the necessity for diversity: should we value a bespoke material approach in architecture?
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introduction
Introduction To define a bespoke material approach: ‘the architecturally bespoke has associations with craft, ornamentation, materiality, fit, uniqueness and the unrepeated.’ 1
To compare the use of bespoke materials in architectural design with its alternative, two types of material production will be discussed. These are defined by David Pye in
The Nature and Art of Workmanship as ‘workmanship of risk’ and ‘workmanship of certainty’ however I prefer to define them as bespoke and mass-produced materials.
The manufacture of ceramic tiles will then be used to illustrate these theories and to draw parallels with my own design work. I hope to critically question the use of bespoke and mass-produced ceramic tiles as an architectural material. Manufacturing the Bespoke: Making and Prototyping Architecture, ed. by Bob Sheil (United Kingdom: John Wiley and Sons, 2012). p. 8 1
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fig. 1 David Pye in his workshop.
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1 workmanship of risk and workmanship of certainty
1 Workmanship of Risk and Workmanship of Certainty David Pye [fig. 1] trained as an architect, spent time in the Navy and went on to teach Furniture Design at the RCA for twenty-six years 2. The Nature of Art
and Workmanship was published in 1968 and aimed to understand the value of workmanship.
David Pye, The Nature and Art of Workmanship (design Handbooks) (United Kingdom: Herbert Press, 1995). p. 13. 2
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Pye separates all workmanship into two categories,
‘The phrase “workmanship of risk” means that at any moment, whether
through inattention, or inexperience, or accident, the workman is liable to
ruin the job. It is in opposition to the “workmanship of certainty”, in which
the quality of the result is predetermined and beyond control of the
operative.’ 3
I have interpreted these definitions as the bespoke and the mass-produced. The two types do not differ, by definition, in quality 4, however there are several other factors that do define them.
Mass-production increases both the accuracy and speed of production 5. This therefore increases the volume of production, which decreases costs and consequentially increases the accessibility of products and materials to the massmarket. However, Pye states that if the workmanship of certainty remakes our whole environment, it will also change the visible quality of it 6. The range of qualities which mass-production was capable of in 1968 was ‘dismally restricted because each is so uniform and because nearly all lack depth, subtlety, overtones, variegation, diversity…’7
In contrast, bespoke production is rarely cheap or quick, however it has been ‘long and widely valued’ 8. Pye feared the loss of this type of workmanship in favour of massproduction.
David Pye, The Nature and Art of Workmanship (design Handbooks) (United Kingdom: Herbert Press, 1995). p. 19. 3
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4
ibid. p. 22.
5
ibid. p. 21.
6
ibid.
7
ibid. pp. 18-19.
8
ibid. p. 22.
1 workmanship of risk and workmanship of certainty
What makes workmanship of risk important is diversity. No two bespoke objects can be identical, which adds to the richness of our environment. Diversity and interest is present at every scale of a material,
‘As you get closer to … a building, new elements, previously
indistinguishable, successively appear and come into play aesthetically.’ 9
He argues against mass-production, which creates bland buildings and stresses the need to be ‘continually presented with fresh and unexpected incidents of form.’ 10 This phenomenon occurs in nature and creates awe [fig. 2 & 3].
During the early 19th century, as the Industrial Revolution gathered speed, there were ‘passionate debates on whether working with machinery under regimented conditions was beneficial or detrimental (to the workman)’ 11 . John Ruskin and William Morris were passionate about the issue. As leading theorists of the Arts and Crafts movement they reacted strongly to the rise of machine production. In The Stones of Venice, Ruskin states,
‘It is not that men are ill fed, but that they have no pleasure in the work
by which they make their bread and therefore look to wealth as the only
means of pleasure. ’12
David Pye, The Nature and Art of Workmanship (design Handbooks) (United Kingdom: Herbert Press, 1995). pp. 61-62. 9
10
ibid. p. 63.
