Naomi's Tonal Project

Tonal Through this project, I intend to explore the ways in which different artists use light and tone in their work.

Naomi O’Toole

Nude Descending a Staircase, n° 2

1912 Marcel Duchamp

Marcel Duchamp was raised in Normandy, in a family of artists who often painted landscapes depicting the French countryside together. One of Marcel's earliest artworks, Landscape at Blainville (1902), painted at age fifteen, reflected his family's love of Claude Monet. Marcel was close to his two older brothers, and in 1904 moved to join in Paris to study painting at AcadÊmie Julian. Here, he learned the lessons of Cubism and Futurism, whose joint influence may be felt in his early paintings, including his Nude Descending a Staircase, n° 2.

However, his painting career was short lived because he refused to follow a conventional artistic path and would not allow himself to be affiliated with any specific artistic movement. Later in his life Duchamp challenged the very notion of what art is, insisting that art should be an expression of the mind rather than the eye or the hand when he exhibited his Readymade sculptures.

This spoke to future Minimalist and Conceptual artists alike, and his influence still applies today.

His refusal to follow a conventional artistic path, matched only by a horror of repetition (which accounts for the relatively small number of works Duchamp produced in the span of his career) ultimately led to his withdrawal from the art world.

As previously discussed, Duchamp’s influence of Cubism can be seen in his Nude Descending a Staircase, n° 2.

Over a hundred years before Cubism, philosophers had begun to question the narrative role of painting. Content began to become more important than form.

Philosophers such as Denis Diderot and Arthur Schopenhauer disliked the classical style of paintings, where their main function was to tell a narrative. Instead, they believed a painting could be enjoyed just in terms of its line, colour, shape and form. Therefore, a painting would stop being ‘photographic’ in a sense, and it could become independent. The function of a painting would then become the painting itself! This philosophical climate inspired ‘avant-garde’ artists, such as Picasso and Braque, who pioneered the Cubist movement. The first branch of Cubism (known as Analytic Cubism) was both radical and influential. Though it was highly significant, Analytical Cubism only lasted between 1907 and 1911.

Cubism’s second phase, Synthetic Cubism, spread and remained vital until around 1919, when the Surrealist movement gained popularity.

Artists were also inspired by Henri Bergson, a French philosopher who wrote “Matter and Memory” in 1869. In his book, he discussed the notion that the conscious mind is always in a state of flux, moving between past, present and future; our minds are always in a state of change and we see and understand things as part of a continuum. This lead to the belief that when we look at an object or a scene, we don’t just see a simple snapshot image. We observe its movements, and do so from different perspectives. Therefore, painting a single image isn’t an accurate representation of your recollection.

Duchamp chose to present this subject with heightened emphasis on fluidity. Therefore he took a moving subject and, instead of painting it as an almost ‘photographic’ perspective, he instead represented the individual motions of the subject as they descended a staircase. This was a common principle of cubist paintings.

The surfaces intersect at seemingly random angles, presenting no coherent sense of depth.

The background and object planes interpenetrate one another, which makes it difficult to distinguish between the foreground and the background.

This creates the ambiguous shallow space characteristic of cubism.

The figure of the subject is distorted, so that it is broken into pieces of its basic limbs and body parts. Then this is duplicated and pieced back together in a form that would depict movement.

This is most noticeable in the positioning and direction of each line; they follow each other in parallels, while changing subtly to form the movement, or the form of the subject.

This procedure is what Duchamp referred to as “formal decomposition” and is used very often in his paintings.

The legs of the subject are painted several times, overlapping, so that they seem blended together. This is an effective way at depicting the motions of walking.

The painting is monochromatic in colour, only using shades of brown (brunaille). This means that the focus is more on the shapes in the painting rather than the colours, which is important because Duchamp sought only to represent the motions of the subject rather than its colour.

The figure on the far right of the painting is the lightest of them all; this isn’t because of a light source coming from the right because cubism rejects the principles of light sources. Instead, it may be because this is the point where the figure stopped moving, as they have reached the bottom of the staircase, so Duchamp has shown the most recent movements as the lightest in tone.

The darkest shades of brown are not in places where there would naturally be shadow, as there is no apparent light source. The corners of the painting are darkest, which contrasts with the lighter tones of the figure. This brings forth the subject in the foreground and gives the painting a more definitive structure.

Monochrome Grisaille is a term for a painting executed entirely in shades of grey or of another neutral greyish colour and is usually severely modelled to create the illusion of sculpture, especially relief. This makes grisaille drawings useful for engravers to use as a model/reference to work from. Grisaille was often chosen for being quicker and cheaper to produce, as it is easier than using full colour. Although very often the effect was sometimes deliberately chosen for aesthetic reasons.

A Brunaille is a painting executed entirely or primarily in shades of brown. Such a painting is described as having been painted "en brunaille".

Brunaille has its roots in 12th century stained glass made for Cistercian monasteries, which prohibited the use of coloured art in 1134. However, it was only in the early 17th century that the French term “brunaille� was coined to describe pictures painted in shades of brown. Brunaille paintings are less common than grisaille paintings.

After looking at the and Marcel Duchamp example, I have decided to research further into paintings that use monochromatic colours.

Portuguese 1911 Georges Braque

The development of cubism came in 1909, shortly after Braque met and began working with Pablo Picasso. Both artists produced representative paintings with interlocking blocks and complex forms. Their work often featured monochromatic colour schemes which inclined them to use variations of light and tone. They often painted side by side in the French Pyrenees, producing paintings that were so similar that it became extremely difficult to differentiate between the artists. As Braque would recall, “Picasso is Spanish and I’m French: we know all the differences that entails, but during those years the differences didn’t count.”

Braque’s early works were impressionistic but he later adopted a Fauvist style after becoming inspired by work exhibited by the Fauves in 1905. He developed in skill for this style and his work soon became exhibited a the Salon des Independents.

The ultimate result of his time together with Picasso was the development of a new style of painting; Analytical Cubism. The two artists worked closely together until the outbreak of World War I, upon which Braque joined the French Amy and left Picasso’s side. After this, Braque moved away from the harsh lines and sharp pointed complexity of the cubist style, and instead began to paint pieces with bright colours and eventually return to the human figure. Although he departed from his harsh lines and forms, Braque never abandoned his cubist style. Whereas Picasso freely painted in many styles, from representational to cubist, surreal, and abstract, Braque held true to his fragmented forms and simultaneous perspective. By the time of his death in 1963, he was regarded as one of the elder statesmen of the School of Fines art in Paris, as well as in modern art.

This painting shows a human figure, which Braque chose to depict from several different viewpoints. This gives the painting the typically jumbled composition that is used in Cubist art.

Both Braque and Picasso arrived at this concept independently; the similarity of their ideas caused them to become close friends.

Together they developed the visual language of cubism, an alliance that Picasso would sometimes call a marriage.

The flecks of black and white paint look as though they were applied thickly. Braque may have chosen to keep the paint thick, instead of blending them into the painting, to ensure their colour looks saturated. They also add a degree of texture, which is effective because the flecks are not confined to one area, but used across the whole painting. This means they don’t show form which adds to the ‘flatness’ of the painting.

In the top right hand corner, Braque stencilled the letters “D BAL” and roman numerals below them. Usually numbers and letters were included in paintings as a representational element of the painting, often carrying an implied meaning.

However, the letters and numbers in Portuguese are a purely compositional addition; this means they were added to make the viewer aware of the canvas itself.

In representational paintings, the canvas is there only as a surface to hold whatever image the painter desires. By adding numbers, out of context elements, and surface textures, the viewer becomes aware of the fact that the canvas can also hold outside elements, making the surface of the painting just as important as what is put on top of it. The use of this concept marks an interesting point in the development of Braque’s paintings.

Although there is a noticeable contrast in tone between the top of the painting (which has many light hues of brown) and the bottom of the painting (which uses darker shades and a large section of black), there is no obvious light source. This is shown because lighter and darker tones are scattered throughout the painting.

Portuguese features a similar colour scheme as ‘Nude Descending a Staircase n° 2’ thus it was painted ‘en brunaille’. Though there is a likeness in tone and colour scheme, the monochrome gives different effects for each painting- Duchamp uses darker tones in the background to draw the moving figure to the foreground, whereas Braque uses varying tone to keep the dimensions between the foreground and background intertwined.

Still Life with a Bottle of Rum

1911 Picasso

Pablo Picasso was a Spanish painter, sculptor and printmaker, who lived from October 1881 – April 1973. Throughout his artistic career, Picasso painted with a significant emphasis on tone; his involvement with the Cubist movement used tone in an ‘avant-garde’ manner, and his Blue and Rose Periods allowed him show form, shape and composition while only using a singular tone. His choice of colour was usually a reflection of his state of mind at the time. For example, the Blue Period was a reaction to the suicide of his friend Casagemas, which caused Picasso to sink into a deep depression. “I started painting in blue when I learned of Casagemas' death.” His Rose Period which followed signified his recovery from depression.

Picasso’s self portrait, 1938

Picasso’s paintings during the Blue Period are characterised by their monochromatic colour scheme, in shades of blue and blue-green.

Blue tones dominate this painting because cooler colours are usually associated with solemn moods, which reflects the state of depression that Picasso was in. Blue is also suitable for this painting as the subject has features of misery: firstly, she is painted with her arms folded, which is common body language of people who are upset, or even depressed, as it is a natural defensive action. Furthermore, her eyes carry a blank, yet menacing stare of hopelessness and her cheekbones are painted with harsh, dark lines. This makes her face look incredibly gaunt, which may suggest starvation or neglect.

