Infrastructure corridor as green energy landscape 01

01

research themes + planting toolbox

Infrastructure corridor as green energy landscape

Exploring the potential synergies between landscape experience and green energy production in the residual landscapes along the railway and highway corridor between Copenhagen – Ringsted.

Infrastructure corridor as green energy landscape Exploring the potential synergies between landscape experience and green energy production in the residual landscapes along the railway and highway corridor between Copenhagen – Ringsted.

NATALIA KOWALSKa rst277 MSc Landscape Architecture Departament of Geo-Scienes and Natural Resources 30 ECTS Supervisor : Anders Busse Nielsen Co- supervisor : Alexandra Vindfeld Hansen (SLA) September 2015 - March 2016

Acknowledgement

I would like to express my gratitude to the people , that helped me during the process: Anders Busse Nielsen (University of Copenhagen) Alexandra Vindfeld Hansen (SLA) Ernst Secher Eriksen (Hede Denmark - new energy plantations remarks) Jørgen Bo Larsen (University of Copenhagen - species selection advice) Anders Tærø Nielsen (University of Copenhagen - biomass harvest yields advice) Morten Hasle (Banedanmark - management remarks) Pieter D. Kofman ( Wood energy - energy plantations remarks) Réka Németh (University of Copenhagen- GIS advice) Signe Moos Andersen ( trees illustrations used for visual representations of concept) Poul Erik Brander my family and friends

preface

Nowadays the whole world is facing the problems of depleting crude oil resources and negative effects of climate change. We are at the verge of fossil fuel era, facing the energy transition period. Denmark has ambitious plans for diminishing the C02 emission. Country is planning the change in multiple scenarios, trying to predict probable trajectory of transformation towards green energy.

The aim of the change is to cut the dependancy on fuel providers. Therefore the new energy potentials are investigated. The sources are to be based locally , the country is to be more self-sufficient.

But transition is to affect the way our landscapes are going to look in the future. The choices that we are making now are to ifluence spatially our lands. The new form of energies like windmills or biomass plantations has specific characterisitcs that change our surroundings. We should plan them conciously.

transition the process or a period of changing from one state or condition to another ENERGY TrANSITION from black to green from monofunctional to multifunctional from centralized to decentralized from industrial to everyday from hidden to visible

4.

abstract The main objective of the thesis is to look at the potential synergies between green energy

Second booklet focuses on the site specific design. That includes site registrations ( by

production and landscape experience from landscape architect perpective.

observations and sequential analysing of the site on the bike, car and railway field trips),

The site chosen for proving the concept is 60 km long infrastructure corridor between

complex landscape analysis from VVM reports analysis, experts interviews to multiple

Copenhagen and Ringsted in Zealand, Denmark. The first fast railway line in Denmark,

scales GIS analysis and calculations.

which is currently under development and is to be completed in 2018.

Working on the method was the important step for development of the regional scale plant-

The first booklet focuses on the basic research,

started with investigation

ing strategy. Developing guidlines on how to implement energy plantings was informed by

of the three main themes : transport infrastructure, green energy and plan-

existing landscape analysis methods, like visual analysis or landscape character analysis.

ning/ policy. All of them are analyzed in the same

manner - from glob-

As the new green infrastructure is to fit into the existing context and not be planned top-

al perspective , via Danish approach to issues specific for the project area.

down, as a new type of land use, the sites were studied in detail and divided according to

The main conclusions from the research were evaluated from landscape architect perspec-

the juxtapositions of different land uses. Each of them were assesed upon landscape ex-

tive. Issues of different scales were listed and formulated in preliminary strategic aims.

perience criteria and sustainable green energy production goals. The preliminary species

The vision of the project is to create green energy infrastructure, based on unused po-

selection were made for all of them. Then the most distinguishable examples are further

tential of infrastructure margin lands (edgelands), by using them for green energy pro-

developed in the green energy scenarios, management priciples and dynamic visions.

duction of woody biomass. It is to be achieved by planning for multifunctional green

The chosen sites are to higlight the richness of available energy plantation possibilities.

infrastructure that fits into to the existing context and fulfill multiple objectives.

Finally the strategic masterplan for the Green Energy Line is presented. Its aim is to pres-

As the vision is to propose the regional scale planting strategy, second part of research

ent overview for the regional scale of the project, but also to summarize the green energy

is devoted to the theme of species selection with considerations related to basic research

potential of the line as a integrity. Basic estimations for energy production potentials

themes. The main research objective is to investigate the green energy potential of dif-

and carbon sequestration are to support the legitimacy and profitability of the studies.

ferent species and search for possible synergies between green energy production and

Landscape sequence on the other hand summarizes the diversity of proposed landscape

landscape experience. Therefore performance of species is assessed not only due to their

experiences and their relations in linear structure of transport corridor.

abilities of fuel production, but also according to their social and ecological added values.

Summarizing chapter discusses the challanges for succesful project implementation of

The objectives related to Infrastructure contexts or Planning are addressed in constraints

the project. It points out institutional, governance and sociological constraints for its

decriptions and guidlines for species selection. That part of study results in toolbox of

employment. Taking them into consideration, following implementation stages are pro-

different plantation types and supply chain proposed adjustments, which are to form the

posed. Final conclusion argues landscape architect role in innovating planning policy, by

framework for further project development

working with the methods helping to implement green energy within existing complex landscape contexts.

5.

BOOKLET

01

research themes + planting toolbox

process overview

8

SITE

00 01

BACKGROUND RESEARCH

02

INTRO

10 11

themes / scales

12

planning / policy

15

transport infrastructure

23

green energy

29

LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTure

03

role

34

AIMs

36

problem summary

38

vision

39

SPECIES SELECTION

04

overview

40

green energy

43

transport infrastructure

49

planning / policy

53

ecological aspects

57

human perception

61

planting toolbox

05

energy plantations typology

66

energy plantations supply chain

70

background research

september

BIOMASS RESEARCH

Landscape and Energy,

literature with focus

designing the transition;

on visual and recre-

Edgelands

october

november

Landscape Infrastructure Case studies by SWA

Metoder til landskabsanalyse , Stahlschmidt, P. (2001).

Denmark 2050 scenerios

ational aspects

species selection literature

TRANSPORT / infrastructure THEME PLANNING/POLICY THEME GREEN ENERGY THEME car TRIP

site exploring

tgv TRIP bicycle TRIP

gis mapping regional scale

bicycle TRIP

zoom in fitting in the context

problem summary objectives vision

design

toolbox preparing

SPECIES SELECTION thematic tables

8.

SPECIES SELECTION method

january

december

species selection literature

february

march

estimations of energy production and carbon sequestration

edgelands typology matrix

design development

DETAIled design

design implementation phases

sketches,diagramms, vision collages, plans, sections, axonometric views

developing 7 sites of distinctive character

planning stages of project operation discussion processes influencing the implementation of the project

masterplan regional strategic plan overview SPECIES SELECTION site specific

GRApHICS, TEXT edition

sequence landscape experience arrangement

9.

Motivation for research topic The preliminary research for my Master thesis has taken place in Spring 2015, during my practice at H+N+S office ( Netherlands), next to the exchange at Amsterdam Academy of Architecture. One of the founders of the H+N+S Landscape Architects– Dirk Sijmons, together with fellow-workers released the book in 2014 , titled : ,, Landscape And Energy - Designing Transition”. The office itself was involved in a few projects related to spatial implications of the energy transition. Being the part of the H+N+S for a half of year, I was preparing the biomass research, as the potential toolbox for the Dutch Energy Line project. The aim of the study was to research the potentials for green energy use in the historical defensive line, running across Netherlands. Preparing the booklet on the various biomass plantations made me realize the abundance of spatial combinations this type of land use give to us- Landscape Architects. What is more, it draw my attention to the sustainable green energy goals, which should not only focus on plantations productivity, but also, strive for social and ecological goals.

Infrastructure corridor as green energy landscape After I got back to Denmark I was motivated to further study the topic of green energy plantations and their role in the transition period. I was interested in the opportunities and challenges this kind of plantings give to landscape architecture practice. In the context of Denmark, where lands prices are high, switching from the other land use would be an unrealistic. That lead me to search for ,, leftover’’ spaces, places of unused potential.

As a result of talk with Anders Busse Nielsen and Alexandra Vindfeld Hansen I decided to focus on margin lands along infrastructure corridor of new railway connection #Fig.1 Green energy + landscape of infrastructures

– Copenhagen - Ringsted.

Infrastructure is putting the big imprint on the landscape- not only in C02 and energy footprints , but also spatially . Therefore juxtaposition of green energy production with infrastructure corridor triggers to look for new possibilities - to find the balance between

intro

00

this seemingly contrary land uses. The flexibility of green energy plantations has the potential to structure the haphazard mosaic of ever changing landscapes of infrastructure, bringing new identity of green energy production.

10.

250 km/h 10.4 billion DKK

# Fig.2 The New Line Copenhagen-Ringsted, European context.

# Fig. 3 Location : Zealand, Denmark, connecting Copenhagen via Køge with Ringsted.

Line is to be finished in 2018. It will be a part of international higspeed railway networks, playing im-

The line will pass through 9 municipalities: Copenhagen, Hvidovre, Brøndby, Vallens-

portant role in connecting Scandinavia with rest of Europe. It has also an important role in transition

bæk, Ishøj, Greve, Solrød, Køge and Ringsted. It is the first step to achieve ‘‘One hour ‘‘

from road based transport towards railway, diminishing the fossil fuel imprints.

Danish government goal to reduce the travelling times between Danish cities.

site

01

20 min

- 6 min Odense

34 min Køge Nord

Ringsted

Køge - 10 min Nykøbing F

11.

