who will be affected by the project; they are therefore integral to retaining momentum 64.

This is also another example of a small-scale initiative creating a snowball effect and becoming the catalyst for a much larger project. Even with ambitious final goals, by starting at a small manageable scale, local residents were able to create something that was a success and attract attention to the area. However, in this example, funding and expertise was needed from elsewhere in order to move the grassroots initiative forward. The local community had the existing social capital but lacked the practical means needed to make a monumental change.

‘Granby Four Streets’ (Granby Four Streets CLT) <http://www.granby4streetsclt.co.uk> [accessed 24 November 2015]. Mark Brown, ‘Turner Prize 2015 Shortlist: Three Women – and a Housing Estate’, The Guardian (The Guardian, 13 May 2015) <http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2015/may/12/turner-prize-2015-shortlist-nominationsassemble-bonnie-camplin-janice-kerbel-nicole-wermers> [accessed 24 November 2015].

fig. 36 Granby Four Streets CLT website is exciting and accessible [screen shot].

3 Winning the Turner Prize

fig. 37 Assemble imagine the inside of a derelict property as a winter garden.

fig. 38 & 39 Perspective plan of renovated Cairns Street house. & Perspective stairs section of renovated Cairns Street house.

3 Winning the Turner Prize

fig. 40 Photograph taken of a model showing the living area of a renovated Cairns Street house.

fig. 41 41 Living space of a renovated Cairns Street house.

fig. 42 Storage wall separating the hallway and living room of a renovated Cairns Street house.

3 Winning the Turner Prize

fig. 43 Bathroom of a renovated Cairns Street house.

4 Greening the Capital Micro-Scale Projects; high-level, institution-led external support

fig. 44 Cranbrook Community Garden grows amongst council estate tower blocks.

4 Greening the Capital

The previous case study undoubtedly received a lot of external support, however the support was unprecedented and tailored specifically for that situation. In this chapter I will discuss an organisation that offers comprehensive support to many different projects. The support follows a model predetermined by the organisation.

4.1 Case Study 6:

Capital Growth via Cranbrook Community Garden, Tower Hamlets, London, 2009 Set up in November 2008, Capital Growth aimed to

‘increase the amount of land used for growing food in London, and in doing so

encourage Londoners to grow their own…’ 65.

Growing Success: The Impact of Capital Growth on Community Food Growing in London, 2013 <http://v2.iufn. org/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/Sustain-2013-GrowingSuccess.pdf> [accessed 19 November 2015]. p. 5. 65

It is a partnership initiative between London Food Link, the Mayor of London and the Big Lottery’s Local Food Programme. The aims of the organisation were not just to grow more food locally but also to help communities to improve their local area. Moreover, with London allotment waiting lists at an all time high 66, demand for local spaces to cultivate for food production was obvious. By finding disused spaces for local people to adapt, Capital Growth hoped to address a plethora of social, environmental and educational problems faced in many areas of London.

Anyone can apply to Capital Growth for support, providing they are growing food in a space bigger than five square meters, with a group of five or more unrelated people. Capital Growth then offers assistance in finding suitable unused land in their local area; providing equipment and funding to get the project started; gathering a source of local volunteers to help maintain the project; and offering training to learn more about growing food 67. The organisation has been incredibly successful, providing assistance to 2,012 new community food-growing spaces by 2012 with at least one Capital Growth food-growing space in every borough of London; involving 99,000 people across the capital, with 97% of sites having said that Capital Growth’s support has been useful to their project 68.

Rupert Jones, ‘Allotment Demand Leads to 40-Year Waiting Lists’, The Guardian (The Guardian, 10 January 2016) <http://www.theguardian.com/money/2009/jun/02/allotments-shortage-waiting-lists> [accessed 19 November 2015]. 66

ibid. p. 11.

4 Greening the Capital

The organisation also involves a spectrum of volunteers, encouraging integration within communities: 66% of spaces are working with people over 60 69. 82% of spaces are working with people aged 16 and under 70. 71% of people involved say that they have made a new friend with someone in the local area as a result of involving themselves in the project 71. 66% of Capital Growth projects are sited on previously unused, derelict or inaccessible land 72. At 64% of their sites, people have said that ‘they now eat more healthily as a result of being

involved 73. ‘Over 1,600 people have been trained by Capital Growth in food growing skills’ 74.

These are just some of the benefits listed in their manifesto ‘Growing Success’. Capital Growth appears to be transforming the lives and neighbourhoods of residents across London with subsequent social, environmental and education benefits.

An example of a project funded by Capital Growth is The Cranbrook Estate Community Garden situated in Cranbrook council estate, Tower Hamlets, London. 20% of Capital Growth schemes are on housing estates 75. With typically higher levels of unemployment, there may be a greater demand in council estates for community projects to give people something to do. Anti-social behaviour is also often higher in these areas suggesting that community projects are more needed.

ibid.

ibid. p. 15.

ibid. p. 17.

ibid. p. 18

ibid. p. 15.

Schemes can offer support to single parent families, ethnic minorities, the elderly and people with mental and physical disabilities who may be feeling isolated and often live in council estates.