Although the background is the same colour as the subject in the foreground, Picasso has still made the woman the central focus by using lighter tones of blue. This contrasts with the darker background.

There isn’t much detail to the woman; her skin is smooth and untextured, her clothes are basic and modest, without embroidery and only have a single button. This may have been because Picasso was paying more attention to the colour scheme.

This links to El Greco’s views on painting, who Picasso had admired during his time at art school (Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, Madrid). El Greco regarded colour as the most important and the most ungovernable element of painting, and declared that colour had primacy over form. As he once said, "I hold the imitation of colour to be the greatest difficulty of art.“ It is clear to see the influence of El Greco on Picasso’s work through his use of harsh lines.

Picasso was influenced by paintings of the female nude. In ‘The Birth of Venus’ (shown left), the woman is painted with a smooth application of paint and realistic skin tones which make her look realistic. She is standing still, as though captured mid-movement.

However in ‘Les Demoiselles d'Avignon’, the naked women are shown to still be moving, as their limbs are shown several times in several different positions. This makes the movements fluid therefore the subjects appear to be in motion.

Although both of these paintings use similar colours (blue, skin colours, brown, etc.), the cubist painting has less tones of each colour. Where the classical style of art uses highlights, mid tones and shadows, the cubist painting keeps the same shade of colour.

Picasso has rejected his traditional training and created flat planes of colour. This means that the classical style uses tone to show the form and shape of the subjects but the cubist uses tones to make the dimensions of the painting unclear. The blue colours in the background is remnant of Picasso’s Blue Period; through this, we can see the development towards Protocubism.

‘Still Life and a Bottle of Rum’ was painted during the most abstract phase of Cubism, known as "high" Analytical Cubism (1910–12).

This painting has a similar colour scheme as Braque’s ‘Portuegese’ as the prominent colour is brown (brunaille), however Picasso uses warmer hues of brown than Braque.

Picasso has directed the paintbrush in a sweeping motion, as we can see by the brush strokes.

Picasso has applied the paint in thick layers which makes the colours bolder than if they were applied thinly. For example, the flecks of white in the left side of the painting are quite bright because Picasso has left them thick and unblended.

There are many small flecks of colour throughout the painting, mostly in shades of black, white and grey. This adds texture to the painting, even though cubist paintings usually have flat, untextured planes.

The subject is broken up into segments and then arranged together, making each one difficult to discern. The edges of some of these shapes/planes have been highlighted with lighter tones of brown and white. These are mostly in the centre of the painting, though traditionally highlights are usually only from one side of a painting.

Each plane is also highlighted from a different side (sometimes on the left, right or top) which shows that there is no obvious light source. This keeps the painting one dimensional.

Some spidery black lines might denote sheet music. This may have been inspired by

This is the first works in which Picasso included letter forms. ‘LETR’ may either refer to one of Picasso’s favourite magazines (Le Torero), or the letters might be a pun on ‘lettre’, French for "word."

The painting has a vortex-like composition, making it difficult to see the bottle of rum.

Only its main features are noticeable: In the upper centre of the picture are what seem to be the neck and opening of a bottle.

In the centre, at the far right, is the pointed spout of a porrón (Spanish wine bottle). The round shape lower in the painting suggests the base of a glass.

The perpendicular lines may represent the edges of the table (some show the tassels of a tablecloth); the table is shown from several viewpoints with varying features because Picasso would have viewed the table from different perspectives. This deliberate ambiguity is a typical feature of Cubist art as it sought to keep the viewpoint of the spectator uncertain. This was a drastic change from older stylistic conventions which were reliant on Renaissance perspective.

Guernica 1937 Picasso

Guernica was created as a reaction to the Nazi's devastating casual bombing practice on the town of Guernica, Basque during the Spanish Civil War. On 26th April 1937, warplanes of the German Condor Legion, bombed Guernica for about two hours. Germany, at this time led by Hitler, was using the war as an opportunity to test out new weapons and tactics and blame the effects on the Spanish. Their ‘test bombing’ on Guernica allowed the Nazi’s to develop their aerial bombardment techniques, which later became a crucial step in the Blitzkrieg tactic.

Picasso working on Guernica. 1937

After the bombing, Picasso was made aware of what had gone on in his country of origin. At the time, he was working on a mural for the Paris Exhibition to be held in the summer of 1937, commissioned by the Spanish Republican government. He deserted his original idea and on 1 May 1937, began on Guernica. This captivated his imagination unlike his previous idea, on which he had been working somewhat dispassionately, for a couple of months. Although it garnered little attention. at its unveiling at the Paris Exhibition that summer, Guernica would later become renowned as a significant political statement. This spread awareness of the bombing attack; that it was by the Germans, not the Spanish.

Adolf Hitler disliked Guernica’s antifascist message and had a personal aversion to modern art. The official German guidebook for Paris’s International Exposition recommended against visiting Picasso’s piece, which it called “a hodgepodge of body parts that any four-year-old could have painted.”

Guernica at the Museo Reina Sofia in Madrid

The tail of the bull is formed in the shape of flame and smoke appearing in the window at far left, produced by a lighter shade of grey bordering it.

The tongues of the grieving woman, the bull, and the horse are shaped like daggers, which suggest screaming.

Towards the upper right of the horse is a fearful female figure that appears to be watching the actions in front of her. She seems to have floated through a window into the room. Her floating arm is holding a flaming lamp and the lamp is very close to the bulb, symbolizing hope – and is in opposition to the light bulb.

The encompassing scenario is set within a room where, in an empty part on the left, a wideeyed bull looms above a woman grieving for a dead child she is holding.

In the open palm of the dead soldier is a stigmata, symbolic of the sacrifices of Jesus Christ.

A shadowy wall that has an open door becomes the right end of the painting.

On the far right of the painting, a person with arms extended in sheer terror is trapped by fire from below and above.

Underneath the horse lies a dead mutilated soldier, the hand of his severed arm still grasping a broken sword, from which a flower springs up.

Staggering in from the right, below the floating female figure, is a horror-struck woman who looks up vacantly into the glaring light bulb.

The painting is 3.5 metres (11 ft) tall and 7.8 metres (25.6 ft) wide. Large paintings were common for commemorative events, as their sheer size was used to shock viewers.

The composition seems narrative, as we view the figures in the painting from left to right. However Picasso still keeps the subjects inter-twined, giving a loose, spontaneous structure. This is similar to his earlier work. He utilised this radical way of portraying the world in a more serious manner, as he depicts a real historical event rather than a still life scene.

The middle of the painting shows a horse falling over in pain, having been pierced by a spear or lance. The gaping wound in the side of the horse is the primary focus of the artwork. Two obscured visuals formed by the horse can be found in Guernica: first is human skull is superimposed on the body of the horse. Secondly, it appears that a bull is goring the horse from below. The head of the bull is formed largely by the front leg of the horse, which has its knee on the ground. The knee cap of the horse makes up the bull’s nose, and the bull’s horn jabs at the horse’s breast. Above the head of the impaled horse is a light bulb which glares outward like an evil eye, it can also be likened to the single bulb hanging in a prison cell. Picasso may have also intended the symbolism of the bulb to be associated with the Spanish word for light bulb which is “bombilla”. This brings to mind the word “bomb”, which could symbolize the detrimental impact which technology can have on humanity.

Guernica is painted only in colours of blue, black and white. At one point during the piece’s development, Picasso entertained the idea of adding colour to the project; he included a red teardrop sprouting from a crying woman’s eye, as well as swatches of coloured wallpaper. However he discarded these ideas and chose to keep the monochromatic colour scheme. This makes the painting seem almost photographic which intensifies the drama, hence maximising the horror that will be evoked in the viewer. Picasso used thick layers of oil paint, unblended, to ensure the colour of the paint remained at its most saturated. The tones in the painting are also reminiscent of newspaper print, which is also suggested in the printed patterns across the painting. This links to the purpose of its creation: to spread news and awareness about the bombing.

With Guernica, Picasso wanted to establish his identity and his strength as an artist when confronted with political authority and intolerable violence. This means that in addition to being a political piece of art, Guernica can also be Picasso’s statement on what art is able to donate to the self-assertion that emancipates all humanity and shields every person from overpowering forces, such as political crime, war, and death.

The depiction of significant historical events in art is especially interesting, as it offers another layer of depth and meaning when interpreting paintings. Therefore I intend to develop my tonal project around paintings that show history. This will have an effect on the tones used in the paintings, as colour can be manipulated to add drama to a scene. This is especially important when painting historical events because the artist predominantly seeks to draw attention to their artwork. For example, Picasso used monochrome tones in Guernica to create drama and intensity. However there are different tonal techniques for achieving the same effect; noticeably in neoclassical art styles, where artists used extreme light and tone (to the effect of chiaroscuro) to add dramatic elements to their art.

The Death Of Marat 1793 Jacques-Louis David

Jacques-Louis David was a French painter who worked in the Neoclassical style, arguably the preeminent painter of the era. David was a supporter of the French Revolution (1789-1799). It was centred around the lower classes hatred for the unfair distribution of wealth and resources, prejudiced system of taxation and the greed of King Louis XVI. There was a community aspiration to gain liberty and republicanism within France. Early in the Revolution, David had joined a political club called the Jacobins. This club went on to create a group of people against the monarchy who were known as the National Convention.

Led by Maximilien Robespierre, the Jacobins and the National Convention would eventually vote to execute Louis XVI and his Queen Marie Antoinette. France then became a republican country.