Ny Ellebjerg Station

København H

GLOBAL ISSUES Describing universal, global problem/ trend The basic reserach is structured aroud three main themes: PLANNING AND POLICY TRANSPORT INFREASTUCTURE

DANISH PERSPECTIVE

GREEN ENERGY

Exploring how Danish politicians/ planners /decision makers

All of them are researched and gradually scoped. Study starts from the global perspec-

approach the problem.

tive, narrowing down to the Danish context and finally taking into account site specific issues. In that way the complexity of the problem is reviewed on the multiple of scales.

Final step is the reflection upon the role of landscape architect in the process of designing

site related

green energy transition -starting with the global vision of the profession towards more exact tasks that should be tackled during the design process of infrastructure corridor as

scales

green energy landscape.

12.

02

What does it mean in the context of nfrastructure corridor Copenhagen – Ringsted

pla nn in

Green String Corridor

Danmark towards 2050

infrastr u c t u r e

Regional planning Finger Plan ?

rt spo an tr

Transport sector imprints

Climate change Conference

Edgelands ?

wooden biomass?

BIOMASS

green energy

gre

13.

landscape Architect & GREEN ENERGY

en e ne

r g y

landscape architect & Planning / policy

LANDSCAPE ARCHITECT & INFRASTUCTURE

g

/

po

y lic

themes

02

14.

Climate change Conference

summary

Danmark towards 2050

Global issues Regional planning Finger Plan ?

describing current issues in climte change policy, highlighting the crucial “Paris agreement� at COP21

National policy starting with the Danish green energy pioneer status in global context and discusssing the importance of the constancy of political decisions, analyzing DANMARK towards 2050, describing 4 possible future scenarios

planning/ policy

SIte specific looking for possibilities of implementation of green energy infrastructure corridor by analyzing possible adjustments in regional strategic development plans

15.

global policy

climate change & energy transition

#Fig.4

Fossil fuel era

#Fig.5

Green energy transition period

cop 21 The United Nations Climate Change Conference at the end of year 2015 has a significant role in admitting human impact on the climate change and the necessity of integrated actions against its negative implications.

The so called ‘‘Paris Agree-

ment’’ is a global consensus between 196 parties ( COP21, 2015). It is the first time in the history, that so

many stakeholders

agreed upon cutting back Green House

Gas emissions in order to avoid further temperature raises and related climate change risks. The so called ,, Intended National Determined Contributions ” help to plan the future steps in policy and planning of countries which are aiming for the GHG reductions. Long term goals for mitigation and adaptation are proposed.

COP 21 is characterized by its differentiation - which means that each country is responsible for the actions which are tackling the problem according to their capability and responsibility.

What is the position of Denmark in that agreement?

16.

of danish economy.

That kind of position requires strong decisions and there is no space for hesitation.

The Climate and Energy minister - Lars Christian Lilleholdt just before conferenece introduced changes in the Danish policy, cutting back on climate aid and lowering CO2 targets towards 2020 . That decisions did not escaped the attention of NGOs that ,, awarded’’ Danmark with ‘Fossil of the Day’ during COP 21 ( CPHpost, 2015). Right after Paris conference Ministry of Climate and Energy got back to the previous climate goals.

What is the binding statement of the Danish policy?

What are the Future Scenarios for Danmark towards 2050?

DENMARK TOWARDS 2050

green networks

4 scenarios for the future

IndividuaL VALUES

green state collective VALUES

There is more than one possible future. Beacuse of many variables future is usually described in multiple scenarios. DK2050 was developed by Danish Architecture Centre (DAC) in cooperation with Realdania and the Ministry of Culture, Ministry of Environment, Business and Growth Ministry of Climate, Energy and Building.It is based on RESEARCH BY DESIGN method, which helps us to understand how societal and political decisions will shape our future. As the report questions:

,,DK2050 relates to the possible futures and directions in which Danish cities and regions can direct themselves towards in order to organize healthy and sustainable cities. Which selections and rejections will cities and regions have to make in light of the green transition with the need to reduce CO2 emissions through to 2050? “ Danish Architecture Centre ( 2014)

green guerilla

green compromises

LIMITED interplay between policy-making & GREEN technologies

diagram of 4 scenarios - own graphic interpretation based on DK 2050 Green growth in Denmark towards 2050 -Four future scenarios Danish Architecture Centre ( 2014) 17.

danmark 2050 - 4 scenarios

pioneering role in wind energy and other green energy sectors is seen as a driving point

NAtional policy

STRONG interplay between policy-making & GREEN technologies

Denmark wants to play a leading role of the expert in the green energy transition. The

4 scenarios summarizing analysis- own graphic interpretation based on DK 2050 Green growth in Denmark towards 2050 -Four future scenarios Danish Architecture Centre ( 2014)

national policy

green compromises

green guerilla

40 %

60 %

CO2 emissions reduction

transport sector

energy sector

black

mostly black + some green

collective

idividual

black

mostly black + some green

collective

idividual

18.

green networks

green state

denmark towards 2050 - ANALYsis

80 %

100 %

The report was analyzed with the emphasis for the sectors which have the biggest influence for the development of this master thesis strategic plan : energy and transport. Depending on the future scenario which will be supported by the society and politicians we can expect different future outcomes. To summarize : GREEN COMPROMISES is the less developed green scenario, where the CO2 reduction does not exceed 40 %, transport remains

green

green

based on fossil fuels and energy production is dependant on fos-

individual

collective

sil fuel central plants.It should be seen rather as a come back to previous political order from beginning o 2000s as already right now Denmark is much more advanced in climate change policies.

GREEN GUERILLA and GREEN NETWORKS are gradually developed scenarios for energy transition towards renewables but both of them are decentralized and bottom up initiatives. GREEN STATE is the most developed scenario which strive for the total

green

green

individual

collective 19.

fossil fuel independence with emphasis on the collective solutions and policy support in the transition process.

Finger plan - GREEN adjustments ?

Finger Plan is strategy for a development of the metropolitan area of Copenhagen which was published in 1948. The whole master plan is transit oriented. Copenhagen with it s dense areas is represented by the palm. Fingers are residential and business development areas allocated by the S-train. The consistency of the development is guaranteed by interlaced green wedges, which serve as green belt to urban sprawl. Their important role is to

cancel ring 5

regional planning

ensure the equal access to recreation for Greater Copenhagen Area.

What is important ,Finger Plan, even after more than 50 years of operating, is still seen as an important part of regional planning. It is kept up to date with the most important changes in the national policy.

One of the important question marks in the plan is Ring 5 transport . It is suggested to be canceled by some of the polititians. There were few reasons which argue for deny the merit of building the new highway. First of all it is constituting the threat for the environment as it was passing through Nature of high importance like: Store Dyrehave, Kirkelte, Mølleådalen together with Værebro Å. Secondary it can be assumed that introducing new highway can be the reason of induced traffic. It is of both: commercial goods transport and personal commuters. The latter to be direct reason of urban sprawl.

How would that affect the regional planning? Is cancelling of Ring 5 a chance for enhancing or even creating new green wedges? What is the new use for the infrastructure corridor? Right now as a genral rule the green wedge are excluded from the green energy instalation like solar panels or windturbines. Should the planning be adjusted in that matter?

Are the infrastructure corridors and green wedges the potential sites for green energy

new green wedges

development?

Revision of the Finger Plan is needed once again to keep it up to date with changing national politics. Decisions are made by Minister of Environment, so protection of natural resources are placed in front of the GDP. Is there a potential for the new policies that would support new green land uses together with green energy production? # Fig.6 Finger plan – probable planning policy adjustments 20.

Ajour Februar 2013 ­ Side 22

Region Sjælland - strategic development Region Sjælland was the first region in Denmark to prepare the regional climate strategy.The main issues and aims tackled in the strategy for years 2015-2018 are: ENERGY AND RESOURCES:towards more renewable energy and better use of resources TRANSPORT: towards sustainable and commuter friendly transport and infrastructure CLIMATE ADAPTATION: for adaptation to climate change in rural, urban and coastal areas.

(Regionsjaelland.dk, 2015) Strategic development of the whole region seems crucial for the clmate resiliance. Decentralized, bottom up initiatives are important but can be significantly strengthened when implemented in the coherent strategy. Main goals of the strategy indicate the need of the improvements in the transport infrastructure sector. Is there a possibility to ‘‘ kill two birds with one stone” and combine it with the renewable energy sources? How can the ambitious goals be implemented spatially?

#Fig.7

Region Sjaelland – ambitious green goals

regional policy

13.03.2016

21. http://publikationer.regionsjaelland.dk/Ajour/AjourFebruar2013/?Page=22

2/2

22.

Transport sector imprints

Green String Corridor

summary Edgelands opportunities ?

Global issues imprints of transport measured in energy consumption and CO2 emissions; collective transport advantage over individual transport in energy transition period

DENMARK’s interNational Denmark strategic development in prioritizing collective transport over individual, looking for smart international connections

SIte specific what are the spatial imprints of transport infrastructure - haphazard mosaic of dynamic land-use changes, diconnected ecological corridors, the edgelands conditions - but is there still untapped potential?

transport infrastructure 23.

transport imprints

still growing

# Fig. 8 Final energy consumption by use (ENS, 2012)

transport Imprints

Transport is one of the uses that contributes to the highest energy consumption globally.

What is significant, the energy expenditure is still growing in contrast to the other sectors like Industry or Households ( look graph).

It

is

also

makes ous

it

the clear

cause that

improvements

of

the

and

the

quarter

transport calls

for

of

sector

the is

the

compensation

global one for

CO2 that

affected

emission. need

a

It

seri-

environment.

Our era is dominated by car and the idea of self-sufficiency and independancy it gives. To be able to achieve realistic change we need the switch our mindsets. Car is an

major

unsustainable invention from start - its efficiency is really low - the mass it carries

share

is few times higher than the person sitting inside, the losses of energy in heat emitted from combustion engine are enormous. But untill the collective transport does not support the profitable exchange we will not resign from privileges once given to us.

Therefore the significant changes in Danish approach supporting railway transport ( like new fast connection Copenhagen- Ringsted) are of big importance in our green energy transition. # Fig. 9 CO2 emissions at the final consumption of energy (ENS, 2012) 24.