The project was started by a group of local residents in May 2009 in a space which, although previously had been a playground, had become a fenced off area littered with drug paraphernalia that was used as a rubbish dump 76. 30 people came to an initial meeting, from which a core team emerged 77. The residents applied to Capital Growth and were awarded a £750 grant, which led to a further £5000 being donated from Tower Hamlets Council 78. All the compost used is provided free, from local recycling centres, or taken from the compost heaps and wormeries on site into which local residents and shopkeepers dispose of their compostable food waste 79. Even when external funding is provided, projects still need to work towards being self-sustainable. Not only does it improve project longevity but also is a way of involving more people.

The area now consists of 21 raised beds made from donated scaffolding and planks, a shed, a greenhouse, composting facilities and a large patio area 80 [fig. 45, 46 and 47]. The community garden successfully produces food for local residents whilst also creating relationships between volunteers from different cultural backgrounds. The residents grow a diverse range ofproduce from tomatoes, kale and potatoes to Bangladeshi pumpkins and lal shak 81, red spinach commonly used in Bengali cuisine. The project holds celebrations from a variety of cultures,

Edible Estates: A Good Practice Guide to Food Growing for Social Landlords (National Housing Federation, 2014) <http://www.neighbourhoodsgreen.org.uk/upload/public/Edible%20Estates/Edible%20Estates.pdf> [accessed 19 November 2015]. p. 8. 76

‘The Garden That Made an Estate Grow Together’, Lifestyle (Evening Standard, 1 July 2010) <http://www. standard.co.uk/lifestyle/the-garden-that-made-an-estate-grow-together-6487159.html> [accessed 19 November 2015]. 77

‘Edible Estates - Cranbrook Estate - Tower Hamlets Homes’ <http://www.neighbourhoodsgreen.org.uk/ resources/FoodGrowing/cranbrookestate> [accessed 19 November 2015]. 78

ibid.

‘Cranbrook Community Food Garden E2’ <http://www.opensquares.org/detail/Cranbrook.html> [accessed 2 January 2016]. 80

‘Edible Estates - Cranbrook Estate - Tower Hamlets Homes’ <http://www.neighbourhoodsgreen.org.uk/ resources/FoodGrowing/cranbrookestate> [accessed 19 November 2015]. 81

4 Greening the Capital

cooking food from the garden to share 82. The fruit and vegetables are free to be harvested by gardeners and local residents, which the group believe is particularly important as it improves the diets of members on low incomes who may not be able to afford the diverse variety of fresh produce available at the garden, if they were to buy it from the supermarket 83. The volunteers range in age from nine to 94 84; children who live in flats with no gardens regularly come to learn more about how food is grown and play in the space. Sonny, aged 94 is the only volunteer with prior horticultural knowledge having previously tended an allotment.

The project has been incredibly successful not only in producing fresh produce for members to enjoy and in educating people about the provenance of food but also in creating a space where residents can come together and build a strong community. One resident has said,

“I had a breakdown four years ago and never left my flat. Slowly I started coming

down to the garden. It gave me somewhere to go, people to talk to. I love it!” 85.

Another resident, Laura Buckley, says,

“Before this happened I didn’t know anyone on the estate. I just came in and out and

went on to my balcony when I needed fresh air. Now I know almost everyone: the

garden has completely changed the place for me. I think that’s true for all of us” 86.

The project welcomes all local residents and is beginning to deal with the problem of community deterioration previously discussed.

‘Edible Estates - Cranbrook Estate - Tower Hamlets Homes’ <http://www.neighbourhoodsgreen.org.uk/ resources/FoodGrowing/cranbrookestate> [accessed 19 November 2015]. 83

‘Urban Green: London’s Hidden Gardens’, The Telegraph (Telegraph.co.uk, 23 May 2011) <http://www. telegraph.co.uk/expat/expatpicturegalleries/8524199/Urban-green-Londons-hidden-gardens.html?image=12> [accessed 2 January 2016]. 84

‘Edible Estates - Cranbrook Estate - Tower Hamlets Homes’ <http://www.neighbourhoodsgreen.org.uk/ resources/FoodGrowing/cranbrookestate> [accessed 19 November 2015]. 85

Although the project did have a lot of external support and funding it was, like previous case studies discussed, instigated by local residents who were still the driving force behind the project. The scheme has not gained national acclaim or influenced many people however it is perhaps the most successful in directly transforming the local area.

fig. 45 Raised beds in Cranbrook Community Garden.

4 Greening the Capital

fig. 46 Cranbrook Community Garden in full bloom. Lettuce beds, squash creepers and brussel sprouts.

fig. 47 The patio houses a communal meeting area and notice board.

5 Case Study Comparison To try and form conclusions from the case study research, they have been critically compared, both diagramatically and lexically, with the hope that certain trends and patterns may become apparent.

BOWERY HOUSTON COMMUNITY FARM, MANHATTAN, NEW YORK, 1973 population of area

= 10,000 people

Inner-city Manhattan, rife with urban decay. High levels of crime. Majority of the population were African-American or Hispanic, very poor. No benefits system, everyone had to work.

LIZ CHRISTY

Artist and hippie. Worked part time in public relations with connections to involve the press. No expertise in gardening.

to improve a derelict plot of land and to address some of the larger scale urban decay in New York initially, a group of young, hippies; gradually the whole community

Horse manure was used from the police station and seeds were scavenged from park department giveaways.