The Jacobins were keen to execute anybody that was opposed to the Revolution, which slowly created an oppressed country without freedom of speech. David’s friend Marat was heavily involved with the executions; he wrote down the names of people who disagreed with the Revolution and ordered their execution.

David created the self portrait on the right while imprisoned for crimes against the Republic; his painting ‘The Death Of Marat’ was seen as negative propaganda and is currently banned in France. However, he attempts to reinvent his reputation through this painting to give the impression that he was wrongly imprisoned. He depicts himself as more youthful than he was at the time of painting, in order to suggest that he is young and innocent. David chose to reiterate this by showing himself wearing white- the colour of innocence and purity. The other colours in this paintings are natural and earthy, which seem to be a way to represent his character as sensible and down-to-earth. In his hands he grasps a paintbrush and palette to represent himself as simply a painter, rather than an extremist.

Jean-Paul Marat was a French political theorist, physician, and scientist who lived during the French Revolution. During a time of civil unrest and uncertainty, Marat was renowned for his fierce political views and his uncompromising stance towards the new leaders and institutions of the revolution. He promoted this profusely through his “radical” journalism, writing for pamphlets, placards and newspapers such as L'Ami du peuple (Friend of the People).

As one of the most extreme voices of the French Revolution, Marat became a vigorous defender of the sans-culottes and used his journalism to link mass media with the radical, republican Jacobin group. Through this he gained influence with the public, and therefore power for the republican ideology.

Part of Marat’s job was to order the executions of citizens that disagreed with the Jacobin group. He saw himself as a friend of the people however many perceived him as a cruel man that was responsible for the deaths of thousands, especially due to his influence on the September Massacres.

Suffering from a debilitating skin condition, Marat was forced to spend most of his time in a soothing bath where he would often work. It was here in his bath that he was assassinated by Charlotte Corday, due to her hatred of his executions. She stated that she had taken the life of one man to save the lives of a thousand men.

Charlotte was then executed by guillotine four days later, on 17 July 1793.

In his death, Marat was painted by his friend Jacques-Louis David. This led Marat to become an icon to the Jacobins as a revolutionary martyr, and the painting was seen as propaganda. For this, David was imprisoned and the painting banned in France.

Despite being based on an actual event, David has carefully planned the scene; he presents us with a “carefully staged death” as in theatre. The sense of space is reduced to a minimum as David is not preoccupied with the rendering of a perfect perspective of a room, but rather in idealising Marat.

Linear perspective is reduced to a minimum. For example, the representation of the tub is much smaller than it should be to host Marat’s body.

The back wall is empty and blocks the viewer’s eyes, which forces them to focus on Marat in the foreground

The room seems empty and unrealistic. The only things we can see are what David has chosen to include, such as the bathtub, the desk and Marat. Realistically, there should be features of a bathroom (e.g.. a door, windows, etc.) where we know is the place he died.

The artwork is large (162cm x 128cm) because it was intended as an official commemorative painting.

Small details within the painting point towards Marat’s innocence; the paper held in Marat's left hand shows (in French) "Il suffit que je sois bien malheureuse pour avoir droit a votre bienveillance" which translates to "Given that I am unhappy, I have a right to your help�. This alludes to a letter written to Marat by Charlotte Corday before she assassinated him.

The font is large enough for the reader to see and in a cursive form to suggest that it is handwritten. This is made visible to further convince people that Marat was wrongly killed.

David’s signature and dedication to Marat are similar to a stone engraving typical of monuments. This is as such to imply that his death was so significant that it should be treated monumentally.

On the top of the rough crate which serves as his table (a subtle piece of propaganda), instead of seeing lists of candidates for execution (the usual paperwork), we see a letter he has supposedly just written ordering money to be given to a war widow, the mother of five children whose husband has just sacrificed his life for 'La Patrie'.

This was purposely placed in the painting to give the impression that Marat was a kind, compassionate man, but this was a false impression.

For Marat, outline was more important than colours. The scene is in fact carefully drawn in sober tones. The more brilliant colours are the white of the cloths, the green of the bathtub top and the yellow-brown of the side table. This is evocative of the style of Neoclassicism.

Despite being a murder scene, there is just a tiny little splash of red to represent blood as the painting was not meant to be dramatic and gruesome. Colours are quite saturated adding a solid consistence to the surfaces.

Marat’s body is partially lit by a light coming from the left as visible by the shadows on his torso and behind the piece of paper that he holds. It is not possible to tell where this light comes from: rather than natural light it represents a kind of divine light, illuminating a martyr.

David chose not to show any signs or marks of Marat’s skin condition to show him.

This coincides with his efforts to portray Marat in the purest way possible.

Marat is put in the classical position, with his right arm and head taking opposed directions.

It is reminiscent of Jesus’ positioning in paintings, such as the painting above by Caravaggio.

The body is rendered as a solid and detailed form where you can see the muscles. His right arm is also painted with a careful modulation of colour hues; the left part of the arm is shown illuminated which creates a strong contrast with the right part of the arm that is in shadow. This is typical of oil paintings that use chiaroscuro, where the underlying principle is that solidity of form is best achieved by the light falling against it, suggesting the roundness of the form.

David essentially wanted to use this painting as propaganda to promote his political activist group (The Jacobins). Therefore he used the style of Neoclassicism to depict Marat as a hero of high moral virtues according to the classical tradition. This is most noticeable through his use of straight lines (along the bathtub and desk) , sculptured forms (around Marat’s muscles) and the strong contrasts between the light illuminating his body and the darkness of the background.

The painting is almost divided into two halves: the lower half (the foreground) has Marat, the bathtub, the cloth, the pieces of paper, the inkwell etc. and the upper half (background) acts as a dark counterbalance against the light figure. This contrasts and ensures that the focus of the painting is Marat

The composition is arranged according to the classical principle of the golden section; a combination of horizontal lines (the bathtub edges, the top of the side table and the ledge where Marat’s head is resting) and vertical lines (the side table, the folds of the white cloth and the imaginary line that passes through Marat’s nose, down his right arm continuing in the fold of the cloth just under his elbow).

After looking at The Death of Marat, I have decided to study further into Neoclassicism. This is known as a rediscovery of classical art, literature, theatre, music, and architecture that drew inspiration from Greek and Roman times. Born in 18th Century Rome, Neoclassicism spread all over Europe, as a generation of European art students returned from their research in Italy to their home countries with newly discovered Greco-Roman ideals. Features of this style included rigorous contours, sculptured forms, and polished surfaces and was based on ideals of harmony and austerity. The subject is often bathed in golden light, imitating the style of which Greeks and Romans would paint royalty and gods.

This gives Neoclassicism paintings the quality of chiaroscuro, an oil painting technique developed during the Renaissance that uses strong tonal contrasts between light and dark to model threedimensional forms, often to dramatic effect. As this coincides with my exploration theme of tonal, I will continue my research with a focus on paintings that depict significant historical events, as artists often use chiaroscuro to emphasise dramatic events.

Venus convinces Helen to hear Paris 1790 Angelica Kauffman

Maria Anna Angelica Kauffman (1741–1807) was a Swiss Neoclassical painter who had a successful career in London and Rome. She was skilled at painting portraits, landscape scenes and decorations. While Kauffman produced many types of art, she identified herself primarily as a history painter, which was unusual for female artists in the 18th century. History painting was considered to be the most elite and lucrative category in academic painting during this time period. Its subject matter was the representation of human actions based on themes from history, mythology, literature, and scripture, which required extensive learning in biblical and Classical literature, knowledge of art theory and a practical training (including the study of nude male anatomy). Most women were denied access to such training, especially the opportunity to draw from nude models, yet Kauffman managed to cross the gender boundary to acquire the necessary skill.

Her paintings grew in success and Kauffman soon became renowned for her “talents and charm”. Despite the popularity that Kauffman enjoyed in British society, and her success there as an artist, she was disappointed by the relative apathy of the British towards history painting. Ultimately she left Britain for the continent, where history painting was better established and held in higher esteem.

Kauffman has links to Jacques-Louis David as they shared the same circle of friends.

She may have been having an affair with the subject of the previous painting, Jean Paul Marat, while they were both living in London.

The Judgement of Paris is a story from Greek mythology, which was one of the events that led up to the Trojan War and in turn to the foundation of Rome. It follows a banquet held by Zeus, in celebration of the marriage of Peleus and Thetis (parents of Achilles). All Gods were invited except Eris, the Goddess of discord, for it was believed she would have made the party unpleasant for everyone.

Angered by this, Eris arrived at the celebration with a golden apple from the Garden of the Hesperides. She threw this apple into the crowd, claiming that it must be given to the most beautiful woman. Upon the apple was the inscription καλλίστῃ, meaning "for the fairest one.“

Three goddesses claimed the apple: Hera, Athena and Aphrodite. They asked Zeus to judge which of them was most beautiful, who in turn passed the judgement onto Paris. While Paris inspected them, each attempted with her powers to bribe him; Hera offered to make him king of Europe and Asia, Athena offered wisdom and skill in war, and Aphrodite offered the world's most beautiful woman (Euripides, Andromache, l.284, Helena l.

676). Although Hera was known as being the fairest, she often had fidelity and chastity in mind and was careful to be modest when Paris was inspecting her. Aphrodite, though not as objectively beautiful as Hera, was the goddess of sexuality, and was effortlessly more sexual and charming before him. Thus, she was able to sway Paris into judging her the fairest. His prize was Helen of Sparta, wife of the Greek king Menelaus. The painting by Kauffman shows Aphrodite (in the form of her Roman equivalent, Venus) talking to Helen to introduce her to Paris.