INTERnational corridor

GREEN STRING CORRIDOR

The Green STRING Corridor project is joined cooperation between the Region Zealand and The Capital Region of Denmark together with international parties of Region

Skåne, Øresund Region, Schleswig- Holstein and Hamburg. It is important intiative

for transport industry, aiming to reduce CO2 emissions. The Green transport corridor has the goal to diminish the connection time and in that way reduce the energy

consumption. By promoting and optimizing rail freight as green transport mode significant fossil fuel use can be achieved. In the so called ‘‘Business as usual scenario” the emissions of CO2 can account for 4.5 CO2 mil. tonns/ year, while in ‘‘Best case scenario”, the emission is targeted to 1.4 CO2 mil. tonns/ year

xxx

towards 2030.

( Stringcorridor.org, 2014). All those improvements are of importance. We are dependant on the transport of goods, and strategic development of region is related to its physical connections. Therefore the implementation of coherent strategies and improved logistics have the biggest chance for achieving fossil fuel independancy.

The efficient use of resources and innovative solutions are to be implemented both for rail and road transport fullfilling the connection green goals.

Does efficient use of resources and implementation of innovative solutions refer to the

infrastructure or transportation modes only? What does‘‘green’’ mean spatially? Can we improve the use of infrastructure corridor related margin lands? # Fig. 10 Green String corridor - international infrastructure strategy 25.

classic no-places

dynamic change

contantly shifting

chaotic

little emphasis on amenity values

dualities urban/ rural natural/ industrial recreational/industrial urban/ natural

not exactly people have green

no attachment to

margin

land of opportunities

no definitive description

complex without significance

fringe

temporarity

edge lands

snapshot

‘‘ fossilised’’ patterns of land use

notions about the edgelands

transition landscapes

lack of identity

no-man’s land

derelict

random assemblage of...

26.

edgelands potential

never ending edglands line Infrastructure main goal is to support network for transportation, effective connection between the destinations. But it has its spatial imprints.

Landscape of infrastructure is often decribed as transition, disconnected margin land.

Its phenomenon is spotted by more and more authors. Reading the book by Michael Symmons Roberts and Paul Farley (Symmons Roberts, M., & Farley, P. ,2011) or experiencing the works of Edward Chell ( # Fig. 11), You quickly realize it is also our contemporary landscape of opportunities. Its linear connecting character has the potential to bind together long kilometers of land.

How can we design the infrastructure landscapes so they use their potential (productive, social and ecological)? How can we make them coherent and serve as a multiple connections stretch instead of dividing edge?

What role can they play in energy transition period? Can they help to build the awareness about the changing landscape in post fossil fuel era, where energy production starts to be visible instead of hidden in the backyards of our industrial sites?

There is always a great tension on the edge. Can it translate to green energy production?

#Fig.10 Edgelands photographed by Edward Chell 27.

28.

wooden biomass?

summary

BIOMASS

Global issues multimix of different types of energy instead of one source (fossil fuels),

green energy

as a global trend limiting dependancy on oil producers.

DENMARK’s POTENTIAL Out of renewable energy biggest potential for Denmark have wind and biomass energy. Biomass is a mainly imported source though - how to limit the import?

green energy

SIte specific woody biomass as potential profitable buisness case for implementation within margin lands

29.

Transition TOWARDS MULTI green eNERGY Transition from one energy source to the other is not a new phenomenon in human history. We have been shifting from fuel wood, to peat, than coal to finally get to oil and gas. What is characteristic the fuels we used were more and more efficient , our population was growing, and so did our demand for energy. Today we are living at the times of so called ‘’ oil peak’’ and we question ourselves- what is next. Limiting the use of energy in our consumer market world or stopping the developing countries from our ‘’mistakes’’ is rather hard to imagine. We talk about transition from black sources energy towards green, less harmful for the environment, but what really makes transition unprecedented in the history is the change from MONOfuel based system towards ‘’MULTIifuel based system. It is this approach that makes as less dependent on one source of energy, but also less reliant on the ruling energy suppliers. We are able to adjust our sources to the energy potentials of our country and that the strategy

global trend

Denmark is trying to implement towards 2050.

wind energy

solar energy

hydro energy

geothermal energy

bio energy biomass

biogas

biofuel

woody biomass energy crops

agricultural residues

industrial residues waste

30.

danish potentials

#Fig.11 Danish energy mix potentials

bio energy + WIND ENERGY Danish energy policy has a long lasting tradition and had been started to develop already after the first oil crisis in 1973 (Danish climate policy plan 2012). Nowadays Demark is planning the transition in multiple scenarios. Politicians, researchers, economists- professionals of different backgrounds studied most promising national energy resources for renewable energy potentials. The most probable energy mix for Denmark is the combination of windmills ( especially those situated offshore) and biomass (State of Green 2015; Green Peace 2014; The Danish Climate Policy Plan 2013). As country is planning to be fossil fuel free towards 2050, green energy will replace 100% of black energy sources.

In the transition period CHP power plants will gradually phase out coal and replace it with biomass. As it is stated in the policy plans biomass should be obtained from sustainable producers. The prices of the land in Denmark and generally in Europe are high and that results in high prices of the biomass itself . Therefore fuel is to be shipped all the way from North America . The import solution, eventhough decreasing the country CO2 emissions, still leaves much to be desired. Is there a possibility to grow biomass locally?

31.

= WOODy biomass

1000 liters of oil

14 m3 loose volume of wood chips

‘‘The amount of electricity from wind and solar power fluctuates wide-

Replacing coal with woody biomass is one of the Danish goverment strate-

ly. The combined heat and power plants (CHP plants) in Denmark are

gies to achieve C02 neutrality by 2050. According to the current policy most

a prerequisite for having power when we switch on the light, and re-

of the biomass will be imported from North America as this part of the world

placing coal and natural gas with wood pellets and wood chips is the

is supporting sustainable biomass production. (Danish Energy Association,

most inexpensive and effective way to utillise the exsisting efficient CHP

Danish District Heating Association, 2015). The question is could Danmark

plants, instead of building new capacity.’’

produce part of its biomass on its own terrain avoiding the long distance shipping? Most of Danish land is dedicated to agriculture - 60%.

Kristine van Het Erve Grunnet, Senior Advisor at the Danish Energy Association

Danmark has

the plan to double its forest cover, which means approx 20% of the country area . Can new planned afforestation areas contribute to biomass production?

‘‘Wood is usually the most favourable biomass for combustion due to

How can we adjust maintenance practices within already exsisting forests? The

its low content of ash and nitrogen. Herbaceous biomass like straw

change is already taking place.

and miscanthus have higher contents of N, S, K, Cl etc. that leads to higher emissions of NOx and particulates, increased ash, corrosion and slag deposits.’’

State of Green (2015)

32.

[ tonnes]

garden and park wastes biomass plantations remains from wood industries

2500 000

imported !

wood chips consumption

2000 000

garden and park wastes biomass plantations

open landscape and urban areas

remains from wood industries open landscape and urban areas

0

1980

forestry growing interest in woodchips

2000

current woodchips consumption

2012

forestry

2020

FUTURE woodchips POTENTIAL

2050

#Fig.12 Woodchips consumption trends

The interest in wood chips market is growing very fast. From not being in use in 1980s’

Implementing new strategies for afforestation we should have in mind the market can

the market increased to 2000 0000 tons in 2015. Towards 2020 it is expected to achieve

change once again. For example due to the Danish policy shifting towards circular econ-

the over 2500 000 tonns per year( Dansk Skovforening et al. 2013).

omy and its focus on local materials, we can once again experience the shift of interests,

According to Danmarks Statistik - Danish forestry market shifted its interest towards en-

this time towards timber. By planning for smart, flexible strategies we can make our

ergy wood production. It is representing almost half of the total wood production, com-

forest management more adjustable to the current needs.

paring to a quarter over a decade ago. We can expect that this trend is going to continue

Sustainable planting goals would not only strive for productivity, but would at the same

in the following years, during the time Denmark will aim to mitigate the GHG emissions.

time try to fulfill ecological and social objectives. Planning with a long -term goal in mind can help to adjust the future needs.

Extracting biomass from the forests can have its negative impacts on the biodiversity (especially dead wood extraction), therefore it should be conducted in sustainable way.

Is there the other way to enhance the local biomass production ? Agricultural use of it is more profitable and biomass plantations themselves consume a lot of space. How we find the way to overcome those obstacles? Is use of margin lands - like the left-over spaces of infrastructure corridors a chance to enhance the energy production?

33.

?

ructure rast inf

ning/ po lic plan y

rt

34.

n energy g r ee

ROLE o sp

03

landscape architect

landscape tr an

investigating LANDSCAPE ARCHITECT’S ROLE IN ENERGY TRANSITION One of the starting points for the thesis topic was the question of spatial implications of energy transition, meaning : how actually our willingness to switch towards green energy can influence the landscape we live in?

With the thought: ‘‘If everything exsist within the landscape then landscape architects must learn to design everything’’ (Benyus J. 2008), I started to investigate topics which are not traditionally within the scope of landscape architecture, but having a great influence on how we shape our landscape.

Infrastructure / Transport theme research stressed the need for the improvement within

summary

our current infrastructures. Need for the advancement is obviously pointed to that sector because of its significant CO2 imprint. But no less importantly the spatial footprint of mobility infrastructures should be reconsidered. Consequently the edgelands as the left-over

LANDSCAPE ARCHITECT

spaces can be used more efficiently and regain its lost identity.

Translating issues to the strategic goals

Theme of Policy and planning higlighted the need for the profession conciouss in-

Climate Resiliance Policy +

volvement in the current policy changes which directly affect the way we plan. We

Transport Infrastructure imprints +

observe right now a boom for climate adaptation projects. But what is going to be

Green Energy Multiplicity

next? How we can make our system resilient - meaning how to balance the ener-

-> Spatial implications of Energy Transition

gy use and get back to the lower CO2 emissions? Zealand is the first to implement regional strategy but how does it affect region spatially? How the cancelling of the Ring 5

Green State of Denmark + Green String Corridor

can affect Finger plan ? There is a role for landscape architects to suggest to politicians

+ Danish Green Energy Potentials

how green transition strategies can be implemented into exsisting landscapes. We

-> National Spatial Planning for Energy transition

should be able to present a toolbox for succesful Strategisk energiplanlægning (SEP).