OUTCOMES global

sphere of influence Inspired over 800 community gardens in New York. Instigated the park departmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Green Thumb organisation. Raised awareness about guerrilla gardening worldwide.

previous page: ‘Average Annual Population of NYC Neighborhoods, New York State, 2008-2012’, 2014 <http://www.health.ny.gov/ statistics/cancer/registry/appendix/neighborhoodpop.htm> [accessed 11 January 2016]. Steve Brooks and Gerry Marten, ‘Green Guerillas: Revitalizing Urban Neigborhoods with Community Gardens (New York City, USA) |’, The EcoTipping Points Project <http://www.ecotippingpoints.org/our-stories/indepth/usanew-york-community-garden-urban-renewal.html> [accessed 19 November 2015].

5 Case Study Comparison

fig. 48 Location of Bowery Houston Community Farm and Garden, SoHo, Lower Manhattan, New York.

fig. 49 Liz Christy, founder, in the community garden, 1973.

PERRONET HOUSE FLOWERBEDS, ELEPHANT & CASTLE LONDON, 2004 population of area

= 10,000 people

41st most deprived Borough in the UK. High population density. High ethnic diversity. High resident turnover.

RICHARD REYNOLDS

Gardening qualification from the Royal Horticultural Society. Geography degree from Oxford. Head gardener at Exeter Cathedral School. Account planner for advertising agency.

personal motivation Reynolds was the only person maintaining the plot

totally self-funded

OUTCOMES global

sphere of influence

Legitimised community garden. Gone on to help transform hundreds of other spaces.

Southwark council census 2011 briefing. Available at http://www.southwark.gov.uk/info/200223/census_2011/2723/ census_2011_briefing [Accessed: 11 January 2016] Richard Reynolds, On Guerrilla Gardening: A Handbook for Gardening without Boundaries (London: Bloomsbury Publishing PLC, 2009).

5 Case Study Comparison

fig. 50 Location of Perronet flowerbeds, Elephant and Castle, Tower Hamlets, London.

fig. 51 Richard Reynolds in his garden at Perronet House, 2008.

FOOD FROM THE SKY, CROUCH END, LONDON, 2010

population of area

= 10,000 people

30th most deprived Borough in the UK. Less dense than inner city London. 5th most ethnically diverse population in England. Large wealth gap.

AZUL-VALERIE THOME

Masters in Ecological Design Thinking. Former silversmith and art consultant.

to educate people about growing and selling food locally and about wider environmental issues 20 local residents volunteered regularly

Haringey Council donated 10 tonnes of compost and 300 green recycling boxes.

OUTCOMES local

sphere of influence

Successfully produced fresh fruit and veg that was sold in the shop below weekly. Educated a large amount of local people. The project closed in 2015.

previous page: ‘Figures about Haringey’, Haringey Council, 2016 <http://www.haringey.gov.uk/social-care-and-health/health/ joint-strategic-needs-assessment/figures-about-haringey> [accessed 11 January 2016]. Azul-Valerie Thome, ‘Food from the Sky’, 2010 <http://foodfromthesky.org.uk/about/> [accessed 19 November 2015]. Laura Barnett, ‘The Supermarket Growing Food on Its Roof’, The Guardian (The Guardian, 23 December 2015) <http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/mar/09/supermarket-rooftop-vegetable-garden> [accessed 19 November 2015].

5 Case Study Comparison

fig. 52 Location of Food from the Sky, Crouch End. Haringey, London.

fig. 53 Azul-Valerie Thome, founder of Food from the Sky, in the roof garden.

INCREDIBLE EDIBLE, TODMORDEN, YORKSHIRE, 2007

population of area

= 10,000 people

Small, rural town in West Yorkshire. Decline of textile industry caused high levels of unemployment. Majority of population are Caucasian.

PAM WARHURST

Labour council leader for Calderdale. Chair of the Great British Forestry Commission. Deputy and acting chair of the Countryside Agency. Awarded CBE for services to the environment.

to educate people about the provenance of food and about wider environmental issues 20 volunteers, majority elderly women ÂŁ5000 worth of wooden planks donated by B&Q.

OUTCOMES global

sphere of influence

Multiple raised beds around town, although community atmosphere does not seem affected.

previous page: John Paull, Incredible Edible Todmorden: Eating the S, 2011 <http://orgprints.org/19523/1/ Paull2011TodmordenFM.pdf> [accessed 15 November 2015]. Pam Warhurst, ‘How We Can Eat Our Landscapes’ (Google+, 2012) <https://www.ted.com/talks/pam_warhurst_ how_we_can_eat_our_landscapes?language=en> [accessed 24 November 2014].

5 Case Study Comparison

fig. 54 Location of Incredible Edible, Todmorden, West Yorkshire.

fig. 55 Pam Warhurst [left] and Mary Clear [right], founder of Incredible Edible.

GRANBY FOUR STREETS, TOXTETH, LIVERPOOL, 2010

population of area

Inner-city Liverpool. Majority terraced houses, many are now empty and derelict. Huge urban decay. No resident turnover.