Industries of Architecture, ed. by Katie Lloyd-Thomas, Tilo Amhoff, and Nick Beech (United Kingdom: Routledge, 2015). p. 60. 11
12
Hans van Lemmen, Tiles in Architecture (United Kingdom: Laurence King Publishing, 1993). p. 139.
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Here he describes factory workers, and stresses the importance of enjoying your work. By being a part of the whole process of manufacture, workmen value the goods they produce, rather than just the wage they earn 13. Arguably, this leads to a deeper quality of material. Ruskin also believed in a strong relationship between architect and craftsman that design and physical making were intrinsically connected 14.
Morris reiterates Ruskin’s point in ‘The Revival of Handicraft’, Fortnightly Review, in November 1888:
‘The workman (during the Medieval period) worked for himself and not for
any capitalistic employer and he was accordingly master of his work and his
time.’ 15
Although Ruskin and Morris may be glorifying the time before mass-production, there is definitely a resounding value in creating an object from start to finish moreover I believe this pride and care manifests itself in tangible qualities of the object and creates a depth not found in mass-produced objects; one can almost sense the time, effort and care that has gone into something. To further explore this relationship of maker and object in my own work I created ceramic body form tiles [fig. 4 -8]. These organic-shaped tiles were formed by shaping sheets of porcelain clay into modroc plaster moulds made from my own body. This direct connection from maker to object not only makes every tile unique, something disassociated with common repetitive, uniform tiles, but also created an intense personal relationship, via process, between workman and material.
13
Hans van Lemmen, Tiles in Architecture (United Kingdom: Laurence King Publishing, 1993). p. 139.
Industries of Architecture, ed. by Katie Lloyd-Thomas, Tilo Amhoff, and Nick Beech (United Kingdom: Routledge, 2015). p. 61. 14
David Pye, The Nature and Art of Workmanship (design Handbooks) (United Kingdom: Herbert Press, 1995). p. 26. 15
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1 workmanship of risk and workmanship of certainty
fig. 2 Interest and detail at every scale is a phenomenon present in nature.
fig. 3 Like in nature, these hand-made, bespoke, glazed tiles have diversity at every scale.
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fig. 4 & 5 I took plaster casts of body parts which I used as a mould to form porcelain ceramic organic tiles.
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1 workmanship of risk and workmanship of certainty
fig. 6-8 I then took casts specifically of my thighs to create more practical shaped roof tiles, whilst still retaining the personal connection between the maker and product.
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2 ceramic tiles
2 Ceramic Tiles Ceramic tiles and their use in architecture has been the focus of much of my work. It is also an excellent example to explore the implications of the change from bespoke to mass-production of a product.
Ceramic tiles have formed an important part of European architecture since ‘the first buildings of brick and stone were erected’ 16. They are versatile in their use not only for their decorative appeal: they also provide a hygienic, easy to clean surface, are waterproof, fire resistant, can help radiate heat and are adverse to weathering 17.
16
Hans van Lemmen, Tiles in Architecture (United Kingdom: Laurence King Publishing, 1993). p. 11.
17
ibid.
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During the medieval period, all tiles were handmade [fig. 9]. They were an expensive luxury as great skill and labour was required in their manufacture 18. They showed ‘diversity in their form and decoration, with no two tiles made by hand ever being exactly alike’ 19. However, the Industrial Revolution soon mechanised the entire process, from working with raw clay 20 to the glazing and decoration of tiles; glazes were once made ‘in-house’ but from 1870 onwards A.F. Wenger, a firm in Stoke-onTrent began to supply ready made glazes and colours 21. Tiles were now uniform, with a regulated finish. Manufacturers could now guarantee their outcomes 22, a workmanship of certainty.