Helen is shown as the furthest left figure, which places her as the most noticeable character as the light source is coming from the left. This means the light would touch her face first, so she is more illuminated than the rest of the figures.

Helen is also shown as wearing blue, a colour that has connotations with calmness, thus highlighting her femininity.

There is a suggested intimacy between Helen and Venus, as Venus has her arm around Helen’s shoulders. This could merely be her way of persuading Helen. The doves next to the women mirror their movements, as they are similarly positioned together.

Paris is painted wearing a red tunic. To Kauffman, this would have seemed like historical attire. Including historical elements in paintings is a key feature of Neoclassisical art, as it seeks to replicate the Classical movement. The colour red also has connotations with passion and lust, which reflects Paris’ intentions with Helen.

The cherub reflects the romantic element to the scene. He is painted with light skin tones to suggest that he is illuminated by a form of divine light. His wings and bow are taken from key characterisations of cherubs, which Kauffman would have studied prior to creating this painting.

The setting of the scene seems accurate to the narrative of the story. It is shown in a rural setting featuring savannah style trees, possibly being Italian stone pines, which would have been there.

Kauffman may have drawn inspiration from the trees she would have seen when living in Rome.

The subjects are painted in the midground to ensure they are the focus. This means the viewer’s eyes are always drawn towards the centre of the painting.

The pillars and columns in the background are typical features of the neo-classical style, which often imitates the features found in Classical Greek and Roman art. These also imply wealth, which would bean accurate portrayal of a Queen.

There is a non-descriptive background, meaning that this scene could take place anywhere.

This adds to the mysterious atmosphere of the painting.

The figures are all painted in their full body form, as opposed to a torso or bust portrayal. This was commonly used in academic art for historical scenes to show the importance of a figure. The fact that the two women are shown to be sitting, while the male figure is standing, shows the hierarchy involved with gender at the time.

However the positioning of the figures, with Paris to the right, makes him seem like an outsider to the couple.

The background remains dark, though not to the extent of tenebrism.

Instead of using darkness across the majority of the painting, Kauffman paints the features with darker tones of the colours. For example, the sky is a dark grey tone of blue, and the trees are a brown tone of green. Alternatively, the figures are painted with bright, noticeable colours such as red and blue. This draws attention to the main subjects of the painting, but subtly.

Deep shadows are only apparent in the corners of the painting, giving a framing effect. This effect is also given by the tree above Paris’ head, which curves in accordance to the shape of his body.

Penelope is woken by Euryclea 1772 Angelica Kauffman

The Odyssey is a Greek epic (a long narrative, usually telling of a hero’s deeds) written in the late 8th century B.C. This painting depicts a scene described in The Journey of Odysseus. Kauffman would have chosen to paint this as Greek mythology was a common theme of Neoclassicism.

Eurycleia was bought as a slave by the nobleman Laertes and worked as a maid in his palace. She was also a wet nurse to his son, Odysseus, as it was uncommon for upper class women to nurse their children.

While Odysseus was away in the decadelong war, Eurycleia loyally ran the palace on his behalf, and even nursed and raised his son, Telemachus. After the war had ended, Odysseus had to make his way back to his home of Ithaca. He decided to enter his home under the guise of a beggar. Eurycleia was the only person to recognise him without him first revealing himself, as she recognised him by a scar just above his knee which he got from a boar while hunting as a child. Eurycleia then woke Penelope to inform her that Odysseus had returned but Penelope did not believe the maid.

Penelope was the wife of Odysseus, a famous hero of the Trojan War. He was away from his palace for 20 years while fighting in the war, causing many men (over a hundred) to attempt to seduce her. Penelope was an object of much desire, due to her husband’s wealth and her natural beauty. When Eurycleia told Penelope that her husband had returned from war, she initially didn’t believe her. Penelope tested Odysseus to prove that he was indeed her husband by asking him to move the bed Odysseus built in their marriage-chamber; Odysseus then told Penelope that it was not possible, as one of the legs of the bed was built into a live olive tree, a secret that only Penelope and Odysseus would have known. This made her finally believe that her husband had returned.

Euryclea is wearing dull coloured robes which ensures she does not distract the focus from Penelope. There is also a contrast between her orange/brown clothes and Penelope’s white gown; this further emphasises her purity because colours are more noticeable when placed alongside their opposites.

Her skin is painted with a smooth application of oil paint which makes it look soft, hence emphasising her beauty.

Penelope is shown wearing white robes, a colour that is associated with purity and innocence. Since she is directly met by the source of light, her clothes are so bright that they almost make Penelope look as if she is glowing.

Penelope is also surrounded by blankets that look layered and translucent, an effect which is achieved by the skill of Kauffman. This makes her seem as though she is wrapped in many veils, again suggesting her innocent nature.

This painting by Kauffman has a more distinct use of chiaroscuro: Kauffman has painted streaks of white and yellow around the lamp and blended them into the paint to subtly show rays.

The strong contrasts between tones are effective at adding drama to the scene.

Despite being in the foreground, this ornament is cast in shadow.

This is due to its position in the corner; if it were brighter then it may distract the focus from the subject.

The light source of this painting comes from the torch in the background, as shown by the shadows cast on the right side of Euryclea’s body. This casts Penelope in a bright light that illuminates her, therefore she becomes the central focus.

The cloth in the background is a dark green colour, which contrasts with the red couch in the foreground. This creates a distinct separation between the foreground and the background, yet does so with complementary colours.

The Execution of Lady Jane Grey 1833 Paul Delaroche

Paul Delaroche was a French painter who lived from July 1797 – November 1856. Delaroche was one of the most celebrated French artists of his time, known the leading pupil of the artist Gros.

He often displayed his paintings at The Salon; beginning in 1667, The Salon was the official art exhibition of the Académie des Beaux-Arts in Paris.

Between 1748 and 1890 it was arguably the greatest annual or biennial art event in the Western world. The favoured styles of art were Neo-classical and Romantic (now known as Academic art or ‘Salon style’ art). Delaroche submitted paintings that had elements of both Neoclassicism and Romanticism. Popular genres included paintings of historical events. One of Delaroche’s most appreciated paintings submitted to The Salon was The Execution Of Lady Jane Grey. The painting was made after the July Revolution of 1830, during which Charles X of France was usurped and his brother Louis XVI of France was publicly executed. The French viewers recognised this link in events and, unsurprisingly, the emotive painting caused something of a sensation. The painting was highly popular in the Paris salon when it was first exhibited there in 1834. Delaroche extensively researched the event, drawing information from historical sources, in order to make his paintings seem as accurate as possible. Delaroche had built his reputation in the Paris salon with large, realistic portrayals of famous events from the previous few centuries.

Paul Delaroche; portrait by Eugène-Ferdinand Buttura

While imprisoned in the Tower, Jane was attended by ladies in waiting, one of whom was the nursemaid of her infancy. These are included on the left as two grief stricken ladies, with one sat slumped on the floor and one standing with her back to the us. The body language and facial expressions clearly show their grief at the event about to take place. These figures emphasize the solemn mood of the painting.

To the right of the image we can see the executioner who is standing in an almost classical contrapposto stance.

This stance is usually seen in sculptures of heroic figures from ancient classical art, and demonstrates the academic training of Delaroche.

The centre of the painting depicts the moment that Jane, blindfolded, is being assisted to lay her head upon the block for the executioner. Her outstretched hand reaches uncertainly down to find the block. She is being assisted by a man who is identified as John Brydges, 1st Baron Chandos. Chandos was a Lieutenant of the Tower at the time of Jane's execution.

Delaroche employed academic drawing to plan and create this work, similarly to Ingres.

Delaroche painted the subject of Lady Jane's execution in 1833, nearly 300 years after the event. Despite the artist's familiarity with the painting of historical narratives, there are aspects of the painting which are inaccurate; the execution is set in a dark dungeon but actually was conducted in the open air, in a part of the grounds of the Tower of London that is known as Tower Green, and where Henry VIII's wives Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard had been executed. This indicates either that Delaroche had a gap in his knowledge of the event and therefore drew upon what he thought was the typical setting for an execution, or that he chose to take a great deal of artistic license. Delaroche may have chosen the setting of a dungeon to create a solemn mood or a theatrical effect. The intensely dark areas that occupy a large proportion of the painting's surface play a big part in the drama, a feature that is also used in Baroque art. Not only is the shadow of the upper section of the painting black, so also are the cloth that covers the platform, the dress of one of the ladies, the cloak of Baron Chandos and the sleeves of the executioner. Despite having set the scene in a dark dungeon, the central figure looks as though it is is daylight.

This contrast in tone would be unrealistic, however it has been heightened in order to create a sense of foreboding.

Delaroche has chosen to put Lady Jane Grey in white so that she contrasts with the background. He has mastered the use of chiaroscuro so brilliantly which adds to this striking effect. We cannot know whether or not she was actually dressed in white, but it is unlikely as she was married. However Delaroche chooses white for the effect at drawing attention to the main subject, as well as its connotation with innocence and purity.

Delaroche has used many small, narrative details in the painting which increases the dramatic and emotive quality of the story.

Lady Jane Grey is stood next to an ageing Lieutenant of the Tower of London, Sir John Brydges to highlight her youthful age.

Other narrative details include the rings on the block with the ropes which lash it steady to the floor, and the well-honed but well-worn edge to the axe.

