LEVELS of Linguistic Analysis
LEVELS • - Charles Boycott (19th century, land agent in Ireland, refused to reduce rents), boycott, to boycott • - William Lynch (18/19th century, US citizen, organized extralegal tribunals), to lynch, lynch law • -John Macadam (18/19th century, Scottish engineer), macadam road
LEVELS • - Jean Nicot (16th century, French diplomat, introduced tobacco into France), nicotine • units in physics, chemistry • H) Invention of completely new words • kodak • Google
LEVELS • Borrowing • words created, but also borrowed • adaptation - phonological, graphological, morphological • kompjuter, kompjuterski, bestseler, bilderka • in the receiving language, meaning sometimes not like in the source language
LEVELS • spiker (announcer) - speaker, the Speaker • dragstor - drugstore • TRANSLATION LOANS or CALQUES (prevedenice, kalkovi) • foreign words or phrases translated into a local language, keeping the grammatical pattern of the foreign language
LEVELS • neboder (skyscraper), noćni klub (night club) • ispiranje mozga (brain washing) • rukopis (Latin: manuscriptum) • pravopis (Greek: orthographia)
LEVELS • FALSE PAIRS • words in a domestic and a foreign language, the same or similar form, a different meaning • • • •
eventualno – eventually aktuelan – actual simpatija – sympathy ambulanta – ambulance
LEVEL IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENT ANALYSIS (IC Analysis) IN MORPHOLOGY • (Metoda neposrednih konstituenata) • a procedure to divide words into morphemes • immediate and ultimate constituents
LEVELS • basic rules: • a) a morphological unit always divided into two constituents • b) inflectional suffixes separated first • c) if possible, one of the two constituents should be a free form • d) meaning of constituents should be related to the meaning of the entire word
LEVELS un-gentlemanly • gentleman–ly • gentle-man • enlargement–s • enlarge-ment • en-large
LEVELS • daydreaming • daydream-ing • day-dream • • • •
IRREGULARITIES IN MORPHOLOGY irregular inflectional forms sang – sing + {ed} (sang – 2 morphemes) oxen – ox + {s}
LEVELS • less – little + {er} • sheep (pl) – sheep + {s} • women – woman + {s} • SUFFIXES HOMOPHONES • in English, suffixes with the same form, but different function • lighter painting touching
LEVELS • {er} • • {ing} • • {ly} • • •
inflectional (comparative - nicer) derivational (agent - worker) inflectional (present participle) derivational (noun) derivational for adverbs (quickly) derivational for adjectives (daily, friendly) a daily paper, a friendly smile
LEVELS • SYNTAX • studying the combination of words into larger units – phrases, clauses and sentences • syntaxis (Greek) - linking, arranging • the largest unit is a sentence; larger units (discourse and text) are studied in discourse analysis and text linguistics
LEVELS • syntactic units larger than a word – tests used to establish them • movement, substitution, insertion • 1) a) Those students have made an interesting discovery. • b) An interesting discovery has been made by those students. • 2) a) That car of yours is giving me a lot of
LEVELS • trouble. • b) It is giving me a lot of trouble. • 3) a) He went there to see the results. • b) He went there in order to see the results. • Phrase, Clause, Sentence • phrase is a group of two or more
LEVELS • grammatically related words which do not include the relation of predication • structure of phrases • premodification – head/headword – postmodification • type of phrase - headword: NP, VP, PP, AdvP, AdjP • the old grey bicycle (NP)
LEVELS • • • • •
is reading (VP) in the house (PP) very nice (AdjP) very quickly (AdvP) premodification of nouns: determiners, numbers, adjectives, nouns, genitive of nouns and some complex structures • all the books
LEVELS • Helen’s book • the oak table • an on-the-spot investigation • postmodification of nouns: PPs, clauses, sometimes adjectives • the book about grammar • secretary general
LEVELS • the girl who is standing there is his sister • • • •
Clause and sentence sentence - unit expressing the entire thought a string of words between two full stops in contemporary syntax, clause - a structure with only one predication, one subject predicate relation (= simple sentence)
LEVELS • larger than a phrase, smaller than a complex sentence • clause: 2 or more phrases + predication • within a clause – word order (WO) • WO - order of syntactic units, can be free or fixed • languges with rich inflection - a free WO
LEVELS • (e.g. Serbian, Latin); grammatical relations in a clause - inflection • languages with less rich inflection, usually have a fixed WO (English) • 4) a) Petar je udario Pavla. • b) Pavla je udario Petar. • 5) a) Peter hit Paul.
LEVELS • b) Paul hit Peter. • within a clause: agreement (concord) between the subject and the predicate • predicate agrees with the headword of the subject • 6) That car of Tom’s is giving him a lot of touble.
LEVELS • Several divisions of clauses • A) declarative, interrogative (with inversion), imperative, exclamatory • B) positive and negative • C) elliptic clauses – an element is missing, understood from the context (e.g. Rain! Fire!) • Sentence: the largest independent unit of
LEVELS • syntactic description, not a part of a larger construction in syntax (larger units are text and discourse) • sentences have intonation and punctuation • sentence is an abstract unit, its concrete realization is utterance (iskaz) • Utterance related to a specific time, place, situation
LEVELS • sentence - one or more clauses: simple (one predication) and complex (more than one predication) • clauses in a complex sentence related in two ways: • A) coordination (syntactically equal, independent) • and, or, but - coordinators
LEVELS • 7) It was cold and the weather was rather bad. • B) subordination (main clause and • subordinate clauses) • coordinators can link words and phrases, units of the same kind (N + N, Adj+Adj etc.) and same syntactic function • one + one unit
LEVELS • 8) a)*rain and wet • b) *A desk and nice were brought in. • complex coordination: linking 2 units + 2 units • • 9) Kate painted the kitchen blue and bathroom white. • (direct object & object complement + direct object & object complement)
LEVELS • main/superordinate • dependent/ subordinate • Other types of clauses • A) nominal and modifying
LEVELS nominal (function of subject and object) • 10) a) Whether we need it is a different matter. • b) I don’t know whether we need it. • modifying: modify nouns, verbs/predicates • relative clauses modify nouns
LEVELS • 11) a) All the books which are on the table belong to his father. (restrictive, defining) • b) Peter, whom you see, is her uncle. (nonrestrictive, nondefining) • adverbial clauses modify verbs/predicates • 12) Lin read while Kevin was watching TV.
LEVELS • B) appositive clauses – new information about something already mentioned • 13) His main argument, that scientific laws have no exceptions, was considered absurd. • C) finite, nonfinite and verbless • 14) a) When out of school, children ran home. • b) She saw them while they were running.
LEVELS • c) He wants to know the title of that book. • d) Waiting for the bus, she met an old friend. • e) The discussion completed, the chairman ended the meeting.