By transforming the method of production, ceramic tiles were being produced faster than ever before 23. They were now available cheaply and in large quantities 24. Soon they were being used everywhere: throughout the residential home, in kitchens, bathrooms, entrance halls and fireplaces; in the public realm, in town halls, hospitals, railway stations, public houses, food shops, banks, theatres, markets and winter gardens 25 [fig. 10-15]. The list is perpetual. So with the loss of diversity came the rise of availability, which some may argue has equal or even greater value.
18
Hans van Lemmen and Hans Lemmen, Medieval Tiles (United Kingdom: Shire Publications, 2001). p. 4
David Pye, The Nature and Art of Workmanship (design Handbooks) (United Kingdom: Herbert Press, 1995). p. 103. 19
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20
ibid. pp. 102-103.
21
ibid. p. 103.
22
ibid.
23
ibid. p. 95.
24
ibid. p. 13.
25
ibid. p. 105.
2 ceramic tiles
John Ruskin and William Morris avidly condemned the rise of machine production at the time on both an aesthetic and moral ground. Morris tried to reintroduce craftbased industry but was unsuccessful. His bespoke products, including tiles, were expensive to make and therefore only appealed to the very wealthy 26. It would appear that, as Pye predicted, there is no place in modern society for the bespoke material; it simply cannot compete with industrial production. However, I believe that the qualities of bespoke materials are so important that, as architects and designers, we must strive to keep the workmanship of risk alive.
fig. 9 Late 14th century handmade, inlaid floor tiles, depicting medieval battlements, at the Church in the Hospital of St. Cross, Winchester. The tiles were made by William Tyelere of Otterbourne and no two are alike.
David Pye, The Nature and Art of Workmanship (design Handbooks) (United Kingdom: Herbert Press, 1995). p. 105. 26
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fig. 10 Tiles have become commonplace in the domestic kitchen.
fig. 11 Tiles covered the walls, floor and ceiling on this dairy shop, providing a hygienic surface.
fig. 12 Tiles line the walls, floor and ceiling of Harrods indoor food market. A place frequented by higher society, Harrods has a huge influence on what was in fashion.
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2 ceramic tiles
fig. 13-15 The Crown Liquor Saloon is one of the most famous examples of tiles being used on every surface both internally and externally.
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fig. 16 & 17 Among several other unique material approaches such as a wall made from straw bales and clad in a transparent waterproof covering, one wall is constructed from cement filled sandbags. Their mass acts as a sound barrier between the adjacent railway and living space. The bespoke wall was thoroughly detailed before construction
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3 a place for bespoke in today’s architecture
3 A Place for Bespoke in Today’s Architecture Pye was wrong in his prediction of the extinction of the bespoke 27. With the end of Modernism28 came a resurgence of ‘excessive materiality’ in architecture; there was an ‘evolution of attitude toward the process of making and its unpredictable consequences on the final artefact’ 29. Stock Orchard Street, Sarah Wigglesworth Architects, is a prime example of this, employing material methods that are unique and diverse [fig. 16 & 17], they are ‘bespoke inventions designed and produced for a specific condition’ 30.
David Pye, The Nature and Art of Workmanship (design Handbooks) (United Kingdom: Herbert Press, 1995). p. 15. 27
28
Hans van Lemmen, Tiles in Architecture (United Kingdom: Laurence King Publishing, 1993). p. 226.
Elizabeth Shotton, Material Imprecision, from Katie Lloyd-Thomas, Material Matters: Architecture and Material Practice, ed. by Katie Lloyd Thomas (London: Routledge, 2007). p. 101. 29
Katie Lloyd Thomas, Around and about Stock Orchard Street, ed. by Sarah Wigglesworth (United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis, 2011). p. 125. 30
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The collective Assemble are also employing hand-made finishes to great effect [fig. 18-20]. This approach is not the norm, but has informed my design process. In addition to this, ‘the constraints of industrial standardisation’ have been relaxed, making ‘unique and tailored solutions…increasingly viable.’ 31 Despite this I still believe that bespoke material approaches are not being encouraged in architectural design.
