CONTRASTIVE STUDIES (CS) CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS (CA)
CS – CA • INTRODUCTION • 1) a) Where was he last night? - They asked me where he had been last night. • b) Gde je on bio prošle noći? - Pitali su me gde je on bio prošle noći. • A comparison of languages • In translation, a nonsystematic comparison,
CS - CA • languages A and B to avoid mistakes • CS – a scientific, systematic comparison • 3 main areas: CA, translation theory and error analysis • CA a technique, procedure within CS – comparison on the basis of a common feature • Description and comparison
CS – CA • • • • • • • •
PHASES IN CA: I a) collecting data, b) description, c) comparison d) formulation of contrasts OR II a) collecting data, b) establishing comparability criterion,
CS - CA • c) defining the nature of similarity and formulating the initial hypothesis; • d) testing the hypothesis; • e) revised hypothesis. • Corpus (corpora) • for description and comparison
CS – CA • How to compile a corpus • 1) translation equivalents • 2) questionnaire, test • parallel description, interlingual comparison, analytical comparison
CS –CA • CA is directional • A pedagogical tool • Contrastive vs. comparative linguistics • Contrastive and confrontative analysis • CA – applied linguistics
CS - CA PHASES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CA (Đorđević 2004: 11-18) a)Traditional (19th century – WW2) L. Bloomfield B. L. Whorf The Prague School
CS - CA B. L. Whorf, article from 1941 (‘’Languages and Logic’’) – the term contrastive linguistics vs. comparative linguistics b) Classical (WW2 – c1965) • Charles Fries, Teaching and Learning English as a Foreign Language (1945), ‘’the most effective materials ... based on scientific
CS – CA • description and carefully compared with the description of the native language’’ • Uriel Weinreich, Languages in Contact (1953 ) – interference • Robert Lado, Linguistics across Cultures (1957)
CS –CA • c) Modern (c1965-) • Conferences, projects, theoretical framework • The Yugoslav Contrastive Project, ed. by R. Filipović, (Zagreb, 1969-1976 and later) • COMPARABILITY, TERTIUM COMPARATIONIS • Formal and semantic equivalence – semantic and functional correspondence
CS – CA • Tertium comparationis – a general feature enabling comparison • Source (A) and target language (B) • 1) a) Do you drive? - No. • b) Da li vozite? - Ne.
CS – CA • RELATIONS BETWEEN COMPARED ITEMS • Convergent and divergent relations • CONVERGENT: 2 or more items of language A related to only 1 item in language B representing the same segment of reality
CS - CA • DIVERGENT: 1 item of language A related to 2 or more items in language B, representing the same segment of reality • 1) a) zemlja • earth, land, soil, ground, country
CS – CA • b) AT • She's good at driving – Ona je dobar vozač • He is at home - On je kod kuće • They are at the seaside – Oni su na moru • at somebody's expense – o nečijem trošku • at all costs - po svaku cenu • at the steering wheel – za volanom
CS –CA 2) a) He has brought his bag. – Doneo je njegovu/svoju torbu. • b) I have brought my bag. – Doneo sam svoju/*moju torbu. • CONVERGENT: a) mene, meni, mnom - me • b) ujak/teča, stric - uncle
CS –CA • 1 TO 1 RELATION • PARTIAL CORRESPONDENCE • a) They have arrived. - Stigli su. • b) They arrived. - Stigli su. • ZERO RELATION • apsolvent - 0
CS –CA • STRONG AND WEAK VERSION OF CA IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING • STRONG: systematic comparison, all levels – prediction of difficulties in teaching/learning • foreign language teaching: a direct correlation between linguistic differences and learning difficulties
CS - CA • unrealistic because of linguistic and extralinguistic reasons • WEAK: comparison may help to observe possible difficulties in teaching
CS – CA • Arguments against STRONG version: • • • • • •
LINGUISTIC A) different not always equal to difficult B) interference C) intrusion C) wrong analogy D) avoiding similarities
CS - CA • EXTRALINGUISTIC • A) motivation • B) bad teaching • C) cognitive and linguistic competence of students
VERB • VERB AS A PART OF SPEECH • Definitions – verb not easy to define • Oldest Definitions • R.H. Robins chapters II (“Greece”, pp. 26-34 ) and III ( “Rome”, pp. 50-57 ), A Short History of Linguistics:
VERB • Aristotle: “rhema... indicating a time reference and ... representing the predicate” (26) • Dionysius Thrax: “rhema (verb): a part of speech without case inflection, but inflected for tense, person, and number, signifying an activity or process performed or undergone” (33/4)
VERB • Varro defines verbs as a class “with tense inflexion”( 50) • Priscian: “verbum (verb): the property of verb is to indicate an action or being acted on; it has tense and mood forms, but is not case inflected” (57)
VERB Criteria and approaches • Types of definitions: formal, functional, semantic • Formal definitions • morphological characteristics
VERB • English: -s, -ed, -ing, -en • more reliable than semantic • problems: irregularities, modals, BE (idiosyncratic) • Language-specific and general definitions
VERB • Functional definitions • verbs function as a predicator (main part of predicate) in a clause • Clause types • A) The man ______ pale. • B) The man ______ the book. • C) The man ______ quickly.
VERB • Semantic definitions • meaning – activities, states • lexical and grammatical meaning –auxiliaries? • polysemy, dynamic/stative • A combination of these definitions is needed
VERB • • • • • •
MORPHOLOGY OF THE ENGLISH VERB 1. Inflection -4 suffixes, with irregularities -s, -ing, -ed, -en and their functions 1) His paintings are very expensive.