Finally

Green Energy Regional Development Plan +

how

much landscape architects actually now about green energy ? Bio-

mass, windmills, solar panels- all of them are much more visible than coal mines or

Edgelands unused potential + woody biomass ad-

oil

vantages -> Method for implementation of Green

excavation hidden somewhere in industrial sites or being outside our countries.

If landscape architects are to advice the way we can implement new spatial forms of en-

Energy production along infrastructure corridor.

ergy production into the landscapes we should get to know them. We should conciously decide how do they fit in exsisting context and not merely drop down on the site as a new type of land use.

35.

landscape architect

03 aims

?

energy

infrastructure

infrastructure

transition

edgelands

connects and at

what does it mean

lacking identity

the same time-

spatially

and function

causes disconnection

BIO

building

building method for

enhancinng connectivity of

professional and public

green energy imple-

green infrastructures

awareness

mentation in landscape

with green energy corridor

scale strategies

management practices

no human scale within infrastructure corridors

creating professional

testing sites

emphasis on

basis for new policies

for efficient green energy

human percpetion

innovations 37.

issues

ments and new

inefficient edgelands

aims

policy need adjust-

problem summary

03

transport corridor vs landscape Transport infrastructure in the landscape acts like disconnecting, single- purpose corridor, striking to maximize its capacity, only by improving its performance and getting rid of any possible conflicts on the way. The adjacent areas are lacking identity, have no clear function. Disturbed by infrastructure corridor are acting like separated edgelands. The ecocorridors are suffering from separation. There is no human scale. The maintenance of the areas is limited to the necessary minimum.

disconnecting infrastructure, unused edgelands potential

?

?

?

38.

?

?

vision

03

green energy corridor enhancing landscape The new vision for infrastructure corridor is looking for synergies of green energy production and landscape experiencing. ‘‘Green Energy Line” aim is to use the potential of disconnected edgelands by proposing combined functions landscapes, causing interaction rather than marginalization.

Introducing green energy plantations along corridor has potential to add identity to the site and at the same time have capacity to adjust to exsisting context. Their dynamic character is of great value, for always changing land use mosaic along

transport corridor.

Development of the site specific guidline on how to implement them in existing landscape would be needed.

using potential OF EDGELANDS for multiple functioN landscapes - STRATEGY FOR GREEN ENERGY PLANTATION IMPLEMENTATION

39.

planting strategy

After preliminary research of background themes, summarizing the problem and outlining the vision, further investigation of energy plantations using the potential of edgelands became the basic research topic. In order to prepare a toolbox for further site specific design, different species needed to be examined upon main objectives of planting strategy.

The main objective was to choose the species that create the oportunity to work with green energy topic. That was considered on different levels, with sustainable goals in mind. The length of rotation time with influences on both productive and ecological goals, fuel properties influencing mainly productivity and ability to build the public awareness about the various energy plantations focusing on sociological goals were distinguished.

Next various constratints resulting from infrastructure corridor specifics were studied.

The themes of various soil and climate conditions were compared. Accessibility aspect and related harvest restrictions played important role in considerations. They are essential for the project to become feasible and cost-effective. Plantations need to be adapted to various contexts.

As secondary objective planning perspective was taken into consideration. As the future may be developed in multiple scenarios minimum and maximum actions were considered to give the image on how our political decisions can influence the vision. The minimum scenario strive for adapting to the occuring negative impacts, whereas the maximum scenario join adaptation and mitigation strategies in one coherent system of interdependant actions.

species selection criteria

04

40.

Last but not least amenity values were considered. Human percepton of the landscape was important evaluation point. Ecological goals can not be omitted for sustainable green energy production. Therefore wildlife considerations were playing important role as well.

MAIN OBJECTIVE :

green energy

secondary OBJECTIVES :

constraintS :

soil /climate

rotation length

of

infrastructure safety

short rotation systems - high biomass yields

windy conditions

long rotation systems - quality fuel

dry slopes

drought tolerant species

wet conditions

less frequent operations / adapted harvesters

fuel properties high wood density

accessibility* elongated shape

low moisture content fragmentary plots

steep slopes awareness traditional practices of fuel wood production: pollarding coppicing

* supply chain adjustments

wind tolerant species durable wood

easy harvest avoid harvest sesoning -limited use of Conifers

planning/ policy greening amenity values phytoadaptation responding to already occuring negative impacts of infrastructure corridor - pollution - water management - temperatures phytomitigation

collective management of adjacent land uses

preventing the negative environmental impacts - reducing c02 emissions - carbon sequestration

less frequent harvest operations - longer rotation species

phytoresiliance

participation projects 41.

other valuES :

joining adaptation and mitigation mechanisms in integrated multifunctionalsystem of green infrastructure

ecological values biodiverse stands - mainly native species - diverse age structure - diverse species, - diverse maintenance, - diverse densities supporting ecocorridors

HUMAN values human scale focus diverse visual experiences supporting recreation

42.

summary Green energy production is the main objective of proposed planting strategy. The species selection is based on few criterias: ROTATION LENGTH decribing the harvest period, having the influence on the management practices and visual appereance of the stand; FUEL PROPERTIES focusing on the moisture content and wood densities of different species, helping to distinguish the high and poor quality fuel PUBLIC AWARNESS describes the species selection based on the cultural tradition of fuel wood production, which has the potential for urban / recreational areas, for involvment in participation projects

green energy

species selection criteria 43.

rotation length

fuel properties

The frequency of planting harvest will surely have direct influence on stand pro-

The energy output of fuelwood is the result of multiple factors like moisture con-

ducivity and yield rates. Silviculture techniques decribe the optimal rotation ages

tent or bulk density, ash content etc depending significantly on tree species. The

based on MAI (Maximized Annual Increment) to achieve the best yield output.

choice of species can affect the way we should store the wood ( eg. evergreens need

At the same time the focus should be put on sociological and ecological aspects to

to be stored over winter-otherwise moisture content is really high) . Moist species

achieve sustainable production.The diverse rotation lengths of proposed planta-

decrease the efficiency of burning especially in decentralized ( smaller boilers)

tions can add to the ecological values of the sites by introducing various age classes

power plants. Therefore there are different requirements for the fuel we deliver

and densities adjusted to distinctive landscape characters. The various manage-

to the recepient. Centralized power plants are efficient in burning fuel at even

ment technics will also support distinctive visual characters of the stands, thanks

45% moisture content, whereas decentralized need fuel of 30 %moisture content.

to different densities, heights, openness/ closeness rates.

We should consider if the site enable us to season the wood for some

time

or

it

is

limited

beacuse

of

space

/

access

available.

There are species like Salix, Populus which are considered as poor quality fuel productive

burning fast, living lots of soot, may be problematic especially in smaller power plants. All that conditions should be adjusted to the spatial planning of plantation. Limited use of those species does not mean we should totally resign from

green energy

using them- they can fulfill other objectives in favourablble site conditions. Eg social

Salix can be planted close to centralized power plants, conifers only on the sites

ecological

enabling seasoning of the wood, whereas hardwoods for quality fuel - next to decentralized plants.

awareness

Some of the plantation can be used as projects building public awarness about green energy poduction and tell story of

our cultural

heritage.

They also have the capacity to engage the community into landscape management.

various maintenance practices

limited use of Conifers 44.

limited use of Populus, Salix trees by Signe Moos, Brander,P.E., (2010)

1

hedge pruning

3

5

7

Short rotation coppice

10

15

30

Tradidional coppice

20

30

60

stand Thinnings/ clear cuts

Amelanchier sp.

Populus sp.

Corylus avellana Acer campestre

Alnus glutinosa

Alnus glutinosa

Carpinus betulus

Acer campestre

Salix sp.

Prunus spinosa

Crataegus sp.

Acer psudoplatanus

Betula pendula

Fagus sylvatica

Aronia sp.

Salix sp.

Malus sylvestris

Carpinus betulus

Larix x hybrida

Quercus robur

Berberis sp.

Sambucus nigra

Prunus avium

Populus MRC

Castanea sativa

Carpinus betulus

Sorbus aucuparia

Fagus sylvatica

Cornus sanguinea

Sorbus intermedia

Fraxinus excelsior Quercus sp.

Cotoneaster lucidus Ligustrum vulgare Fagus sylvatica Prunus sp.

Pollarding

100

Tilia sp.

Ulmus glabra

rotation length Rotation length plays a really important role in the process of designing the energy plantation. It will influence the maintenance techniques from the

Acer psudoplatanus

machines that are to be used, the frequency of infrastructure interruptions,

Carpinus betulus

the harvested wood storage need. What is also important it will influence

Fagus sylvatica

the physical appereance of the plantations. The stand structure can have

Quercus sp.

more open or closed character. It can also look differently after the har-

Robinia pseudoacacia

vest. Stands which are coppice, pollared or thinned can be still present after

Tilia sp.

fuel collection. SRC and clear cut plantations will be gone if not replanted after delineated time span. Different plantings will have different densities, hights, brightness,color.

Evans, J. (1984) Harmer, R., & Howe, J. (2003) Larsen J.B., Rasmussen K.R. , Callesen I. (xxxx) TÌrø Nielsen, A. (2016) 45.

fuel properties-moisture content & bulk density 3, 4 800

Wood pellets 19.0

MOIsture content 1 MC is the moisture content % of total weight Wood of conifers , freshly felled

55 - 60 %

Wood of conifers with one summer of seasoning

40 - 50 %

Wood of hardwood broadleaves , freshly felled

45 - 50%

wo

od

(N

ET

CV )

Ash , freshly felled

hardw o

od chip s ( Ener

gy den

Energy by weight and volume

softwo

od chip s(E

Energy figures will vary greatly depanding on the moisture content of the wood. Softwoods ( conifers) with moisture content even around 55-60 % would need seasoning and still, because of the wood density, would be less energy efficient. At 30 % moisture they will deliver 10-11 GJ/t whereas hardwoods at 30% moisture content can deliver around 15 GJ/t. That makes hardwood interesting buisness case for edgelands to produce better quality fuel.