The clean straw, commonly placed near the site of an execution to soak up blood and the white dress were devices used by the artist to make the observer suppose what would happen to them next.

The figures play their parts like actors through the expressions and gestures of grief and despair of the two women, the almost fatherly tenderness with which the Lieutenant of the Tower assists the blindfolded girl to take up the required position and the displeasure in the face of the executioner at the task that confronts him.

However the drama of the painting is predominantly created through Delaroche’s manipulation of tone. He uses brighter tones to seize the eye of the viewer. The eyes are naturally drawn to the brighter parts of the painting; the most intense patches of white are on Jane's blindfold and the area of her skirt just between her outstretched hand and the sharply defined edge of the block.

Tone is also used to draw elements of the painting together. For example, the colour of Lady Jane's red-gold hair is picked up in the straw beneath the block. Against the darkness, Lady Jane, with her pallid flesh, her white bodice and satin petticoat, makes a splash of light. As previously mentioned, this painting contains elements of both Romanticism and Neoclassicism. This encourages me to explore another painting containing Romanticism.

The Raft of Medusa 1818-19 Géricault

The Raft of the Medusa is a major work in French 19th-century painting, generally regarded as an icon of Romanticism. It was painted during the Restoration era in French history; a time when the French Revolution had failed, Napoleon had taken power of France, was unseated and then overtaken by another French monarch Louis XVIII, who reigned from 1815 – 1824.

The painting depicts an event with human and political aspects that greatly interested Géricault. The wreck of the ship called Medusa—a French Royal Navy frigate that set sail in 1816 to colonize Senegal. It was captained by an officer of the Ancien Régime who had not sailed for over twenty years and who ran the ship aground on a sandbank.

When he realised the ship was going down, the captain set out the emergency lifeboats for himself and his crew. Those 150 others who were left behind had to build a raft—a construction that drifted away on a bloody 13-day odyssey from which only 15 people survived. The disaster of the shipwreck was made worse by the brutality and cannibalism that ensued.

This was especially interesting to the artist as it reflected the corruption that came alongside monarchy; the Captain of the ship was not qualified to control a vessel as large as the ship was, and was only appointed by favour. As this corruption led to the loss of lives, mostly in a painful and gruesome way, it sparked anger towards the monarchy.

"our whole society is aboard the raft of the Medusa” Géricault's Raft was the star at the Salon of 1819. Le Journal de Paris wrote "It strikes and attracts all eyes". However critics were divided: the horror and "terribilità" of the subject exercised fascination, but devotees of classicism expressed their distaste for what they described as a "pile of corpses," whose realism they considered a far cry from the "ideal beauty" incarnated by Girodet's Pygmalion and Galatea (which triumphed the same year). Géricault's work expressed a paradox: how could a hideous subject be translated into a powerful painting, how could the painter reconcile art and reality? Coupin was categorical: "Monsieur Géricault seems mistaken.

The goal of painting is to speak to the soul and the eyes, not to repel."

The painting had fervent admirers too, including Auguste Jal who praised its political theme, its liberal position (the advancement of the "negro", the critique of ultra-royalism), and its modernity. Michelet also admired the political links within the painting, saying "our whole society is aboard the raft of the Medusa”. It was seen as a reference to the corrupt monarchy ruling France during the Restoration era that followed the French Revolution.

GĂŠricault went to great lengths and difficulties to make his painting as accurate as possible. He spent a long time preparing the composition of this painting, which he intended to exhibit at the Salon of 1819. He began by amassing documentation and questioning the survivors, whom he sketched and then made into wax figurines. He also went to the trial where the captain was indicted and went so far as to study drowned bodies in the morgue, as well as surrounding himself with decapitated heads and severed limbs. This allowed him to familiarise himself with the features of drowned bodies which would in turn make his painting more realistic. It also kept GĂŠricault in a morbid state of mind.

Oil painting of bodies at the morgue.

Sketches of survivors.

Gericault also studied this sketch of the raft created by J. Correard, one of the survivors.

It is known as the Plan of the Raft of the Medusa "at the point she was abandoned“.

He used this to help him rebuild the raft in his studio, and then study the proportions well enough to replicate it in his painting.

The whole composition is oriented towards the theme of hope in an upward ascent; the bottom left shows negative emotions, where a man is grieving over the body of his drowned son and another bewailing his own fate. These figures in mourning reflect the Romantic inspiration that fuelled the work of both GĂŠricault and Gros, and the former's admiration for the latter. The mood becomes progressively more positive, culminating in a strong black figure in the top right of the painting. This painting stands as a synthetic view of human life abandoned to its fate, but the hope and optimism we see when the sailors see the ship shows how human emotion will react when in desperate situations.

GÊricault takes influence from Baroque art. The pallid bodies are given cruel emphasis by a Caravaggio-style chiaroscuro; some writhe in the elation of hope, while others are unaware of the passing ship. The bodies of the people on the raft seem fused together – their limbs are tangled which makes it difficult to see what belongs to who. This is also seen in the depiction of Jesus amongst a mass of bodies.

This makes the movement of each person mad and chaotic, which I think reiterates the desperate mood of the paintings.

The expressions on the faces of the survivors show a range of moods within the painting. The numbed expression of a father as he holds the body of his son shows hopeless despair, while the man sat behind him with his head in his hands shows uncontrollable panic.

He also chose to include the red uniform of French officers in order to place the blame of the event on the captain of the ship.

After interviewing the survivors, GĂŠricault learned that the sailors were forced to eat each other to survive. He included a bloody axe to symbolise the cannibalism.

In the far corner we can see the sister ship, the Argus. The sight of this is what caused the sailors to frantically wave down the ship. We have to look deeply into the painting in order to see this detail, and in doing so we are placed inside the painting.

This places the viewers within the scene- a key element within Romanticism.

This painting features chiaroscuro, which is most noticeable on the bodies of the sailors and the clouds against the sky. This usually involves violent contrasts of light and dark, where the darkness becomes a dominating feature of the image.

The technique was developed to add drama to an image through a spotlight effect.

Additionally, the chiaroscuro makes the muscles more defined on the sailors, therefore the figures are depicted as being more heroic and healthier than they would’ve been when they were rescued. The painting has a mixture of reality and unrealistic elements, which is common in romanticism.

It is likely that GĂŠricault had taken inspiration from Caravaggio, who used a pronounced type of chiaroscuro known as tenebrism. As this style has great relevance to tone, I will research and explore paintings by Caravaggio.

Judith Beheading Holofernes 1598-1599 Caravaggio

Caravaggio was an Italian painter who lived from 1571 - 1610. He was trained in Milan by Simone Peterzano, who himself was trained by Titian. After completing his training, Caravaggio moved to Rome, where there was a demand for painters by the Catholic church. This was during a period of time where the Christian church was under reformation and becoming heavily divided, with many people seeking changes to their religion. This caused the church to split into two: Catholic and Protestant.

This caused a period of the Catholic church searching for a stylistic alternative to Mannerism in religious art, with emphasis on countering the threat of Protestantism.

The Council of Trent encouraged the Catholic faith to produce more art, which would be hung in churches and palozzos. For this, Caravaggio produced paintings that depicted Biblical events and did so with a style that became renowned; his paintings combined close physical observation (as he often painted from life, without drawings) with a dramatic, even theatrical, use of tenebrism. This brought high drama to his subjects, while his acutely observed realism brought a new level of emotional intensity. This was perfect for the Catholic church, as they wanted to re-establish the importance of Biblical events. “The painters then in Rome were greatly taken by this novelty, and the young ones particularly gathered around him, praised him as the unique imitator of nature, and looked on his work as miracles.�

Caravaggio chose to show the story behind Judith and Holofernes, which comes from the Bible. It is recorded in the deuterocanonical Book of Judith that the King Nebuchadnezzar of Nineveh sent his general, Holofernes, to subdue his enemies, the Jews. Eventually the Jewish people became besieged in Bethania and rapidly lost all hope of victory. Famine further undermined their courage and they began to consider surrender.

Judith, whose name means "Jewish woman", was a strikingly beautiful widow. Upon overhearing plans for surrender, she decided to "deliver the city". She was able to enter Holofernes’ camp because he lusted after her; Judith used this to her advantage by seducing Holofernes and then decapitating him. His severed head was used as a trophy by the Jewish people, which gave them the courage to raid the Assyrian camp and drive the enemy away.

Judith was portrayed with the typical features of beauty, such as fair skin and a youthful appearance. She contrasts with the aging, haggard maid next to her, who is depicted as such to emphasise Judith’s beauty.

Contrary to most Biblical stories of the time, it is a female who acts as the “hero”. Making her seem young, beautiful and physically weaker than Holofernes only exaggerates her victory more. This would be surprising to most viewers, who were most likely used to men being the protagonist of stories, thus making the story more captivating.

This event was dramatised by Caravaggio’s use of extreme chiaroscuro, also known as tenebrism.

The source of light comes from the top left of the painting. This light falls upon the subjects, making the viewer’s eyes become drawn to them, as they are the most important part of the narrative.

Holofernes’ arms are cast in light, creating heavy shadow around his muscles, and this in turn gives them a defined form. They appear tense and flexed, which is similarly shown with the grasping in his hands. This suggests his whole body is tense, the way it naturally does when in pain. This emphasises the grotesque nature of his beheading.

The painting makes use of the contrast between black colours in the background and brilliant white colours in the foreground. This is typical of tenebrism.

Although there are some colours in the background, they are similarly dark; for example the deep red of the cloth and the dark brown of the maid’s clothes

The half-severed head is especially light because Caravaggio wanted to show the things that most painters feared to paint. Through this, he enticed morbid curiosity.