• finite and nonfinite verb forms
VERB • regular verbs – 5 different forms (to walk, walk, walks, walking, walked) • Irregular verbs: 4 (to put, put, puts, putting) or 6 forms (to take, take, takes, took, taking, taken)
VERB • Auxiliaries and irregularities • To be – 9 different forms, idiosyncratic • • • •
Auxiliaries and nonfinite forms BE 2) a) He is being examined by the doctor. b) She has been examined by the doctor.
VERB • • • • • •
c) They seem to be working. d) He will be working. e) You are being silly. HAVE 3) a) Having done that, she left. b) He seems to have done it. c) They have had lunch.
VERB • d) They had had lunch. • e) She could have found the lost book. • • DO • 4) a) They are doing their homework. • b) She has done her homework.
VERB • WEAK FORMS • unstressed, syllabic and nonsyllabic • am, is, have, shall ...
• WORD FORMATION • different morphological processes
VERB SIMPLE AND COMPLEX VERB STRUCTURES • Simple structure of a VP: 1 lexical verb + possible auxiliaries • Complex structures: 2 or more lexical verbs with subordination; predication, clauses
VERB • Eric writes poetry. • Eric has written poetry. • Eric can write poetry. • Eric wants to publish his poetry. • Comparison: aux + V • V+V
VERB • Syntactic characteristics – TNP tests • A) Time-marking – for each lexical verb in its clause? • 5) a) Ben seems to have seen Kate. • b) Lin intended to visit them the next day. • c) Tom wants to see the results. • d) Russel seems to like Marion. • in some contexts only
VERB • B) Negation • lexical verb negated in each clause? • 6) a) Nora doesn’t like that book. • b) Brian prefers not to answer them. • c) Brian doesn’t prefer to answer them. • d) Laura doesn’t prefer not to go there. • e) Bill can’t not see them.
VERB • • • • • • •
C) Passivization – voice neutrality 7) a) Bill has seen Mary. b) Mary has been seen by Bill. 8) a) Kate is writing a book. b) A book is being written by Kate. 9) a) Bill wants to meet Mary. b) *Mary is wanted to meet by Bill.
VERB • c) Mary wants to be met by Bill. • d) *Mary is wanted to be met by Bill. • e) Bill wants to be met by Mary . • 10) a) Bill won’t meet Mary. • b) Mary won’t be met by Bill. • D) Subject and complex verb structure
VERB • 11) a) The water runs down the street. • b) The water is running down the street. • c) The water may run down the street. • d) *The water intended to run down the street. • e) The water kept running down the street.
VERB • CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS • Criteria for classification – morpho-syntactic and semantic (e.g. lexical verbs: linking and nonlinking) • 1. Auxiliaries and Lexical Verbs • Syntax and meaning
VERB • • • • • • •
1.1. Meaning : lexical and grammatical 1.2. Syntactic behaviour (NICE properties) A) Negation 1) a) He hasn’t read that book. b) She didn’t arrive late. c) They can’t do it. d) *They readn’t that book.
VERB • • • • • • • •
Copula BE: 2) He isn’t a teacher. Infinitival clause 3) a) I prefer not to ask him. b) They hate not to win. Negative and semi-negative adverbials 4) a) They never stayed long. b) We seldom went that far.
VERB • • • • • • •
B) Inversion Discontinous VP in questions 5) a) Are they leaving? b) May he go? c) *Works he? Noninterrogative inversion (NII) Two types of NII – with lexical verbs and aux
VERB • 6) a) Into the room walked the president. • b) In the corner stood an armchair. • 7) a) Seldom have they seen such a sight. • b) Rarely have I been treated like that. • hardly (ever), not often, at no time, not till, not one word etc. • 8) a) Not a single word did he say for an hour. • b) In no way am I responsible for what has
VERB • happened. • c) Only on very rare occasions does he give you a word of praise. • Adverbials of place, verbs of movement or position, almost only present/past simple • 9) a) Through the fog loomed an eerie castle. • b) Away went the coach and horses at full speed.
VERB • • •
• •
c) Up went a mountain of luggage onto the racks. Exercise: 1) In none of his books Dickens (show) greater understanding of human heart than in Bleak House. 2) Not a soul I (meet) as I walked there. 3) The pirate ship lay far out.
VERB • • • •
4) I wouldn’t offend you on no account. 5) The car sped round the corner. 6) The children scrambled into the coach. 7) A pheasant rose out of the brushwood.
• C) Code • 10) a) I can visit them and so can she. • b) We like it and so do they.
VERB • • • •
c) You saw them as did we. d) Did you notice that? Yes, I did. e) May I open the widow? Yes, you may. f) They usually talk about careers. At least Tom does. • g) Helen knows where Russel is, but Peter doesn’t. • h) *You saw them as saw we.
VERB • • • • • • • •
D) Emphatic affirmation Aux, but sometimes lexical verbs, too 12) a) You ‘must see that film. b) I do like it. c) I ‘like it. Emphatic affirmation of a doubtful statement Denial of the negative 13) a) I’m not sure we can get there on time.
VERB • We ‘can get there on time. • b) I don’t want to go there. You ‘must go there. • E) QUESTION TAGS • only aux, not lexical verbs • 14) a) She saw that film, didn’t she? • b) *They play tennis, playn’t they?
VERB •
c) They have never tried, have they?