1. Biomass Energy Centre (2015)

2.Holddigvarm.dk, (2015 )

3. Kofman, P. D. (2006)

4. Serup, H., Kofman, P. D. et al., ( 2005)

5. Skovforeningen, (1994 ).

nergy

sity)

density )

conifers mix

broadleaves mix

0

Populus / Picea

Bark 18.0

100

Tilia

Forest chips 19.2

Pinus sylvestris

200 Pure wood 19.5

Carpinus betutuls

300

depending on the fuel type

Salix

400

dry matter calorific value [ GJ / odt]

Alnus

500

Acer sp.

the same calorific value of ca 19 GJ/odt [odt = oven dry tonne]

600

Betula pendula

cies (Kofman,2006). Oven dry wood of any specie would have almost

Ulmus laevis

level of dust and fungal spores in the fuel, and ash content of tree spe-

700

Fraxinus excelsior

depends mainly on the factors like moisture content, bulk density,

4

[ kg dry matter / m3 ]

Fagus sylvatica / Quercus robur

energy content of wood

wood density 2 ,

Fagus sylvatica

different tree species and wood fuel characteristics Botanical Name

Common Name

Fuel wood characteristics

Burning speed Fuel wood grade

Beech

properly seasoned. A little worse fuelwood than Oak.

good

Grade: 3

Grade: 4

Grade: 3

Fraxinus

Ash

One of the best woods for fuel; has a low water content [50%] and easy to handle with axe. It can be burnt even good green but would be best after seasoning. Burns more slowly and evenly.

Ilex

Holly

It can be burnt even green. A good firewood

Juglans

Walnut

A low quality fuelwood

Larix Botanical Name

LarchCommon Name

A low quality fuelwood. It have to be well seasoned.

Fuel wood characteristics While burnt it spits and cuase oily soot in chimney.

Acer campestre Malus Acer platanoides

Field Maple Apple Norway Maple

Burns wellwood.

- goodItashave fuelwood Good fuel to be well seasoned. Burns with good good nice smell with spitting. difficult to split Burns well and - good asno fuelwood; good

Grade: 2 Grade: 3 Grade: 3

Burns well - good as fuelwood A low quality fuelwood A usable fuelwood A low quality fuelwood. It have to be well seasoned.

While burnt itfuelwood spits and cause oily soot in chimney.

A low quality

fast fast fast

Grade: 23 Grade: Grade: 2-3

fast

Grade: 1 Grade: 2

slow

Grade: 2 Burning speed Grade: Fuel wood fast 1 grade

Acer campestre

Field Maple

Burns well - good as fuelwood

good

Grade: 2

Acer platanoides

Norway Maple

Burns well - good as fuelwood; difficult to split

good

Grade: 3

Acer pseudoplatanus

Sycamore Maple

Burns well - good as fuelwood

fast

Grade: 3

Acer saccharinum

Silver maple

A usable fuelwood

fast

Grade: 2-3

Acer Piceapseudoplatanus Acer saccharinum

Sycamore Spruce Maple Silver maple

Aesculus hippocastanum

Horse Chestnut

A low quality fuelwood

Grade: 2

Pinus Aesculus hippocastanum

Pine Horse Chestnut

Alnus glutinosa

Alder

A low quality fuelwood

Grade: 1

Platanus Alnus glutinosa

Plane Alder

usable fuelwood A low quality fuelwood

good fast

Grade: 31

Populus

Poplar

Grade: 1

Birch

fast

Grade: 3-4

Betula Prunuspendula

Birch Cherry

fast slow

Grade: 2-3 3-4 Grade:

Carpinus betulus

Hornbeam

Burns well - good as fuelwood

good

Grade: 3

Pyrus Carpinus betulus

Pear Hornbeam

Excellent as wood fuel, can burn even unseasoned.

A low quality fuelwood However, it burns fast so it isBurns recommended to mixand it It have to be well seasoned. with nice smell with which is burning slower like Quercus or with fuelwood no spitting.

Ulmus.

It have to be well seasoned. Burns with nice smell and

fast

Betula pendula

Excellent as wood fuel, can burn even unseasoned.

However, it burns fast so it is recommended to mix it with fuelwood which is burning slower like Quercus or Ulmus.

good good

Grade: 3 Grade: 3

Castanea sativa

Sweet Chestnut

Wood can be burned after seasoning but spits excessively during the whole process. Only woodburning stoves with efficient door catch

fast

Grade: 1-2

Quercus sativa Castanea

Oak Chestnut Sweet

Wood burned but spitsseasoning, One ofcan thebe best woodafter fuel. seasoning After appropriate good fast excessively duringlasting the whole Only woodit provides good, heat.process.

Burns rather slowly. burning stoves with efficient door catch

Grade: 41-2

Cedrus

Cedar

Good as fuelwood, burns well with a nice smell. Gives off a good, lasting heat. Does not spit too much.

fast

Grade: 2

Robinia Cedrus

Robinia Cedar

Weel burning wood,burns burning good Good as fuelwood, wellslowly with aand niceproviding smell. Gives fast heat.

Produces acrid andDoes dense off a good, lasting heat. notsmoke. spit too much.

Grade: Grade: 2-3 2

Corylus avellana

Hazel

Excellent as as wood fuel. Burns fast, does not spit.

good

Grade: 4

Salix avellana Corylus

Willow Hazel

Has a high water content- burns poorly even when Excellent seasoned.as as wood fuel. Burns fast, does not spit.

fast good

Grade: Grade: 24

Crataegus

Hawthorn

Burns well - good as fuelwood, traditional fuelwood; burns slowly and produces really little smoke

good

Grade: 3-4

Sorbus aucuparia Crataegus Syringa vulgaris

Rowan Hawthorn Lilac

Burns well - good as fuelwood Burns well - good as fuelwood, traditional fuelwood; burns slowly produces really little smoke branches canand be used as a kindle; wood burns well

slow good fast

Grade: 3 Grade: 3-4

Fagus sylvatica

Beech

Has high water content [90%]- burns well only when properly seasoned. A little worse fuelwood than Oak.

good

Grade: 3

Taxus sylvatica Fagus

Yew Beech

Has high water content [90%]- burns well only when A usable fuelwood properly seasoned. A little worse fuelwood than Oak.

slow good

Grade: 3 Grade: 2-3

Tilia

Lime

slow

Grade: 2

Fraxinus

Ash

One of the best woods for fuel; has a low water content [50%] and easy to handle with axe. It can be burnt even good green but would be best after seasoning. Burns more slowly and evenly.

Grade: 4

Fraxinus

Ash

good

Grade: 4

Ilex

Holly

It can be burnt even green. A good firewood

Grade: 3

Juglans

Walnut

A low quality fuelwood

Grade: 2

Ilex Ulmus Juglans

Holly Elm Walnut

slow good

Grade: 2-3 3 Grade: Grade: 2

Larix

Larch

A low quality fuelwood. It have to be well seasoned.

While burnt it spits and cuase oily soot in chimney.

Grade: 1

Larix

Larch

fast

Grade: 1

fast

slow

fast

Burns well - good as fuelwood with no spitting.

A low quality fuelwood One of the best woods for fuel; has a low water content [50%] easyfuelwood to handlebut with axe.

It can be content burnt even Can beand a good has high water [ green would that be best after seasoning. more 140% -but meaning there is more water Burns than wood slowly itself]. and Haveevenly. to be seasoned properly. It is recommended to burn it with other fuelwood that It can be burnt green.

A gooditfirewood burns faster likeeven Betula.

However provides good, long lasting heat. Itfuelwood burns really slowly. Because of Dutch Elm A low quality Disease it is a significant supply of small dead Ulmus A low quality havelogs to be seasoned. trees, small infuelwood. diameter.ItLarge ofwell Ulmuscan be While burnt it spitswith andaxe. cuase oily soot in chimney. difficult to handle

Malus

Apple

Good fuel wood. It have to be well seasoned. Burns with good nice smell and with no spitting.

Grade: 3

Malus

Apple

Spruce

A low quality fuelwood

fast

Grade: 2

Grade: Picea

Spruce

A low quality fuelwood

fast

Grade: 2

Pinus Grade: 1 = Poor

Pine

A low quality fuelwood. It have to be well seasoned.

While burnt it spits and cause oily soot in chimney.

1 = Poor Grade: 2 = Low

Good fuel wood. It have to be well seasoned. Burns with good nice smell and with no spitting.

Grade: 3

FUELWOOD GRADES: Picea

fast

Grade: 1

Pinus Grade:

Pine

A low quality fuelwood. It have to be well seasoned.

While burnt it spits and cause oily soot in chimney.

fast

Grade: 1

Platanus2 = Low Grade:

Plane

A usable fuelwood

good

Grade: 3

3 = Good Grade: 4 = High.

Platanus

Plane

A usable fuelwood

good

Grade: 3

Populus Grade: 3 = Good

Poplar

A low quality fuelwood

fast

Grade: 1

Populus

Poplar

A low quality fuelwood

fast

Grade: 1

Prunus Grade: 4 = High

Cherry

slow

Grade: 2-3

Pyrus

Pear

good

Grade: 3

good

Grade: 4

It have to be well seasoned. Burns with nice smell and with no spitting.

It have to be well seasoned. Burns with nice smell and with no spitting.

slow

Grade: 2-3

good

Grade: 3

One of the best wood fuel. After appropriate seasoning, Quercus Oak good provides good, lasting heat.