100

= 10,000 people

LOCAL RESIDENTS

Long term residents. Mixture of ages and ethnicities with no experience.

to transform their community environment, only 70 out of 200 homes were inhabited originally local residents, now advisors, investors, architects The council has given them 10 properties. Steinbeck Studio has given them a free loan and provide project management. Funded by seven major investors.

OUTCOMES global

sphere of influence

The streets are filled with plants and there is a regular street market. 10 houses are being refurbished by Assemble. The project has won the Turner Prize.

101

previous page: ‘Ward Profiles’, Liverpool City Council (Web Services, Liverpool City Council, 2015) <http://liverpool.gov.uk/ council/key-statistics-and-data/ward-profiles/> [accessed 11 January 2016]. Oliver Wainwright, ‘The Liverpool Locals Who Took Control of Their Long-Neglected Streets’, The Guardian (The Guardian, 28 November 2014) <http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2014/nov/27/liverpool-locals-tookcontrol-long-neglected-streets> [accessed 24 November 2015]. ‘History of Granby Four Streets’ (Granby Four Streets CLT) <http://www.granby4streetsclt.co.uk/history-of-thefour-streets> [accessed 24 November 2015].

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5 Case Study Comparison

fig. 56 Location of Granby Four Streets [Ducie, Cairns, Jermyn & Beaconsfield Street] Toxteth, Liverpool.

fig. 57 Local residents, who founded the organisation, at their local street market.

103

CRANBROOK COMMUNITY GARDEN, TOWER HAMLETS LONDON, 2009 population of area

= 10,000 people

24th most deprived Borough in the UK. High population density. High ethnic diversity. High resident turnover.

104

GROUP OF LOCAL RESIDENTS Little or no prior horticultural or people management experience.

to physically improve a local, derelict site. small group of local residents, ranging in age and ethnicity Capital Growth provided a ÂŁ750 grant and offer advice. Tower Hamlets council donated ÂŁ5000. Compost is free from local recycling centre.

OUTCOMES local

sphere of influence

The derelict land has been transformed into a productive community garden, growing a variety of produce from around the world.

105

previous page: The English Indices of Deprivation 2015 (Department for Communities and Local Government, 2015) <https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/465791/English_Indices_of_ Deprivation_2015_-_Statistical_Release.pdf> [accessed 11 January 2016]. ‘Tower Hamlets | Poverty Indicators | London’s Poverty Report’, London’s Poverty Profile <http://www. londonspovertyprofile.org.uk/indicators/boroughs/tower-hamlets/> [accessed 11 January 2016]. ‘Edible Estates - Cranbrook Estate - Tower Hamlets Homes’ <http://www.neighbourhoodsgreen.org.uk/resources/ FoodGrowing/cranbrookestate> [accessed 19 November 2015].

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5 Case Study Comparison

fig. 58 Location of Cranbrook Community Garden, Tower Hamlets, London.

fig. 59 Local residents started and maintain the project.

107

108

5 Case Study Comparison

Location The majority of case studies chosen are sited in built-up inner-city environments. Here it may be deduced that there is less natural green space such as forests or fields and denser, more high-rise living than in rural locations, increasing the need and the demand for public green space. The majority of green spaces in cities are public parks or private gardens. Neither readily encourages interaction within the community. Inner-city areas also have a much higher level of resident turnover. This could lead to weaker community links as it is more difficult to get to know your neighbours if they change frequently. Incredible Edible Todmorden was the only rural example and was chosen due to its prolific notability. The majority of locations, whether urban or rural, had some level of economic and social deprivation with high levels of unemployment being a common factor, and were in need of a way to regenerate the area both physically and socially. All projects transformed unused, derelict or inaccessible land into productive green spaces.

109

Initiators Projects were commonly started by either artistic, creative types of people or people with expertise in either horticulture or people-management. Those without any useful knowledge or connections required substantial external support and funding in order to achieve their aims. All initiators seem to have had an inspirational vision and seem driven and passionate. All initiators live locally to their project; they are therefore personally invested in the project and will be directly affected by changes made to the area and community. If the project succeeds, it will also benefit the lives of the initiators. This connection cemented firmly in grassroots initiatives differs from the disconnection many developers have when trying to make changes to an area. Multinational development giants are not dependent on the success of these local, pocket projects, but many of the initiators discussed throughout this dissertation are.

Initial Aims The preliminary aims of the project initiators varied greatly but the majority of programs set goals far greater than transforming a disused, grey space into a productive, green one. These ambitious goals ranged in theme [social, economic, educational etc.]. Some projects also aimed to reach people in far greater geographical spheres and influence peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s behaviour regarding national or global issues, such as the environmental impacts of the global food market.

External Funding and Support Almost all projects received some form of donation, be that compost, wooden planks or containers, during their initial start-up phase. The majority of projects received no financial support or external guidance; those that did, had very little expert knowledge

110

5 Case Study Comparison

or useful connections to move the project forward and therefore had to look elsewhere for the means to progress their ideas. In these examples it was still however, local residents who proposed the development.

Maintenance and Momentum No project involved a group bigger than 20 in the regular upkeep of the project however, some claim to have involved hundreds, or even thousands, of people in the project in some way, be that through visiting the site, through participating in educational programs run by the organisation, through watching lectures given by project leaders or just by eating the food produced by the scheme. All projects have a small key group of volunteers who run the organisation on a daily basis. Few people in todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s society have the time and economic stability to offer that sort of commitment.