Other aspects of the painting, as well as tenebrism, are used to draw attention to Holofernes.

The clothes of the characters are subdued as they have basic features and plain colours. This ensures attention is not drawn away from Holofernes to less important details.

Holofernes’ body is foreshortened, to create the impression that he is being drawn forwards, out of the painting.

The characters are all looking towards Holofernes, which causes the viewers’ eyes to follow their gaze.

Although most of the colours in this painting are subdued, Caravaggio has also chosen to include deep red tones.

The colour red naturally has connotations of passion and drama, which helps make the painting more striking, as the Baroque style dictates. This intelligent use of red tones, combined with Caravaggio’s extreme tenebrism, makes the painting as dramatic as possible. This is what the Catholic church would have wanted, as it reiterates the significance of Biblical events.

The curtain in the background complements the blood in the foreground, as they have the same tones of red. This brings the foreground and the background together, which makes the painting seem more realistic.

David with the Head of Goliath

1610 Caravaggio

According to a Biblical story told in the Books of Samuel, David was sent by his father Jesse to the war zone to deliver food to his brothers.

When he arrived, David saw his brothers and the rest of the Israeli army in fear from the giant Goliath, the pride warrior of the Philistine army. Goliath spoke words that disrespected the God of the Israelites and this angered David so much that he challenged him to fight.

Though the odds were not in his favour, David trusted in God to help him win the battle against the giant.

“This day the LORD will deliver you into my hand, and I will strike you down” – David After making the giant fall, David beheaded him and held his severed head for all to see. The Philistines fled and were pursued by the Israelites "as far as Gath and the gates of Ekron".

Post-Classical Jewish traditions stressed Goliath's status as the representative of paganism, in contrast to David, the champion of the God of Israel. Christian tradition gave him a distinctively Christian perspective, seeing in David's battle with Goliath the victory of God's king over the enemies of God's helpless people as a prefiguring of Jesus' victory over sin on the cross and the Church's victory over Satan.

This painting by Caravaggio also depicts a dramatic event, therefore it follows the same style as Judith beheading Holofernes. However the point of narrative is different; instead of choosing to show the moment of the brink of death, Caravaggio has chosen to show the scene after Goliath has already been beheaded.

In order to make it as dramatic as possible, Caravaggio sought to make this painting seem realistic and features within the painting point towards its accuracy. For example David is wearing a shepherd’s tunic, which would have been the typical attire according to the Biblical account. It looks as though it is in disarray, as if it was moved during the conflict.

The sword David holds similarly follows the narrative, as David apparently used Goliath’s own sword to decapitate him. H-AS OS, translating to “humility shall kill pride”, is engraved on the sword. This portrays the true moral behind the narrative: the sin of pride.

The chiaroscuro is especially emphasised, with the subjects being bathed in a bright light that comes from the left (shown by shadows created on the right side of David’s ribs and arm). This creates the effect of tenebrism- an extreme form of chiaroscuro where paintings usually feature a large proportion of darkness. Here, this is shown in the background.

The position of light also has the effect of bringing David into the main focus; any excessive detail in the background of the painting could distract from the subject.

David’s right arm is in darkness , suggesting his stance is to the left. It appears as though he is stepping into a pool of light because only the extended part of his body is lit. This almost makes it appear as if the light is coming from David himself, depicting him as a saint-like hero.

This would have been how the Catholic church wanted David to be presented.

Shadows across David’s body gives him a defined shape, especially noticeable around his ribs, which suggests the paint has been applied in layers. This method allows many different tones to be incorporated into one painting.

Goliath’s mouth is painted half open, suggesting he had been in mid-scream as he died. This adds an element of pain and fear to his facial expression, ultimately giving the painting a more morbid aspect. Caravaggio has also made use of tenebrism around Goliath’s severed head; his face is in the light but his hair remains in darkness. Through this, emphasis is placed on the gory nature of Goliath’s death.

The facial features are similar to those of Caravaggio. In his paintings he often modelled the dying subjects after himself, as he felt it relieved some of the guilt he felt for his crimes (murder, brawling, etc.). This could symbolise Caravaggio’s will to repent for his sins. His guilt may also explain the gory, gruesome themes in each of his paintings, reflecting his dark mind.

The head of Goliath has been painted with a bloodied mark on his head, to show where David’s stone had hit him (causing him to fall and become decapitated). Small details like these make the narrative more accurate. Similarly, the eyes are sunken and gazing sightlessly. Goliath’s skin is painted with yellow hues, which makes his skin seem sallow and imitates the skin tones of corpses. These two features make his face look exceptionally deathly.

After looking at paintings that focus on chiaroscuro and tenebrism, I have decided to take inspiration from the extreme light and tone. I intend to use this in my own photography, which will then form the basis of my poster design.

Both of these photographs feature extreme contrasts between light and tone, which I created by directing a bright light towards the subject, while they were stood in a dark room.

This cast heavy shadows around their most prominent facial features, creating a dramatic effect that was similar to Caravaggio’s work.

Furthermore, both subjects have complexions similar to the male and female figures seen in baroque art. The image on the left was my first attempt at manipulating light sources to cast shadows, and the image on the right was after much development and practice. Hence, it is of a better quality and has closer connections with the chiaroscuro used by Caravaggio. I intend to use this collection of images in my project,

My subject’s stance imitates the stance of David in Caravaggio’s painting, ‘David and Goliath’. I chose to use an extremely bright light source to create the effect of tenebrism, and I directed it from the right so that the shadow cast on the wall would follow the shape of his shoulders. This created a larger, more dramatic shadow than directing the light from the other side, hence adding a suggestion of masculinity to the photograph.

Caravaggio’s depiction of Goliath’s severed head inspired me to pay attention to the shadows on the subject’s face, as I think the contrasts between light and dark tones are most extreme across the face, due to its unique texture and prominent features.

I intend to use these images from my photography in my poster designs. Features such as tenebrism, golden lighting and bold red colours create a sense of drama that is similar to baroque art, therefore these images are appropriate for reflecting the styles of art that will be featured in my exhibition.

Exhibitions commonly use posters to advertise their exhibitions and encourage more people to view their gallery. The design, layout and colours used in these posters are usually reminiscent of the style of art in the gallery.

For example, this poster from the Karachi School Of Art features bold colours and block shapes, suggesting that the art featured in the exhibition could be Minimalism or Pop Art. Before I start designing my own exhibition poster, I will research posters made for other exhibitions in order to find inspiration.

The text in this poster is interesting as it is partially faded in some letters and more saturated in others. The letters also overlap which makes it easier to read, as it flows better. The word “four” stands out because it is the only word that is in colour, and I think this was chosen to make the play on words more noticeable.

The font is clear and modern; it would be too confusing to use a more elaborate style font as well as the colour fading and overlapping effect. The background is also just a plain white colour so the text can stand out against it, even the faded letters. This is a sophisticated use of lettering.

The logos of the institutions are placed at the bottom of the screen, along with the contact number, address and email address. This is because they aren’t as important and won’t be noticeable unless somebody is specifically looking for them, however they are still important enough to be included on the poster.

The title is colourless but still looks effective because of its alternation between black and white for each line.

The font is basic so it is easy to read.

This poster’s main feature is its incredibly simplistic design. The images are almost like pop art because they are simplified and undetailed. They use a single colour for each picture (yellow for the mouse and red for the camera) which gives them a quality of graphical design.

The poster uses pictures that relate to art, though it places focus on the tools that are used to create art rather than images of art itself, such as paintbrushes and pencils. This links with its theme of creation as the exhibition wants to show student work.

The background is a dull beige colour, which may have been used to create a contrast with the bright colours in the images.

However I think this is ineffective for a poster design as it looks unattractive.

Similarly to the previous designs, the font is simplistic which makes it clear to read and not draw attention away from the image. The use of uppercase lettering makes the text seem to shout, therefore people are more likely to read it.

These posters differ from the previous two because they use an image and enlarge it so it is the main focus of the poster. This seems very appropriate for advertising an artwork display. I like this feature and intend to use this in my own design.

This poster is very colourful. I think this is effective at catching people’s eyes as they walk past because of its bright and contrasting colours, as well as the subject being a face which naturally draws attention. This exaggerated use of colour is continued to the text; the sub-title is written in green to compliment the colours used in the image.

The gallery information and times are at the bottom of the page as people usually read from top to bottom, so the advertising text is placed at the top to ensure it is the first thing to be read, and then information at the bottom when people are already convinced to view the gallery.

The photograph is placed at the top of the poster because it is the most important part, and the photographer wants us to notice it first. It also reflects the subject of the photograph, as the sky is typically represented as above.

This poster uses only monochrome shades of black and white. Although bright colours are usually used in posters because they catch the eye, this poster keeps the colours simplistic so that it reflects the monochrome photography that is being displayed at the exhibition. I think the intense use of darkness that is used in this poster creates a dramatic effect, which makes it overall more attractive. I intend to mimic this effect in my own poster because I want it to be just as noticeable.

The font is thin and simplistic; it doesn’t draw attention away from the main image. The information provided is also minimal, such as the address, dates and opening times.

As part of my poster development process, I experimented with different styles of fonts. Initially I explored fonts that had an artistic design; these fonts all follow a similar calligraphy style, that makes them seem as though they were lettered with a paintbrush.

I also chose to explore some fonts that had Greek and Roman features, as their myths and legends were often the source of inspiration for Neo-Classical and Baroque art.