BurnsWood rather energy slowly. COFORD ( 2006 ) Sources: Holddigvarm.dk, (2015 ) Skovforeningenit(1994 ) Stovesonline (2015), Robinia

Robinia

Weel burning wood, burning slowly and providing good heat. Produces acrid and dense smoke.

Grade: 4

Grade: 2-3

It have to be well seasoned. Burns with nice smell and Prunus Cherry with no spitting.

It have to be well seasoned. Burns with nice smell and http://www.skovforeningen.dk/site/traearternes_egenskaber/ Pyrus Pear with no spitting.

47.

http://www.holddigvarm.dk/braendetyper.cshtml One of the best wood fuel. After appropriate seasoning, http://www.stovesonline.co.uk/woodburning_chart.html Quercus Oak it provides good, lasting heat. Burns rather slowly. http://www.trae.dk/artikel/traearternes-egenskaber-som-braende/ Robinia

Robinia

Weel burning wood, burning slowly and providing good heat. Produces acrid and dense smoke.

Grade: 2-3

48.

summary

This section focus site specific constraints of the infrastructure corridor locations. It discusses : specific windy microclimate listing species that are wind resistant the soil problematics focusing on the diverse root systems implications, species requirements concerning moisture of the soil, shortly noticing the problem of aeration.

The other constraints related to the infrastructure corridor placement are tackled in the supply chain adjustments, at the end of the booklet 01.

transport infrastructure species selection criteria 49.

infrastructure corridor constraints

root systems Picea abies

Abies alba

The most important for the trees to re-

very shallow; unstable

deep and firm

sist the wind stress is the balance be-

The infrastructure areas is characterized by specific harsh microclimate -

do not tolerate drought;

heart root system

tween the tree sizes and underground

long highway and railway stretches, located

suspectible to windthrows

WIND RESISTANCE

just next to dynamic mobiliThat

anchoring. Therefore the adjustments

makes it un-

of the trees species to the site specif-

favourable for some tree species, which are suspectible to wind exposure.

ic conditions is of big importance to

Species selection should favour wind resistant species. Conifers like Picea abies

support a healthy root system growth.

under the pressure of harsh aeration, moisture conditions develop shallow root

Well developed

systems and that make them susceptible to windthrow- especially in monocultures.

susceptibility to windthrows. Condi-

Secondary trees with more fragile wood stracture - like for example Populus

tions of soil compaction , its areation,

should not be used, especially in the immediate vicinity of highways or railways.

fertility and moisture is to guide the

Poplars which were so widely planted in 1960s right now constitute a serious

best matches for the sites. Deep root

problem to infrastructure managers.Easily cracking branches are not only risky

systems may help to stabilize the

for human, but also cause damages to infrastructure , resulting in damages wor-

slopes whereas more shallow ones can

thy millions DKK yearly.

help to prevent erosion .

roots decrease the

Stand structure may be of great support for wind resistance. Multilayered stands- with not only canopy but also well developed understory can slow down air velocities. It is important to remeber that at the same time plantings should not be totally unpermeable, as it cause even more severe turbulances ( Olesen, F. , 1979).

SLOPES stabilization Another difficulty is location of the areas on the steep slopes- that would directly affect the species growth.

Fagus

Carpinus

Alnus

Heart root system -deep and very

Heart root system - deep

Heart root system very deep - up to 4m

large (on sandy soils its diameter

and well developed, well

strong, producing numerous suckers.

can even exceed twice the diame-

preserves soil

binding atmospheric nitrogen-

ter of the crown projection!), Tree resistant to strong winds

The related site conditions can be extremely different.Plantings situated on the slope have to be able to adjust to low moisture of soil - they need to tolerate droughts.

At the same time plantations at

the toe of the slope may need to be able to endure stagnating water.

Stabilization of the soil to avoid earth sliding is of importance. Roots that penetrate the slopes deeply will stabilize the soil

50.

improves the quality of the soil.

Root systems by Kostler, J. N., Bruckner, E., & Bibelrichther, H. (1968)

infrastructure

ty strings are exposed to increased wind turbulances.

soil conditions

wind tolerance wet Botanical Name Abies sitchensis Acer campestre Acer platanoides Acer psudoplatanus Alnus glutionosa Betula pendula Carpinus betulus Corylus avellana Crataegus monogyna

Malus sylvestris Larix x hybrida Picea abies Populus tremula Prunus avium Quercus robur Salix viminalis Sorbus aucuparia

Brander, P.E., (2010) Larsen J.B., Rasmussen K.R. , Callesen I. (xxxx)

Fagus sylvatica

Common Name

Role in the stand

Acer campestre

Field Maple

stock tree

Acer platanoides

Norway Maple

stock tree

Acer pseudoplatanus

Sycamore Maple

stock tree

Alnus glutinosa

Alder

stock tree

Amelanchier lamarckii

Shadbush

edge bush

Amelanchier spicata

Dwarf shadbus

edge bush

Aronia melanocarpa

Chokeberry

edge bush

Betula pendula

Birch

nurse tree

Carpinus betulus

Hornbeam

stock tree /undergrowth

Cornus sanguinea

Common dogwood

edge bush

Corylus avellana

Hazel

coppice stand

Crataegus monogyna

Hawthorn

edge bush

Fagus sylvatica

Beech

stock tree

Malus sylvestris

Sargent crabapple

edge tree / orchard planting

Picea glauca

White spruce

stock tree

Picea sitchensis

Sitka spruce

stock tree

Pinus mugo

Mountain pine

slope bush

Pinus sylvestris

Scots pine

stock tree

Populus trichocarpa

Poplar

nurse tree /biomass plantation

Prunus avium

Wild Cherry

nurse tree/ stock tree

Prunus cerasifera

Cherry plum

edge tree

Prunus spinosa

Blackthorn

edge bush

Pyrus comunis

European Pear

edge tree / orchard planting

Quercus robur

English Oak

stock tree

Ribes alpinum

Mountain currant

undergrowth bush

Rosa rubiginosa

Rubiginosa rose

edge bush

Salix cinerea

Grey willow

edge bush/ tree

Sorbus intermedia

Swedish whitebeam

Sorbus mougeotii

Vosges whitebeam

edge tree

Syringa vulgaris

Lilac

edge bush

Ulmus glabra

Elm

undergrowth tree

51.

very good

good

edge tree

partial

Arrestrup Planteskole ( 2015), Brander, P.E., (2010) , Olesen Frode (1985)

dry

52.

summary Planting strategies are discussed in the perspective of planning and policy advancement. Depending on the future scenerio plantings can be more or less advanced in the ecosystem services they provide.

In the least developed scenario role of the planting will be limited to Greening , which is envisioned as something that is nice to have , amenity.

More advanced scenerios planting strategies will strive for adaptation to occuring problematics ( PHYTOADAPTATION; phyto = latin for plant) and mitigation, where they will aim to prevent the negative impacts (PHYTOMITIGATION).

The most developed scenario will work with PHYTORESILIANCE , which will aim multiple ecosystem services for both adaptation and mitigation to the oc-

planning/policy

curing problems. In that sense planting would change its meaning from mere amenity to necessity.

species selection criteria 53.

‘‘greening’’

phytoadaptation

phytomitigation

phytoresiliance

short term goal

long term goals

locally

on the system scale

planning/ policy

co2

co2

ornamental planting

specialized barierrs

CARBON CONTROL plantings

green infrastructure

visual greening of the site,

plantings responding to specific prob-

plantings helping to prevent

planting looking for synergies for

planting with limited

lems of the site helping to manage

the future negative impacts acting as car-

adaptation and mitigation purpos-

landscape services

rainwater, pollution etc.

bon sinks or producing green energy

es creating interrelated systems

54.

trees by Signe Moos, Brander,P.E., (2010)

advancement of planting strategies in different Danish 2050 scenarios The advancement of implemented planting strategies would be dependant on the political Agenda. The problem could lay in the so called ,,Path dependancy” where decisions made by planners are made primarily based on the already tested, historical practices. If Denmark wishes to continue green growth development the focus on sustainable green energy sources should be implemented in the spatial planning policies. How different future Danish 2050 scenerios may influence the advancement of infrastructure corridors planting strategies?

Own analysis based on scientific papers: Matthews, T.et Al (2015) ,Danish Architecture Centre DK2050 ( 2014) Demuzere, M. et Al. (2014), Gill, S. E. (2007), Haggett, C. (2009)

1

+

1

=

11 phytoresiliance

phytomitigation planting strategies which are aimed

phytoadaptation ‘‘greening’’ ornamental decoration of landscapes, with visual amenities as a main goal

to prevent further negative GHG imprints: like actions to reduce CO2

planting strategies to respond to

planting strategies based on the hollistic system approach, joining adaptation and mitigation mechanisms to create comprehensive green infrastructure

emissions and increase carbon se-

the negative results of the human

questration within plant structures

activities and GHG imprints like pollution and climate change related events eg.:extreme water events, urban heat island etc.

now

GREEN COMPROMISES

GREEN GUERILLA

FUTURE ?

GREEN NETWORKS 55.

GREEN STATE

56.

summary Development of planting strategy at regional scale requires careful observation and analysis of the site and adjacent nature areas, in order to enhance existing ecological structure,rather than constituting a threat to it.

The basic criteria was set up and include among others: - adjustments of species to the habitats - use fo native species - diversity of stand age structure - limited use of species affected by pests - limited use of exotics species

ecological values

Considerations about Energy Plantations influence on biodiversity was studied.

The basic guidlines for energy plantations implementation were listed.

