Dining with Julius Caesar, a Journey Through Roman Diet and Meal Traditions

A mosaic from a Roman house in Pompeii shows the rich variety of food available at the time.

(Photo from fineartamerica.com)

By Alberto Lunetta / NAS Sigonella Public Affairs

Vivid descriptions of Imperial Rome lavish banquets made by satirical poets Martial and Petronius chronicle just how elaborate and sophisticated the Roman cooking tradition was. In addition to social properties of food, it was also considered to be essential for preventing illnesses.

When looking at the foods available at the time of the Romans, it is surprising to see that many ingredients that we consider essential for our diet today were absent at that time. You may ask yourself: how did they survive without pasta, tomatoes, or coffee? After studying the recipes from historic sources, scholars eventually realized that Romans made up for the lack of modern foods with a number of other food staples.

The Romans did not have tomatoes or potatoes, which became, and still are, the primary source of survival for European populations. Eggplant, chili peppers, corn, and turkey where also unknown since they arrived in Europe only after their discovery in America. Asparagus and artichokes were rare as they were mainly a privilege of the rich. There was no pasta either, and rice was imported from India only for use as a starch to bond ingredients.

Among cereals, wheat was the staple food of all Romans. It was mainly imported from Egypt, which was considered the “bread basket” of the empire. Wheat was baked into bread or boiled into a type of porridge similar to grits or cream of wheat. The ring-shaped bread molds used by the Romans are still very popular in the Mediterranean area. There were about 100 different kinds of bread, and bread was also the main food of the legionaries of the Roman Army where soldiers were required to pay up to one third of their wages for their food. They accompanied bread with cheese or beans and water or even diluted vinegar when the weather was too hot.

At the time of the Romans, the Mediterranean Sea was richer than it is now in fish stock. Anchovies, sardines, jackfish, mackerels, giltheads, red mullet, sprats, tuna, white breams, squids, lobsters, oysters, and all varieties of shellfish found a place on the tables of the Romans.

Today’s steak lovers would be disappointed to hear that Romans did not eat beef. Just like in India, cows were used to work in the fields; therefore their meat wasn’t tender enough for the sophisticated Romans’ palate.

On the other hand, pork, lamb, venison, hare, hake, chicken, ducks, geese, partridges, goats, porpoise cranes, flamingoes, thrushes, turtles, wild donkey, snails and frogs were very popular. Sheep and goat cheeses were very popular as they were also used to make food gifts.

Even foie gras, which is commonly believed to be just a French specialty, is actually a Roman invention. Historical sources say that Apicius, an eccentric rich man famous for his sauces and extravagant dishes, was the first to come up with the idea of force-feeding dried figs to geese to enlarge their livers.

Fruits that were commonly available were apples, pears, lemons (from Greece), apricots (from Armenia), cherries, plums, grapes, walnuts, almonds, and chestnuts. Dates, which were imported from northern Africa, were the only “exotic” fruits commonly available. The most widespread vegetables were broad beans, lentils, cabbages, leeks, garlic, onions, water cress, and chicory. Broad beans and cabbage were grown most extensively, and mushrooms and olives were very popular. Olive oil was commonly used for a multitude of purposes including cooking, fuel, and cosmetics (like perfumes, body oils, etc.)

The Romans did not have the variety of drinks that we have today. Water, milk, wine, beer, and herb infusions were the main beverages. Camel milk was drunk in the Asian and African provinces while horse and donkey milk was mainly used as medicine or cosmetics.

Wine, the national drink, was considered to be divine. Since it was very strong, vino was diluted with water or mixed with honey to prepare “mulsum,” a cooling aperitif that accompanied the first course at dinner. Grapes were extensively cultivated. The dregs of the grapes left after wine was made were used a food preservative.

Beer, which was invented by the ancient Egyptians, was drunk as a tonic. It was made by the alcoholic fermentation of wheat and barley but it did not contain hop, an essential ingredient of modern beer. Romans did not typically offer beer to their guests; they would provide it as a beverage for the troops stationed outside Europe.

Romans ate three times a day. A small breakfast consisted of leftovers from the previous night such as bread, cheese, olives, eggs, capers, dried fruits, or honey. Children had milk, flat cakes, or bread. Lunch also consisted of leftovers. It was eaten at thermal baths, where people would work out, socialize, and make business deals. Dinner was the main meal and they were elaborate and lengthy. Guests sat according to a prescribed order, which reflected their social status. The dining room, known as the “triclinium,” had three couches where Romans laid in a recumbent position on their left elbows and ate with their fingers.

Dinner consisted of three parts. The first course, called “gustum,” was the appetizer consisting of salads, eggs, cheeses with herbs, mushrooms, truffles, and various fruits. Next was the “mensa prima” (main course), which was a variety of meat, game, or fish. Most of those were served with sauce. One of the most popular sauces was “garum.” This popular factory-made fish condiment was made from pickled and fermented intestines of mackerel.

Just like modern Italy, dinner was a time that families spent together and an opportunity to build social and business relations. So even if the Roman diet was drastically different than that of modern day Italy, the traditions surrounding meals helped form the foundation of Italy’s food culture.