This also creates links with historical events which were often portrayed in artwork at this time.

Tenebrism At The Salon This design effectively links to my exhibition because it looks as though it has been printed onto the page with an old fashioned stamp, as some parts of the letters appear to be faded. I think this looks artistic and expressive, especially due to the dark colour and the bold style.

This style of font is unusual because the E has been replaced with the Greek mathematical symbol and the N similarly looks like the mathematical symbol for pi.

The O has a counter in the centre, along with the letter I, and these features work together so the font is reminiscent of Greek lettering which links to the theme of historical events. However I think this font is too illegible because some letters, such as F and A, don’t have cross bars.

This font is my favourite because it resembles the ancient style of font that would have been carved into statues, which looks not only artistic but historical too. The letters are placed separately and aren’t joined up, so there are no ligatures. This makes it clear to read and will be useful for a poster as it will catch the eyes of people as they walk past. The lines in the lettering are thin and tall, making it seem sophisticated and modern.

For my first poster design, I decided to use the image of the protagonist in The Death of Marat for my poster design because I think the morbid aspect will be interesting to people; the painting makes viewers think about questions (such as why Marat is dead, why he is in a bathtub, etc.) which will make the poster more appealing. I also liked the poster that featured a human figure, like the third poster that I analysed. Firstly I used photoshop to remove the background of the painting so that only the subject is shown.

Then I created a new layer and used the stamp tool to spread the image across

To create the dispersion in the upper part of the image, I experimented with different paintbrushes and stamping brushes until I found a pattern that I liked. Then I faded some select parts of the image using a white paintbrush on a low opacity. This created the design on the left.

With further practice, I dispersed the lower parts of the painting. I used a colour drop from the tones used in the box and bathtub to ensure that the image maintained the same colours and tones as found in the original painting by David.

I prefer the design on the right as it has much more white space, due to the heavier use of dispersion, making this design much lighter overall. I removed the bathtub and box because I wanted Marat to be the central focus of the design. The dispersion effect is also more noticeable in the second design because the image is spread both upwards and downwards. This makes the design seem more mysterious and unusual.

At first the background was white, but I used a large blending brush to add darkness so the image was more suited to tenebrism. I also made the upper right corner of the poster have a lighter background, to suggest the light source that reflects on Marat’s right side also affects the background. My poster includes elements from previous exhibition posters that I have analysed, for example changing the font to highlight key information such as the main artists included and including the gallery logo. I added social media information instead of the email address as other posters did as I felt this made it more culturally relevant. I kept the colours in the image neutral and complimentary, then used these same colours in the title which ensured the poster was not too colourfully overwhelming. However I placed some of the dispersion shapes so that they fell over the gallery information because I wanted to integrate the text with the image of Marat. Finally, I added a font with thin lettering and a modern design so the text looked clear and sophisticated.

Once I was familiar with the process, I applied this dispersion affect to my primary sourced images. This was created by adding layers to the original image, and warping the figure of the initial layer. Then I created layer masks for each layer, either in a shadowed or white form, and used a scattered square paintbrush to bring the colours forward from the lower layers to the top. I think the square brushes were effective for the image of Marat, but didn’t look smooth against the photograph. Therefore I chose not to use this design for my poster and instead explore a different method of dispersion.

Development

I used a rounded brush to create this dispersion effect, which I think is more appropriate than the square brush because it creates a softer dispersion, meaning it blends into the photograph more subtly. I chose to use the photograph of the subject standing up with his arm extended as it mimics the stance of David, in Caravaggio’s David and Goliath. The position of his body to one side also frames the poster well. I used a colour dropper for the dispersion, taking red, white and skin tones from the original photograph to ensure that the dispersion integrated with the figure more. However I only used the lighter tones so that the dispersion cloud formed a strong contrast with the darkness in the background. Therefore the poster still has tenebrism (a feature of Baroque art from which I drew my inspiration) in addition to the contrasting tones. This creates the same appealing effect seen in the photography exhibition poster. The title was smaller in previous designs of this poster (as shown above) but I chose to make it larger so that everything appeared more centred. I chose a similar font to the poster of Marat because I wanted to keep the sophisticated appearance. Finally, I added social media logos to show that the gallery was associated with these public profiles, but didn’t include their information because I thought this would be too distracting. I placed some of the dispersion shapes so that they fell over the gallery information so that the dispersion seemed to interact with the text. However, I did not blend it over the gallery and social media logos because I wanted to keep them separate. Finally, I animated my poster by converting each layer into a ‘Smart Object’ and then transforming them so that the dispersion flows away from the subject. I used opacity variations on the layers of text because I wanted them to subtly appear, rather than move around.

Move the mouse over the image on the right to find the play button.

Also uploaded on https://youtu.be/uuZHu35mbl8

My exhibition guide will be designed to reflect the colour themes used in my photography and include elements from my poster. This will make the whole project cohesive and linked. I will also draw inspiration from other exhibition leaflets.

For example, this leaflet features a bright yellow background on the first page which is continued throughout each page. The use of a bold colour makes it eye catching, yet also complements the yellow within the image of Picasso’s linocut.

The font colours are also chosen according to the colours used in the linocut.

There isn’t much text on the cover page of the leaflet as this would be too overwhelming.

The text that is featured is only the essential information, such as the dates, cost of entry and logos.

The final page advertises other upcoming events in the same gallery to ensure that visitors will return. It uses the same font style and colours to sustain the style of the leaflet.

There is additional information regarding the features of the gallery, such as the cafĂŠ and the gift shop, as well as the full address and opening times which are only briefly mentioned on the cover page.

The title “Picasso” and subtitle “linocuts from the British Museum” are repeated on the pages of the leaflet and use the same thick, bold font. This keeps the style of the guide consistent. When I visited the Lady Lever art gallery I noticed that this same title and subtitle are printed onto the walls. It also uses the exact same font, colour and positioning as on the leaflet. This links the leaflet and gallery together and I will use this in my own exhibition design.

Large images of Picasso’s linocuts are used frequently in this leaflet to give the reader an impression of the art that will be displayed.

There is some contextual information about the artist’s methods but it is kept vague; this provides enough detail to capture interest yet not so much that the reader will still learn something new at the exhibition.

Images show the area of Port Sunlight around the Lady Lever art gallery, which use bright sunlight and light colours to make the area look appealing. The photograph featuring a young child presents the gallery as a family friendly place.

The information on this page is relevant to the gallery, for example its refurbishment and funding. I don’t think this is useful information for the artwork but using a quote from the Art Director makes the gallery seem renowned.

This leaflet design is very different from the Picasso one; it features plain colours, only shades of black, white and the sandy colour of the marble sculpture. The background is also decidedly dark, which is used to contrast the bright colour of the sculpture. There is lighting above, which makes the top of the page a lighter shade of grey than the rest, but this darkens in accordance to the shape of the sculpture. I think this makes the page seem sophisticated, which must be the impression that Tate Modern wants to give. I like the idea of the contrasting background against the central image, which I may use in my own design.

The logo is small and put in the corner of the page so it is less noticeable.

The rounded shape of this sculpture contrasts with the otherwise blocked layout of the leaflet. This makes the front page interesting to view, and aesthetic.

The leaflet has a thin, modern style of font which is clear and easy to read. Its simplicity ensures that the text does not distract from the main image. I like this effect, however it is not fully sustained as the black font is too dark, which makes it difficult to read.

There are many images in this leaflet that show the artwork on display, for example this image of a sculpture by Brancusi. However this is not shown in a gallery setting, but in a cluttered room. This means that the viewers can simultaneously see the art on the gallery display as well as when it was first photographed.

The photographs are kept colourless, thus sustaining the black and white theme of the leaflet. Their structure also remains constant: a large image of the artwork that fills up an entire page, and a commentary on the left page top it.

This layout is clear and effective for showing information.

The final double page spread advertises upcoming events, similarly to the Picasso leaflet. However it is more organised in doing so; the categories of the events, such as “talks”, “study day” and “performances”, each with a subtitle. The dates of the events are also in bold because they are important information. Overall this leaflet has kept a continued sophisticated design which inspires the design for my own leaflet, however I will use more colours in order to keep it bright and appealing.

These two examples of leaflets have the same cover page design: a large image in the centre of the page, the logo in the top right corner, the title above the image with the date of the event below it. The remainder of the information is at the bottom of the page as this is less important. The background uses a bold colour, in a cool tone. This design is simple, yet the colours and images make it noticeable, therefore it is likely to encourage people to read its contents. I like this modern design and I may imitate this aspect of the leaflet, however the images do not reflect Baroque art. Therefore my own leaflet will have an image that relates to this theme.

For my own leaflet, I wanted to use the same design/motif as my poster design to make the entire exhibition link together. However I added subtle changes to the image so both the leaflet and poster have their own design. This adds individuality which makes each aspect more interesting. Initially I kept the figure of the subject but blended his face into the background to suggest that he is disappearing into the background.

However upon looking at the colour range, I found that the image took up too much space. This might make it difficult to distinguish text over the image. Therefore, for my second design, I removed several layers from the image so only the dispersion showed. This emphasised the contrast between the bright colours and black background.

But I think this loses the figure too much and makes it difficult to distinguish what the dispersion dots are.

For my third guide design, I added back the layers but used the selecting tool to cut out the figure. Then I placed another layer below this and painted it black to create the shadow effect. This design retains the dispersion effect as well as making the figure clear. I will use this design as the cover page of my leaflet because I think the shadow fading into dispersion gives as mysterious effect.