Outcomes Many of the case studies included have achieved worldwide acclaim and gone on to surpass their initial aims. Even those that did not plan to affect so many people, such as Liz Christy and Richard Reynolds, went on to drastically influence the way that people transform urban spaces. This may be because these are the most widely publicised examples and therefore the easiest to find. The projects that have grown the most seem to have had the least impact both physically and socially on their local communities, the exception being Granby Four Streets. This project has certainly made a huge impact, but has also achieved, some may argue, the most for their local community. In comparison Cranbrook Estates have kept their project small scale, which has led to substantial improvements in their immediate, local environment.

111

112

conclusion It is clear that transforming disused, urban, grey spaces into productive green spaces is a rising trend in the Global North, with 2479 Capital Growth spaces in London, all of which produce food 87; more than 600 Green Thumb community gardens in New York City, 80% of which produce food 88 and over 1,400 urban gardens in Detroit 89, a city plagued by deprivation, producing 200 tons of fresh produce per year. These projects [and all those not included in previous figures] are starting to address the problems of people’s disconnection from where food comes from and community deterioration, both of which, some believe, are escalating challenges in today’s society.

Capital Growth, ‘Capital Growth: Capital Growth: What We Do’ <http://www.capitalgrowth.org/big_idea/> [accessed 2 January 2016]. 87

‘GreenThumb’ <http://www.greenthumbnyc.org/gardensearch.html> [accessed 3 January 2016].

Liz Dwyer, ‘You’ll Never Guess Which City Is the New King of Urban Gardening’, Take Part (TakePart, 2014) <http://www.takepart.com/article/2014/08/11/youll-never-guess-which-city-new-king-urban-gardening> [accessed 3 January 2016]. 89

113

The case studies that have been discussed show several patterns from which conclusions can be drawn. Firstly, all these projects saw the potential of an unused, derelict or inaccessible site. These spaces are in abundance in our urban landscape.

‘Studies have demonstrated that in big cities they [leftover spaces] function

as an alternative to conventional forms of public space, that nowadays

are more and more subject to surveillance and control. The ‘leftovers’ are

spaces of relative freedom, where rules and codes can still be redefined’ 90.

It is this freedom that invites someone with a vision to transform the space.

Secondly, project initiators all possess high levels of social capital. Social capital has many abstract definitions but put simply,

‘The more people you know, and the more you share a common outlook with them, the richer you are in social capital.’ Field continues, ‘By making connections with one another, and keeping them going over time, people are able to work together to achieve things they either could not achieve by themselves, or could only achieve with great difficulty ’ 91.

Social capital forms the basis for the age old phrase ‘it’s not what you know, it’s who you know’. Although project initiators have varying levels and types of skills, they all share the ability to enthuse a group of people, and achieve things with limited means [be that economic or knowledge-based means]. This contradicts the idea that transforming an unused, local space can miraculously create a community. It can

Doina Petrescu, How to Make a Community as Well as the Space for It <http://seminaire.samizdat.net/IMG/pdf/ Doina_Petrescu_-2.pdf> [accessed 17 November 2015]. 90

114

John Field, Social Capital (key Ideas), 2nd edn (London: Routledge, 2008). p. 1.

conclusion

indeed grow and strengthen a community, but one must exist there in the first place. This also confirms that a regeneration model does not work anywhere, if there is not the existing social capital the project is unlikely to succeed or even to get started. In the introduction, the idea of community deterioration is discussed, however others argue that as a reaction to increasing social alienation, communities are increasing and strengthening:

â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;The popularity of community today can be seen as a response to the crisis

in solidarity and belonging that has been exacerbated and at the same time

induced by globalisation â&#x20AC;&#x2122; 92.

It is these communities that must instigate change and regeneration and is perhaps why the creation of these green, community spaces is increasing.

Thirdly, all projects seem to originate from a catalyst or trigger. The majority of projects are started when someone wants to change something in order to make a difference. Every trigger is different, from wanting to tidy up a rubbish-strewn flowerbed to wanting to change peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s opinion about the global food market, however most are the result of a negative situation. Being fed up with something often inspires us to make a change.

Lastly, project instigators and contributors possess drive. Sustaining projects with high levels of momentum is perhaps harder than getting a project started. Investing a great deal of time and energy into something ensures people continue to contribute in the long term. Therefore the involvement of people that are directly affected by the project is key to its prolonged success. The success of the project will positively impact their lives, creating a bigger incentive for consistent input.

Gerard Delanty, Community, 2nd edn (New York: Taylor & Francis, 2009). pp. 1-2.

115

These four factors cannot be controlled by external systems. Successful projects are often simply the result of the right people in the right place at the right time. The outcome of a project is also largely dependant on its context; they vary greatly and often cannot be predicted. Supportive organisations such as Capital Growth can encourage the development of ideas however when a plan is forced onto a community, by a private developer, architect or local authority, it is less likely to succeed.