Native species selection was supproted with Environment Ministry Lists.

species selection criteria 57.

ecological aspects

> connect new green infrastructure to

adjust specie to exsisting habitat; soil

strive for differences in the age

prioritize species that need less often

the exsisting green structures

conditions, sun exposure,

structure, stand structure,

human intervention in areas

windy conditions

species diversity

use mainly native species

limit use of invasive species

limit use of species affected by pests

limit use of introduced species in

( eg. Fagus, Quercus, Carpinus,

( eg. Acer pseudoplatanus, Ailanthus

and diseases ( eg. Fraxinus ,

natural area ( eg. Abies procera,

Sorbus, Crataegus Prunus avium)

altissima, Prunus serotina)

Aesculus, Ulmus)

Abies grandis, Picea sitchensis )

58.

trees by Signe Moos, Brander,P.E., (2010)

tool for native species selection

ENERGY PLANTATION AND BIOdiversity

For sustainable energy production the balance between ecological, productive and sociological aspects should be maintained.

Most of the modern biomass plantations, are simillar in principles to the intensive form of agriculture. They strive for maximum energy productivity, introducing vast monocultures of single species like Salix, Miscanthus or Populus. With help of fertilizers they are able to achieve up to 20 odt/ ha. At the same time they are like other monocultures - prone to pests and diseases, easy target of wind throws.

The basis for the research in the matter of ecological aspect of energy plantations was set up by the Nordic Council of Ministers publication titled:Increased biomass harvesting for bioenergy: effects on biodiversity, landscape amenities and cultural heritage values ( Framstad, E., et al.2009). To summarize I list here some of the most important guidlines to increase biodiversity : - limit the nutrient fertalization, - avoid very big sizes of the new plantations, - avoid planting in protected areas, - adjust plantings to landscape biotope, habitat, character - use diverse maintenance rotations, diversify harvest years, - harvest when the soil is frozen, - use native species, especially in the edge zones - connect new plantation to already existing green structures - plant few different varieties and ideally of different genders in the same energy plantation One of the important conclusion of the text is also the successional change that new energy plantation introduces to the landscapes. The change unused, marigin lands next to the infrastructure corridor can have positive and negative impacts on the diversity - all depand on the study of exsisting habitats. It is important to adjust species selection to the character of the landscape ( open /close, sunny/shady, dry/wet, early/ late successional state) so it enhance the ecological values of the site.

#Fig.13 Native species selection tool ( Miljøministeriet Naturstyrelsen, 2015) 59.

60.

summary This chapter is to anlyse the factors influencing human perception.

Starting with: STANd perception at different speeds from fast railway, car, bike and walking speed explorations Then discussing the other aspects of LANDSCAPE EXPEIENCE: - scale - 3 d ( surface / wall/ roof) - color

human perception

signalizing the others- that are beyond the scope of this investigation.

species selection criteria 61.

infrastructure landscape : experience at different speeds

RAILWAY 250 km/h

CAR 100 km/h

BIKE 15 km/h

WALK 5 km/h

- impressionist landscape

- sequence of views like in

- human starts to see and realize

- all senses start to play role

the details: textures, densities,

- the scale of big importance

human perception

- contrasts: light / dark

open/ close

- smooth trasitions

English garden - landmarks, nodes, edges

architecture / structure, color

helping to navigate

Factors influencing experience of infrastructure landscape

L M S

scale

3d

color

sound - suppression / resonance

S

human scale, closed landscapes

ROOF

closed / open

- changing with seasons,

M

medium scale,

WALL

screening / transparent

- changing with daylight;

mix of open & closed landscapes

SURFACE

dense / scattered /

- dependant on adjacent colors.

L

vast scale, open landscapes

linear / planar

edges: rigid / organic

62.

* other - texture , taste, smell, touch

* beyond the scope of this research

01

02

03

04

05

06

07

08

09

10

11

12

Acer campestre Acer platanoides Acer pseudoplatanus Betula pendula Carpinus betulus Corylus avellana Crataegus monogyna Fagus sylvatica Fraxinus excelsior Malus sargentii Picea sitchensis Populus tremula Prunus avium Pyrus pyraster Quercus robur Quercus rubra Salix viminalis Sorbus aria Sorbus aucuparia Sorbus intermedia ulmus glabra 63.

Bos, T. , Mandleberg, H. , Beek, P. van (2008) + own investigation

- characterizes the openess of the stand; - influences the experience within the stand;

roof

- project the light/ shade on the planting floor; - is tightly corelated with walls of the stand;

- characterizes the extrenal wall - edge, and has the direct influence on planting appeareance from outside; - sum of all walls within the stand result in the - different densities of the wall influence the stand transparency ; - height of the wall decides about the scale of

wall

the planting S/M/L ;

- is inflenced by the structure of the planting; - determines how the spaces are perceived by observer, for example linear planting

surface

human perception

bright/ dark, open/close inside experience ;

perpendicular to the viewer will appear as single line without 3d feeling; - affect the movement within the structure; - determines the architecture of the whole stand.

64.

half- open

closed

Betula pendula monoculture

pillar hall Fagus sylvatica

long rotation coppice

monocultures eg. Prunus avium, Quercus robur

polyculture forest mix of broadleaves

short rotation opppice Salix, Corylus

bright

author photos

dark

1 step

2 step

3 step

ecotone

ecocline

rising

smooth Olsen (1991)

sharp

natural stand feeling diversified planting structure

regular planting structure

65.

Lassen, J. N., & Larsen, J. B. (2013)

ARTIFICIAL FEELING

plantating toolbox

05

66.

energy plantations typology

TYPOLOGY BUILDING BLOCKS landscape character

This section’s aim is to summarize the various issues tackled in the chapter of

infrastructure constraints

policy / planning strategIES

Species selection. It is to be achieved by organizing different planting strategies into energy plantations toolbox. The tool is to be used along the process of site specific design.

The Toolbox consist of two tables: - shorter rotation periods energy plantatings - longer rotation periods energy plantatings The final typology is based on the intensity of the maintenance, as the length of rotation time affects productive, ecologic and social aspects of the design.

That means that management practices within the stands are to play important role for both sustainable green energy production and the way landscape is experienced. What is more rotation time helps to adjust it according to the

energy planting

infrastructure site constraints and enable to work with various time spans for planning processes.

green energy production

All of the plantations are assesed according to landscape experince criteria and green energy production.

rotation length The tables are to highlight the abundance of the possibilities , which this type

yield

of mulifunctional planting may add to landscape architecture profession.

As they are to serve different functions and are to be adapted to the different site specific conditions the choice

should fulfill multiple objectives.

Therefore typology is not prioritizing. The selected plantations are neither only the most productive one nor the most visually appealing. The aim is to show the multiple possibilities, which aftewards are to be used according to the specific site problematics.

landscape experience

AMENITY VALUES

scale

wildlife

recreation

roof

water

aesthetics

wall

climate

surface 67.

energy planting

landscape experience

MANAGEMENT PRINCIP

scale roof wall surface rotation

shorter rotatioN plantation toolbox

Hedges pruning / rejuvenation

green energy production [ years ]

harvest

[ odt / ha ]

amenity values ECOLOGIC / social

++

wildlife

2-4

+

water

1-5

2- 3

++

wildlife

+

education

6-9

+-

wildlife

s

3-5

++

water

s

7- 15

4-6

s

1/ 5 - 10

s Pollarding

Coppice - short rotation

Coppice - medium rotation

Living hedges rejuvenation

Coppice - long rotation

Coppice with standards

5 - 10

s /M

15-30

s /M

M

7-30

+

wildlife

++

water

+

education

++

wildlife

++

wildlife

+

water

++

recreation

++

wildlife

+

water

2-4

3-5

3-5

++ recreation +

68.

education

energy planting

landscape experience

MANAGEMENT PRINCIP

scale

green energy production

roof wall

m

surface

rotation

[ years ]

harvest

[ odt / ha ]

30 - 40

2- 3

+ +

recreation

+

wildlife

30 - 40

4-6

+

aesthetics

60-90

5-6

++

recreation

+

wildlife

80-100

6-8

++

recreation

+

wildlife

longer rotatioN plantation toolbox

Orchards rejuvenation

Broadleaves monoculture plantations

Silvicultural operations - from softwoods towards

amenity values ECOLOGIC / social

m/l

l

hardwoods

Polyculture afforestation with increased

l

biomass production 69.

Even the most productive species selection will not be effective if supply chain of the plantation will not be efficient. Because of

infrastruc-

ture corridor location some operations will be limited. Therefore the typical

activities should be adjusted to the restrictive character of the area.

Following steps in the supply chain have been studied and short guidline summarize the prodecedures that should be followed to make green energy production in the marigin lands viable and possible. Following steps summarize site characteristic constraints in the management strategy that underpins species

supply chain adjustments

selection choices.

supply chain

05

70.

production

harvest

extraxtion

storage and comminuting

transport

storage

combustion

10 m + 10 m

2m

30 -100 years

lengthen rotation

ADJUST machinery

combine multiple operations

decrease fossil fuel use

limit storage

Rotation period of the plantation will have a deciding role in the specific area of the Infrastructure corridor. Due to limited accesibility and safety reasons longer rotation should be prioritized over the short. Quality fuel of lower moisture content and higher density is prioritized.

Harvesters with crane arm would be necessary to work on the slopes. The arm reach o 10 meters and access road of 2m should be provided. In the wet areas specially adjusted machines need to be used. For multistem species adjusted harvester head is a a necessity.

Processes of harvesting extraction, storage and comminuting should be make as efficient as possible.

Combining opration is to be favourable for both economy and safety. Cut and Chip Harvest System would be the best businees case for infrastructure corridor are it shorten the supply chain , by cutting the need for storage. In that way coming back to the site for seasoned wood will not be be necessary. Interruptions in infrastructure corridor will be reduced.

Transport is the part of the supply chain which has the highest cost (over 50%) and therefore have to be carefully planned. To minimize the fossil-fuel based trucks in transport we should strive for usage railway freight.

Storage of wood logs along infrastructure should be avoided, because of limited accessibility.

Therefore high moisture content wood ( like conifers, Salix) should be avoided in placess of limited access.

Storage of woodchips is of big importance for fuel quality.

Where possible existing facility should be used.

71.

use existing capacity

The biomass power plants are distributed almost evenly along the infrastructure corridor. Using the the closest capacity make the supply chain ever more efficient.