‘(Architecture) schools are forced to treat materiality as notional and
beyond everyday education; something you add on to form. Materials are
crucial to the development of a form language, yet so easily become a
substitute for a form language.’ 32
By neglecting the exploration of materials, bland, standard finishes are used on all buildings alike and diversity is lost. ‘The valuing of form over matter relegates material in architecture to the practical underside of the profession…’ 33
I have tried to instill a material led approach in my design through the use of ceramic tiles and the careful consideration of the type of tile, how it is produced and the experience this can create. Pye believes that ‘some contrast and tension between regulation and freedom, uniformity and diversity, is essential’ 34 and that we do not want bespoke materials everywhere.
Manufacturing the Bespoke: Making and Prototyping Architecture, ed. by Bob Sheil (United Kingdom: John Wiley and Sons, 2012). p. 6. 31
Alan Chandler, A Philosophy of Engagement: Deveoping a Strategic Ability Through Direct Engagement with Material, Process and Collective Action, from Katie Lloyd-Thomas, Material Matters: Architecture and Material Practice, ed. by Katie Lloyd Thomas (London: Routledge, 2007). p. 116. 32
Katie Lloyd-Thomas, Material Matters: Architecture and Material Practice, ed. by Katie Lloyd Thomas (London: Routledge, 2007). p. 4. 33
David Pye, The Nature and Art of Workmanship (design Handbooks) (United Kingdom: Herbert Press, 1995). p. 64. 34
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3 a place for bespoke in today’s architecture
I have interpreted this by creating moments of beauty in my design. The majority of my building is clad in a commercial, mass produced, porcelain stoneware tile, in white. To contrast this, bespoke, handcrafted tiles line windowsills, door alcoves and cover floors, their colours and textures changing dependant on function [fig. 21 & 22]. Translucent, handmade porcelain tiles also break up the mass produced façade, creating irregular glowing clusters [fig. 23-26]; constellations preventing monotony. By adding diversity I hope to create a richness and depth of design. As Pye says, a world with no diversity would be oppressive 35. Whilst the use of bespoke materials can enhance a project, one must be critical and considered in their application. By overusing something, it can lose its impact moreover cost and speed of construction cannot be overlooked. There is no point denying the benefits of mass-production, one must appreciate them and combine them with the bespoke in order to create beautiful buildings.
David Pye, The Nature and Art of Workmanship (design Handbooks) (United Kingdom: Herbert Press, 1995). p. 129. 35
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3 a place for bespoke in today’s architecture
fig. 18-20 Yardhouse, designed and constructed by collective Assemble is partially clad in concrete tiles. Each tile has been handmade by the collective themselves, creating an instant connection between the material and the architect as maker. The tiles vary in colour and texture creating a spectacular pallete of subtle tones and have diversity at every scale.
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fig. 21 Hand-made tiles will be used to cover the floor in parts of the building. The varying colours, textures and patterns add interest to the building at varying scales; at a larger scale, there is diversity between each room, at a smaller scale there is diversity between each individual tile.
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3 a place for bespoke in today’s architecture
mass-produced
bespoke
fig. 22 Hand-made tiles also line windowsills and door frames. Here a direct comparison can be made between the bespoke tiles and the mass-produced porcelain stoneware tiles that clad the exterior.
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fig. 23-25 When vitrified, or fired to 1270째, porcelain becomes translucent. Areas of the facade will be clad in these hand-made tiles, infront of transparent insulation. These clusters will glow externally at night and internally on a sunny day.
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3 a place for bespoke in today’s architecture
fig. 26 Photograph of a collage made with mass-produced porcelain stoneware tiles and paper [representing handmade porcelain tiles]. This collage shows the diversity created by using these two materials next to one another, not only juxtaposing texture but also comparing a regular tesselation with a more irregular, organic one.