â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;In the UK and most European cities, urban policies and regeneration practices encourage community participation, but by lacking specificity they generate stereotypical approaches and reiterate fixed, notions of community and public space. The existing frameworks of both governmental and local participative programmes are organised in the same way, without taking into account the particularity of each situation. Participation becomes an organised (and potentially manipulated) part of any regeneration projectâ&#x20AC;Śâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; 93.

Here, Delanty confirms that there is not a one-model-fits-all program that is appropriate to any situation. There are patterns of helpful processes that can be used, adapted and adjusted but fundamentally every project is different.

Doina Petrescu, How to Make a Community as Well as the Space for It <http://seminaire.samizdat.net/IMG/pdf/ Doina_Petrescu_-2.pdf> [accessed 17 November 2015]. 93

116

conclusion

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list of illustrations Cover image <https://www.instagram.com/p/ngdg5iLS1C/?taken-by=maraserene> Photo credit: Serena Mitnik-Miller fig. 1 A group of volunteers begin landscaping the cleared plot, 1973. ‘Images’, Liz Christy Community Garden <http://www.lizchristygarden.us/ lcbh_files/historicphoto.htm> [accessed 2 January 2016] fig. 2 Liz Christy sits amongst her finished garden, 1973. ‘Images’, Liz Christy Community Garden <http://www.lizchristygarden.us/ lcbh_files/historicphoto.htm> [accessed 2 January 2016] fig. 3 The initial group of volunteers were white, middle-class hippies. ‘Images’, Liz Christy Community Garden <http://www.lizchristygarden.us/ lcbh_files/historicphoto.htm> [accessed 2 January 2016] fig. 4 Group of gardeners and local volunteers, 1974. ‘Gardeners 1974’, Liz Christy Community Garden <http://www. lizchristygarden.us/lcbh_files/gardeners2.gif> [accessed 2 January 2016]

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fig. 5 Inspired by Christy, hundreds of other community gardens sprung up in derelict plots throughout New York. This incredible 15,000 square foot was destroyed by local authority in 1985. Reynolds, Richard, On Guerrilla Gardening: A Handbook for Gardening without Boundaries (London: Bloomsbury Publishing PLC, 2009) p. 38. Photo credit: Steven C. Wilson fig. 6 Sunflowers bloom in the flowerbeds outside Perronet House, August 2008. ‘Sunflowers Perronet House 1’, Flickr, 2008 <https://www.flickr.com/ photos/24779187@N05/2817590366/> [accessed 2 January 2016] Photo credit: Richard Reynolds fig. 7 Reynolds documented the progression of his guerrilla gardening via an online blog. Reynolds, Richard, ‘GuerrillaGardening’ (The Guerrilla Gardening Homepage) <http://www.guerrillagardening.org> [accessed 2 January 2016] Photo credit: Richard Reynolds fig. 8 Volunteers help Reynolds on a guerrilla gardening project in London by night. ‘London Living: Guerrilla Gardeners’, 2012 <http://londonliving.at/ londons-guerrilla-gardener/guerrilla-gardeners-london-16-03-12-2/> [accessed 2 January 2016] fig. 9 Volunteers help Reynolds on a guerrilla gardening project by night. Mooallem, Jon, ‘Guerrilla Gardening in London - Richard Reynolds’, New York Times Magazine (The New York Times, 27 January 2015) <http://www. nytimes.com/2008/06/08/magazine/08guerrilla-t.html?_r=0> [accessed 2 January 2016] Photo credit: Finlay MacKay fig. 10 Sunflowers planted by Reynolds grow in the central reservation of a road on Denmark Hill, London, 2011. ‘Sunflower Guerrilla Gardening’, 2011 <https://www.flickr.com/ photos/24779187@N05/6028076143/> [accessed 2 January 2016] Photo credit: Richard Reynolds

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fig. 11 Lavender Fields, a fragrant traffic island in Lambeth, London planted by Reynolds and a group of volunteers, has taken six years to establish. The lavender is harvested yearly and sold. Jamieson, Ruth, ‘Guerrilla Gardening: A Frontline Tour - in Pictures’, The Guardian (The Guardian, 23 October 2015) <http://www.theguardian.com/ lifeandstyle/gallery/2012/may/23/guerrilla-gardening-richard-reynolds> [accessed 2 January 2016] Photo credit: Richard Reynolds fig. 12 Guerrilla tulips on the north roundabout of the Elephant & Castle, 2011. ‘Guerrilla Tulip Elephant & Castle’, Flickr, 2011 <https://www.flickr.com/ photos/24779187@N05/5664218465/> [accessed 2011] Photo credit: Richard Reynolds fig. 13 Guerrilla sunflowers and scarlet flax on Stamford Street, London, 2007. ‘Sunflower and Scarlet Flax Guerrilla Gardening on Stamford Street’, Flickr, 2007 <https://www.flickr.com/photos/24779187@N05/2343546048/> [accessed 2 January 2016] Photo credit: Richard Reynolds fig. 14 Fresh, colourful produce grown on the roof garden is photographed and posted online to promote Food From the Sky. ‘Photos/videos of Our Project’, Food from the Sky, 2010 <http:// foodfromthesky.org.uk/what-lives-on-the-roof/photosoffoodfromthesky/> [accessed 2 January 2016] fig. 15 The roof garden in 2010, populated by a few containers and plants. Flickr, 2010 <https://www.flickr.com/photos/foodfromthesky/4938186047/> [accessed 2 January 2016] fig. 16 The roof garden in 2013, full of plants. ‘FOOD from the SKY’s Photos’, Facebook, 2013 <https://www. facebook.com/FOODfromtheSKY/photos/pb.244946522191076.2207520000.1452008992./613613465324378/?type=3&theater> [accessed 2 January 2016]