Finally, I added text and titles that were relevant to exhibition guides, such as the title, date and gallery logo. I kept the amount of text to a minimum, similarly to the Brancusi exhibition leaflet at the Tate Modern. This makes sure the design is not overwhelming to look at.

I used the same dispersion effect on the paintings throughout my guide as on the front cover. As well as creating cohesion through each page of the booklet, it makes it look more colourful and therefore more appealing to read. Additionally, it links the guide with the poster design and animation because they all have the same theme.

Each page has an individual design because I made the dispersion flow out of the most interesting part of the painting. I also used different methods for creating the effect - for example “Euryclea wakes Penelope” was dispersed using a larger, rounder brush which I later went over and softened - on “The Raft of Medusa” I used the dispersion effect as well as the clone tool to replicate the clouds at the top of the painting - in “Judith beheading Holofernes” I used the history brush tool to copy features such as Holofernes’ grasping hand and the red curtain across the pages.

The National Gallery, London I intend to research exhibitions across different art galleries to inspire the design for my own exhibition. I will look at the layout of these galleries, as well as the way they inform visitors about the artwork. Following this, I will create a design for a gallery featuring the tonal artwork I have researched.

The architecture throughout this gallery is elaborate, for example having intricate patterns on the ceilings and many layers of skirting. I think this is due to the old nature of the building, when grandeur was desirable and therefore was created to keep the gallery attractive to the public. This suits the exhibition as the paintings are similarly old, but I think it is overwhelming.

Although the walls are painted a bright red colour, the rest of the room only have basic, plain colours, such as the white ceiling and the black skirting boards. However I don’t think I will use this in my own exhibition because I think it makes the room too dark which may alter the mood of the paintings. Although in a room with a morbid theme to the paintings, using dark colours in the room would be effective.

There are information plaques scattered around the gallery to give details on the context or theme of each room (such as the one seen on the bottom right of this photo). They are always white with black text because this is very clear, and each one looks the same so they are all easily recognisable to the public. The plaques next to each painting are small enough to not distract too much from the painting, yet are still large enough to show enough information about each painting. I will use this idea because I think it makes the exhibition much easier to follow.

The walls are painted a shade of white which I think was chosen because it is so plain, which means that it will not draw focus away from the paintings. It is also practical because white can carry any other colour, therefore when the exhibition changes the walls will not need constant repainting.

The paintings are equidistant which makes the gallery look tidy and organised. They are also spaced quite far apart. I think this is a good way to display paintings as it means there is enough space around each painting for a crowd of viewers, so the gallery will not become overcrowded.

The skirting board has been painted green which complements the colours in each painting. For example, the background in the main painting is a similar shade of green.

I think placing a bench in the gallery is a good idea as it encourages visitors to sit and look at the painting. This means that people are likely to spend more time viewing a painting.

The bench is placed in front of the large painting of Henry VIII; this suggests that it is an important part of the exhibition. I will use benches in my exhibition for the same effect.

The Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam

The style of this museum is very different to the National Gallery; it feels much more modern and uses neutral complimentary colours (such as hues of light blues and yellows) as paint on the walls, where the National Gallery would use darker colours, like red. I think light colours are much better because they make the room seem bigger and more open, which is especially useful in a gallery that is often full of people. The floor is also a light coloured wood to add to this effect. I also like the large images on the wall as they are selected colours that complement the colours used on the plaques.

This makes the paintings look as attractive as they possibly can, which is the overall aim of the exhibition. However the images are not aligned with the plaques and detracts from the usual tidiness.

The bench is placed in the centre of the room so it can be used to look at paintings on either side of the room, thus maximising its usefulness. It is made from the same wood as the floor with plain black cushions, which ensures that colours are not too bright. I think lots of care has been taken to keep the colours in this gallery plain and neutral because Van Gogh is known for his bright use of colour, and they don’t want to distract from that.

The layout of the Van Gogh museum is effective for displaying artwork well; the split walls allow the light to come through and keep everywhere bright, and also stop overcrowding at doors.

The edges of the images are perfectly straight and parallel with the edge of the wall. This is very aesthetically pleasing and keeps the overall gallery looking organised and clear.

There are lights shining over this section of the wall too so this adds to the brightness around the painting. I will use this idea in my own exhibition because it keeps the painting clear to see and attractive to everyone.

The wall is painted different colours which are split around the painting.

This divide draws attention to the painting, yet does so in a subtle, sophisticated way.

The text about the painting is printed onto the walls, rather than on plaques.

This allows more things to be written about the painting as the text is not confined to a small space. This is also because the Van Gogh museum will not be changing its Van Gogh exhibition so where it would be impractical to have to paint over text and reprint it every time there is a new exhibition in other galleries, it is quite useful here.

The colour around the painting is white, which is bright and complements the bright colours that Van Gogh has used in this painting.

I created this 2D image to experiment with different room shapes and layouts for my gallery. This has an open plan design that is similar to the design of galleries at the Van Gogh Museum in Amsterdam. However I think this looks too basic, as there are not many rooms. I also dislike the empty shape in the centre of the design; this is not intended as a viewing room which means it is not using the space efficiently.

I then used 3D software to create a better design. This gallery layout is more interesting as it has a path to follow, rather than being just rooms to walk around. This makes the exhibition easier to follow and ensures the paintings are viewed in the desired order. I have used an open plan design, similarly to my previous design, as this prevents over crowding. There will be simple openings in the walls instead of doors in order to maintain the modern design.

I created a gallery using 3D software and then used Photoshop tools to determine where each painting would be displayed; they are placed in a coherent order that follows the path of my research, finally ending with Baroque art and my poster design. This will be shown on a small canvas instead of the wall to draw attention to it, and because an oversized canvas suits the artistic aesthetic.

I wanted to keep the design minimal because an elaborate gallery design would distract attention from the artwork.

Therefore my design includes simple, light colours (similar to the tones used in the Van Gogh Museum), basic doorways instead of doors and a dark floor to contrast with the light walls.

My gallery features an open – plan layout to avoid overcrowding and to keep the room light. Instead of using several rooms, I used one room with dividing walls because it gives the gallery more space.

There will be an information desk at the entrance where visitors can collect guides.

I positioned benches in the centre of the room so they can be used to look at paintings on either side of the room, thus maximising their usefulness.

They are equidistant from each other to ensure the gallery remains uncluttered and open.

Windows are placed next to the paintings to ensure they always stay in light. This is similar to the light positioning at the Van Gogh Museum, but I chose to use natural lighting instead of electric lighting because it is more sophisticated.

I positioned the paintings at equidistance apart to prevent overcrowding while visitors view each painting. It also makes the gallery look more tidy and organised.

I included large pull quotes printed on the wall because I liked the use of it at the Lady Lever Art Gallery; it creates cohesion between the artwork, gallery and exhibition guide. I placed a critical quote

by Michelet opposite Gericault’s The Raft of the Medusa so that visitors would reflect on its meaning after having viewed the painting.

I intend to create a design for the tickets that are appropriate for the theme of my exhibition.

The National Gallery logo is at the top of the ticket.

The ticket features pale, washed-out colours. This makes the font the most noticeable part of the design.

Important information such as the exhibition title, date and location are the main feature of the design. Barcodes are also included for scanning. These can be torn away from the rest of the ticket.

These tickets from the National Gallery have a plain design; they are mostly white except for the provider logo (ticketmaster).

There are no images linking to the exhibition and I think these tickets would have been improved with an image of Renaissance artwork.

My own design will feature my photography inspired by Baroque art.

The structure of the ticket is divided into three sections, with the centre featuring an image of the gallery.

This is more effective as a ticket design because the image looks attractive.

This ticket design is from the National Gallery of Canada – the left half is in English and the right half is in French to accommodate both native languages of Canada.

I think this ticket design is more interesting than the previous two because it has a vibrant lilaccoloured background. This is suitable for a neo-impressionist display as this style of art often uses similarly bright colours.

Only basic information is included- this keeps the whole ticket design minimalistic. I like this simplistic style but I think it could also be improved with an image or a barcode.

The vivid red font creates a strong contrast with the light blue background, thus drawing attention to it. This shows the title of the exhibition is considered the most vital information.

The use of an image creates cohesion with the exhibition. This gives customers a first impression of what styles of art will be displayed. The red tones of the image (in the background and lipstick) link with the red font. Similarly, the blue eyeshadow in the image is the same shade of blue as the ticket.

The font is simple, without any motifs or elaborate letters. Each letter is thick which creates dramatic titling.

The range of font styles and colours makes the ticket bright and colourful, which is more appealing to look at than black and white designs.

The gallery logo is included alongside clear lettering.

My first ticket design initially included a red logo for the National Gallery because I thought the red would complement the red tones in the dispersion. However, I think it is the wrong shade of red and instead draws attention away from the colours in the dispersion. When I replaced it with the grey logo used for the other elements of my exhibition design, I thought it looked better as the only colours showing were from my image. I used dispersion colours from my photography as the main image for the ticket to ensure this design linked with the exhibition and poster.

My second design used a painting from the exhibition – The Execution of Lady Jane Grey. I put this in the centre instead of on the right side to experiment with layouts. In both designs I included typical features of a gallery ticket, such as a gallery logo, a barcode, “admit one� text and a serial number. This suits the purpose of the ticket. Similarly to the designs I researched, I added information about the exhibition like the date, title and address. For this text, I used the same font as my poster and exhibition guide to keep my style consistent. The second design has a tear-away line on the left because I liked this feature on the Renaissance tickets.