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bibliography Kolarevic, Branko, and Kevin Klinger, eds., Manufacturing Material Effects: Rethinking
Design and Making in Architecture (London: Routledge, 2008)
Lloyd-Thomas, Katie, Tilo Amhoff, and Nick Beech, eds., Industries of Architecture (United Kingdom: Routledge, 2015)
Lloyd-Thomas, Katie, Material Matters: Architecture and Material Practice, ed. by Katie Lloyd Thomas (London: Routledge, 2007)
Lloyd Thomas, Katie, Around and about Stock Orchard Street, ed. by Sarah Wigglesworth (United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis, 2011)
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bibliography
Publ, Armelle Tardiveau, ’ Articles, Toni Cumella, Toni Cumella I Vendrell, Rafael Diez Barrenada, and others, Moulding, Assembling, Designing: Ceramics in Architecture (Barcelona: Distributed by Actar, 2006)
Pye, David, The Nature and Art of Workmanship (design Handbooks) (United Kingdom: Herbert Press, 1995)
Ruskin, John, Edited, and Jan Morris, The Stones of Venice (Boston, MA: Little Brown and Company, 1981)
Sheil, Bob, ed., Manufacturing the Bespoke: Making and Prototyping Architecture (United Kingdom: John Wiley and Sons, 2012)
Sheil, Bob, Design through Making, ed. by Bob Sheil (United Kingdom: John Wiley & Sons, 2005)
Van Lemmen, Hans, and Hans Lemmen, Medieval Tiles (United Kingdom: Shire Publications, 2001)
Van Lemmen, Hans, Tiles in Architecture (United Kingdom: Laurence King Publishing, 1993)
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list of illustrations
list of illustrations Cover image photo credit: author fig. 1 Pye, David, The Nature and Art of Workmanship (design Handbooks) (United Kingdom: Herbert Press, 1995) p. 14. fig. 2 <http://beautifulplacestovisit.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/Glacier_ National_Park_Montana_02.jpg> [accessed 11 April 2016] & authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s own images fig. 3 tiles made by author, photo credit: author fig. 4 photo credit: author
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fig. 5 photo credit: author fig. 6 photo credit: author fig. 7 photo credit: author fig. 8 photo credit: author fig. 9 Van Lemmen, Hans, and Hans Lemmen, Medieval Tiles (United Kingdom: Shire Publications, 2001) p. 6. fig. 10 Van Lemmen, Hans, Tiles in Architecture (United Kingdom: Laurence King Publishing, 1993) p. 89. fig. 11 Van Lemmen, Hans, Tiles in Architecture (United Kingdom: Laurence King Publishing, 1993) p. 125. fig. 12 Van Lemmen, Hans, Tiles in Architecture (United Kingdom: Laurence King Publishing, 1993) p. 151. fig. 13 photo credit: author fig. 14 photo credit: author fig. 15 photo credit: author fig. 16 â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;9 Stock Orchard Street., Londonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; (Flickr - Photo Sharing!, 2016) <https:// www.flickr.com/photos/edwenn/4465842/in/photostream/> [accessed 11 April 2016] photo credit: Ed Wenn
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list of illustrations
fig. 17 Limited, EMAP Publishing, ‘Around & about Stock Orchard Street’, 2002 <http://www.architectsjournal.co.uk/attachments.aspx?height=auto&width=724&storycode=8615302&attype=P&atcode=1255868> [accessed 5 April 2016] fig. 18 ‘Yardhouse’ (ASSEMBLE) <http://assemblestudio.co.uk/?page_id=212> [accessed 13 April 2016] fig. 19 ‘Yardhouse’ (ASSEMBLE) <http://assemblestudio.co.uk/?page_id=212> [accessed 13 April 2016] fig. 20 ‘Yardhouse’ (ASSEMBLE) <http://assemblestudio.co.uk/?page_id=212> [accessed 13 April 2016] fig. 21 graphic made by author fig. 22 photo of model made by author fig. 23 photo of model made by author fig. 24 photo of model made by author fig. 25 photo of model made by author fig. 26 photo credit of collage: author
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