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fig. 17 The garden is in full bloom in Summer 2013. <https://foodfromthesky.files.wordpress.com/2013/06/early-june-2013-138. jpg> [accessed 2 January 2016] fig. 18 Todmorden Green Route Map, guides visitors to the town around the green sites, boosting tourism. <http//locality.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/Incredible-Edible-Todmorden1. 2> [accessed 2 January 2016] fig. 19 Raised beds outside the local college. <http//locality.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/Incredible-Edible-Todmorden1. 2> [accessed 2 January 2016] fig. 20 Police embrace the fresh produce growing in raised beds outside their station. ‘This Town Has Free Food Growing on the Street’, LovEvolution, 2014 <http://lovevolution.news/this-town-has-free-food-growing-on-thestreet/> [accessed 2 January 2016] fig. 21 Plants are clearly labeled giving residents information about what is grown there and when to pick it and even how to cook with it. Photo credit: author fig. 22 Lindsay Smales, place-making lead and first contact for students, takes me on a tour around the town’s Green Route on a wet November day, 2015. Photo credit: author. fig. 23 The majority of houses in the area are empty, derelict and boarded up. ‘Granby Four Streets’, Assemble Studio <http://assemblestudio. co.uk/?page_id=862> [accessed 2 January 2016] fig. 24 Ducie Street, Granby Four Streets. Hughes, Ronnie, ‘Granby 4 Streets: Telling the Story’, 2015 <https:// asenseofplaceblog.wordpress.com/2015/06/10/granby-4-streets-tellingthe-story/> [accessed 2 January 2016] Photo credit: Ronnie Hughes.

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fig. 25 Jermyn Street, Granby Four Streets. Hughes, Ronnie, ‘Granby 4 Streets: Telling the Story’, 2015 <https:// asenseofplaceblog.wordpress.com/2015/06/10/granby-4-streets-tellingthe-story/> [accessed 2 January 2016] Photo credit: Ronnie Hughes. fig. 26 Cairns Street, Granby Four Streets. Hughes, Ronnie, ‘Granby 4 Streets: Telling the Story’, 2015 <https:// asenseofplaceblog.wordpress.com/2015/06/10/granby-4-streets-tellingthe-story/> [accessed 2 January 2016] Photo credit: Ronnie Hughes. fig. 27 Beaconsfield Street, Granby Four Streets. Hughes, Ronnie, ‘Granby 4 Streets: Telling the Story’, 2015 <https:// asenseofplaceblog.wordpress.com/2015/06/10/granby-4-streets-tellingthe-story/> [accessed 2 January 2016] Photo credit: Ronnie Hughes. fig. 28 A group of local guerrilla gardeners fill the streets with tubs filled with plants. ‘Cultivation Street 2014 - Transformation Street Winners’, Cultivation Street (David Domoney, 2014) <http://www.daviddomoney. com/2014/10/13/2014-transformation-street-winners-bloomin-triangle/> [accessed 3 January 2016] fig. 29 Residents began transforming their front gardens and those of the derelict houses. ‘Planting’, Granby Four Streets CLT <http://www.granby4streetsclt.co.uk/ new-page-1> [accessed 2 January 2016] fig. 30 Residents began transforming their front gardens and those of the derelict houses. ‘Planting’, Granby Four Streets CLT <http://www.granby4streetsclt.co.uk/ new-page-1> [accessed 2 January 2016] fig. 31 Blossom trees blanket the area in pink petals. The area went on to win the Northwest in Bloom award. ‘Planting’, Granby Four Streets CLT <http://www.granby4streetsclt.co.uk/ new-page-1> [accessed 2 January 2016]

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fig. 32 Residents decide to transform the vacant plot of a destroyed terraced house. ‘Cultivation Street 2014 - Transformation Street Winners’, Cultivation Street (David Domoney, 2014) <http://www.daviddomoney. com/2014/10/13/2014-transformation-street-winners-bloomin-triangle/> [accessed 3 January 2016] fig. 33 The area is transformed into a wild flower meadow. ‘Cultivation Street 2014 - Transformation Street Winners’, Cultivation Street (David Domoney, 2014) <http://www.daviddomoney. com/2014/10/13/2014-transformation-street-winners-bloomin-triangle/> [accessed 3 January 2016] fig. 34 Residents hold a monthly market selling clothes, cakes, Caribbean food and bric-a-brac, Cairns Street. Hughes, Ronnie, ‘Granby 4 Streets, the Market’s Back’, 2012 <https:// asenseofplaceblog.wordpress.com/2012/04/25/granby-4-streets-themarkets-back-update/> [accessed 2 January 2016] Photo credit: Ronnie Hughes. fig. 35 Residents hold a monthly market selling clothes, cakes, Caribbean food and bric-a-brac, Cairns Street. ‘Street Market’, Granby Four Streets CLT <http://www.granby4streetsclt. co.uk/street-market> [accessed 2 January 2016] fig. 36 Granby Four Streets CLT website is exciting and accessible [screen shot]. Granby Four Streets CLT <http://www.granby4streetsclt.co.uk> [accessed 2 January 2016] fig. 37 Assemble imagine the inside of a derelict property as a winter garden. ‘Granby Four Streets’, Assemble Studio <http://assemblestudio. co.uk/?page_id=862> [accessed 2 January 2016] fig. 38 Perspective plan of renovated Cairns Street house. ‘10 Houses on Cairns Street’, Assemble Studio <http://assemblestudio. co.uk/?page_id=1030> [accessed 2 January 2016]