72.

01

research themes + planting toolbox

bibliography 73.

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Benyus, J. (2008). A good place to settle: Biomimicry, biophila, and the return to nature’s inspiration to architecture. Biophilic design: The theory, science, and practice of bringing buildings to life. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Biomass Energy Centre (2015) Typical calorific values of fuels [online] Available at: http://www.biomassenergycentre.org.uk/portal/page?_pageid=75,20041&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL [ Accessed 21 October 2015].

Biomass Energy Centre (2015) Wood densities and moisture content [online] Available at: http://www.biomassenergycentre.org.uk/portal/page?_pageid=75,177178&_dad=portal&_schema=POPORT [ Accessed 21 October 2015].

Bos, T. , Mandleberg, H. , Beek, P. van (2008) Living Colour, Harnessing the power of colour for trees and shrubs in public places; Ebben Nurserymen, Cuijk 2008 Brander, P.E., (2010) Træer og buske i by og land : økologi, fysiologi, morfologi, klima og dyrkning ; Poul Erik Brander og Folaget Grønt Miljø , 2010 .

COP21 (2015), Available at : http://www.cop21.gouv.fr/en/learn/ [ Accessed 28 October 2015].

Danish Architecture Centre (2014) , DK 2050Green growth in Denmark towards 2050 -Four future scenarios.

Danish Climate Policy Plan (2013), Available at : http://www.ens.dk/sites/ens.dk/files/dokumenter/publikationer/downloads/danishclimatepdanishcli_uk.pdf [ Accessed 28 October 2015].

Danish Energy Association, Danish District Heating Association ( 2015) Biomass for Energy, Why coal and gas should be replaced by wood pellets and wood chips [online] Available at: http://www.danishenergyassociation.com/Theme/BiomassForEnergy.aspx [ Accessed 28 October 2015].

Dansk Skovforening, Skovdyrkerforeningerne og HedeDanmark a/s. ( 2013) Danmarks forsyning af træflis i fremtidens energimarked;, [online] Available at : http://www.hededanmark.dk/media/Danmarks_forsyning_af_tr%C3%A6flis_(HedeDanmark)_18.pdf [ Accessed 1 November 2015].

Demuzere, M., Orru, K., Heidrich, O., Olazabal, E., Geneletti, D., Orru, H., ... & Faehnle, M. (2014). Mitigating and adapting to climate change: Multi-functional and multi-scale assessment of green urban infrastructure. Journal of environmental management, 146, 107-115.

Evans, J. (1984). Silviculture of broadleaved woodland (No. 62).

Framstad, E., Berglund, H., Gundersen, V., Heikkilä, R., Lankinen, N., Peltola, T., Weih, M. (2009). Increased biomass harvesting for bioenergy: effects on biodiversity, landscape amenities and cultural heritage values. Nordic Council of Ministers.

Gant, R. L., Robinson, G. M., & Fazal, S. (2011). Land-use change in the ‘edgelands’: Policies and pressures in London’s rural–urban fringe. Land Use Policy, 28(1), 266-279.

Gill, S. E., Handley, J. F., Ennos, A. R., & Pauleit, S. (2007). Adapting cities for climate change: the role of the green infrastructure. Built Environment (1978-), 115-133.

Graudal, Lars, et al. ( 2013) Muligheder for bæredygtig udvidelse af dansk produceret vedmasse 2010-2100: perspektiver for skovenes bidrag til grøn omstilling mod en biobaseret økonomi. Institut for Geovidenskab og Naturforvaltning, Københavns Universitet, 21 -36.

Green Peace (2014) Danish Green Energy potentials Available at : http://www.greenpeace.org/international/Global/international/briefings/climate/2014/BRIEFING-Denmarks-commitment-to-100pct-renewable-energy.pdf [ Accessed 10 November 2015].

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literature Haggett, C. (2009). Public Engagement in Planning for Renewable Energy. In S. Davoudi, J. Crawford, & A. Mehmood (Eds.), Planning for Climate Change: Strategies for Mitigation and Adaptation for Spatial Planners. (pp. 297-307). Routledge.

Harmer, R., & Howe, J. (2003). The silviculture and management of coppice woodlands. Forestry Commission.

Hung, Y. Y., & Aquino, G. (2013). Landscape infrastructure: case studies by SWA. Walter de Gruyter, Birkhäuser 2013 Holddigvarm.dk, (2015 ). Brænde typer og brændeværdi [online] Available at : http://www.holddigvarm.dk/braendetyper.cshtml [ Accessed 20 November 2015] Knowles, R. D. (2012). Transit oriented development in Copenhagen, Denmark: from the finger plan to Ørestad. Journal of Transport Geography, 22, 251-261.

Kofman, P. D. (2006). Quality wood chip fuel. Danish Forestry Extension.

Kostler, J. N., Bruckner, E., & Bibelrichther, H. (1968). Die Wurzeln der Waldbaume; Untersuchungen zur Morphologie der Waldbaume in Mitteleuropa. Pp.25,30 -33, 108-112 Larsen J.B., Rasmussen K.R. , Callesen I. (xxxx) Ecology of tree species and species selection.

Miljøministeriet Naturstyrelsen ( 2015) Plantevalg - et valg for fremtiden [online] Available at : http://plantevalg.dk/SpeciesProfile.aspx?zoneId=13&jordbundstype=1&purpose=2&location=(692191,6158135) [ Accessed 15 November 2015].

Olesen, F. (1979). Planting Shelterbelts. Laeplanting, Denmark. Landhusholdningsselskabet, Copenhagen 1979 pp.52- 74.

Serup, H., Kofman, P. D. et al., ( 2005) Wood for Energy Production: Technology - Environment - Economy; Irish edition. COFORD, Dublin 2005.

Sijmons, D., Hugtenburg, J., van Hoorn, A., & Feddes, F. (Eds.). (2014).Landscape and Energy: Designing Transition, nai010 publishers, Rotterdam 2014.

Skovforeningen (1994 ). Brænde og varme - skoven har det [online] Available at : http://www.skovforeningen.dk/site/skovforeningens_braendefolder/ [ Accessed 20 November 2015].

State of Green (2015) From sustainable biomass to competitive bioenergy - Insights into Danish bioenergy solutions [online] Available at : https://stateofgreen.com/files/download/8535 [ Accessed 20 November 2015].

Stoves Online(2015) Woodburning or Multifuel Stove - Woodburning Chart [online] Available at : http://www.stovesonline.co.uk/woodburning_chart.html [ Accessed 20 October 2015].

Symmons Roberts, M., & Farley, P. (2011). Edgelands, Jonathan Cape, London 2011.

Vesterdal, L. (2000). Carbon sequestration in Danish forests. Biotechnologie, Agronomie, Société et Environnement, 4(4), 272-274.

VVM, Vurdering af Virkninger på Miljøet ( 2009) København-Ringsted projektet, Miljøredegørelse – hæfte 1- 5 , Trafikstyrelsen 2009.

Wood energy COFORD ( 2006 ) Wood fuel characteristics Available at : http://www.woodenergy.ie/woodasafuel/listandvaluesofwoodfuelparameters-part1/ [ Accessed 10 November 2015].

75.

illustrations #Fig.1 Green energy + landscape of infrastructures

source: BaneDanmark 2015, personal communication #Fig.2 The New Line Copenhagen-Ringsted, European context

graphic prepared on the basis of map from BaneDanmark Info Center

#Fig.3 Location : Zealand, Denmark, connecting Copenhagen via Køge with Ringsted.

source: http://uk.bane.dk/visArtikel_eng.asp?artikelID=1025

#Fig.4 Fossil fuel era

Source : http://www.thinkpellini.altervista.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/vintage-photo-office-holiday-christmas-party-.jpg #Fig.5

Green energy transition period Source : https://www.etsy.com/listing/104455147/vintage-photo-cleaning-after-party-mess

#Fig.6

Finger plan – probable planning policy adjustments analysis, basis map source : http://www2.sns.dk/udgivelser/2007/978-87-7279-780-9/html/bred04.htm

#Fig.7

Region Sjaelland – ambitious green goals Source : http://publikationer.regionsjaelland.dk/Ajour/AjourFebruar2013/?Page=22

#Fig.8

Final energy consumption by use Source : http://www.ens.dk/klima-co2/transport/transportens-energiforbrug-co2-emissioner

#Fig.9

CO2 emissions at the final consumption of energy Source : http://www.ens.dk/klima-co2/transport/transportens-energiforbrug-co2-emissioner

#Fig.10 Green String corridor - international infrastructure strategy

Source : http://www.stringnetwork.org/ #Fig.10 Edgelands photographed by Edward Chell

Source : http://theclearingonline.org/2014/03/soft-estate-an-interview-with-edward-chell/ #Fig.11 Danish energy mix potentials

Source : http://www.greenpeace.org/international/Global/international/briefings/climate/2014/BRIEFING-Denmarks-commitment-to-100pct-renewable-energy.pdf #Fig.12 Woodchips consumption trends

graphic prepared on the basis of data from report:

http://www.hededanmark.dk/media/Danmarks_forsyning_af_tr%C3%A6flis_(HedeDanmark)_18.pdf #Fig.13 Native species selection tool

Source: Miljøministeriet Naturstyrelsen ( 2015) Plantevalg

76.

personal communications

Hasle M., Skov- og landskabsingeniør BaneDanmark, Maintenance principles along the railway corridor (Personal communication, 3rd November 2015 ).

Larsen B.J. Professor Skov, natur og biomasse at University of Copenhagen – Species selection consultation (Personal communication, 1st February 2016 ).

Secher Eriksen, E. Produktchef HedeDanmark – Energy plantations species productivity, harvest methods (Personal communication, 27th October 2015 , 2nd December 2015, 9th February 2016).

Tærø Nielsen, A. , Industrial PhD student HedeDanmark and University of Copenhagen - Biomass harvest yields advice (Personal communication, 1st February 2016 )

77.