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fig. 39 Perspective stairs section of renovated Cairns Street house. ‘10 Houses on Cairns Street’, Assemble Studio <http://assemblestudio. co.uk/?page_id=1030> [accessed 2 January 2016] fig. 40 Photograph taken of a model showing the living area of a renovated Cairns Street house. ‘10 Houses on Cairns Street’, Assemble Studio <http://assemblestudio. co.uk/?page_id=1030> [accessed 2 January 2016] fig. 41 Living space of a renovated Cairns Street house. ‘10 Houses on Cairns Street’, Assemble Studio <http://assemblestudio. co.uk/?page_id=1030> [accessed 2 January 2016] fig. 42 Storage wall separating the hallway and living room of a renovated Cairns Street house. ‘10 Houses on Cairns Street’, Assemble Studio <http://assemblestudio. co.uk/?page_id=1030> [accessed 2 January 2016] fig. 43 Bathroom of a renovated Cairns Street house. ‘10 Houses on Cairns Street’, Assemble Studio <http://assemblestudio. co.uk/?page_id=1030> [accessed 2 January 2016] fig. 44 Cranbrook Community Garden grows amongst council estate tower blocks. Growing Success: The Impact of Capital Growth on Community Food Growing in London, 2013 <http://v2.iufn.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/ Sustain-2013-GrowingSuccess.pdf> [accessed 19 November 2015] p. 20. fig. 45 Raised beds in Cranbrook Community Garden. ‘London Gardens Online’ <http://www.londongardensonline.org.uk/ gardens-online-record-popup-m2.asp?id=THM015a> [accessed 2 January 2016] Photo credit: S. Williams, June 2011. fig. 46 Cranbrook Community Garden in full bloom. Lettuce beds, squash creepers and brussel sprouts. ‘Cranbrook Community Food Garden’, Tower Green Hamlets, 2014 <http:// towergreenhamlets.com/2014/09/18/cranbrook-community-food-garden/> [accessed 2 January 2016]

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fig. 47 The patio houses a communal meeting area and notice board. ‘Cranbrook Community Food Garden’, Tower Green Hamlets, 2014 <http:// towergreenhamlets.com/2014/09/18/cranbrook-community-food-garden/> [accessed 2 January 2016] fig. 48 Location of Bowery Houston Community Farm and Garden, SoHo, Lower Manhattan. <maps.google.com> [accessed 2 January 2016] fig. 49 Liz Christy, founder, in the community garden, 1973. ‘History of the Community Garden Movement: NYC Parks’ <http://www. nycgovparks.org/about/history/community-gardens/movement> [accessed 2 January 2016] fig. 50 Location of Perronet flowerbeds, Elephant and Castle, Tower Hamlets, London. <maps.google.com> [accessed 2 January 2016] fig. 51 Richard Reynolds in his garden at Perronet House, 2008. Reynolds, Richard, On Guerrilla Gardening: A Handbook for Gardening without Boundaries (London: Bloomsbury Publishing PLC, 2009) p. 39 Photo credit: James Emmett. fig. 52 Location of Food from the Sky, Crouch End, Haringey, London. <maps.google.com> [accessed 2 January 2016] fig. 53 Azul-Valerie Thome, founder of Food from the Sky, in the roof garden. <https//londoninsight.wordpress.com/2011/04/01/waterhouse-food-fromthe-sky-duke-of-cambridge-st-marys-secret-garden-sustainable-foodlondon/> [accessed 2 January 2016] fig. 54 Location of Incredible Edible, Todmorden, West Yorkshire. <maps.google.com> [accessed 2 January 2016]

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fig. 55 Pam Warhurst (left ) and Mary Clear (right), founders of Incredible Edible. Howard, Catharine, ‘Guerrilla Gardening: A Report from the Frontline’, The Guardian (The Guardian, 13 October 2014) <http://www.theguardian.com/ lifeandstyle/gardening-blog/2014/oct/10/guerrilla-gardening-a-reportfrom-the-frontline> [accessed 2 January 2016] Photo credit: Gary Calton. fig. 56 Location of Granby Four Streets [Ducie, Cairns, Jermyn & Beaconsfield Street] Toxteth, Liverpool. <maps.google.com> [accessed 2 January 2016] fig. 57 Local residents, who founded the organisation, at their local street market. Hughes, Ronnie, ‘In Granby: The Street Party!’, 2014 <https:// asenseofplaceblog.wordpress.com/2014/12/06/in-granby-the-street-party/> [accessed 2 January 2016] Photo credit: Ronnie Hughes.

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