NC Journal Fall 2010 by North Carolina Alliance for Athletics, Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance (NCAAHPERD)

Vol 45 Number 2 Fall 2010

The North Carolina Journal of the

NCAAHPERD Official Publication of the North Carolina Alliance for Athletics, Health, Physical Education, Recreation & Dance

The NC Journal NCAAHPERD is a 501(C)(3) not for profit organization of Athletics, Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance professionals whose mission is “To provide advocacy, professional development, and unity for health, physical education, recreation, dance, and athletics professionals and students in order to enhance and promote the health of North Carolinians. Our vision is to be the leading organization promoting and supporting a healthier, more creative, and active North Carolina.” Submissions: See information on author guidelines listed within this publication or e-mail ncaahperd@ncaahperd.org for a copy of requirements. Address Changes: Send address change information to the contact information listed at the bottom of this page. Advertising: For pricing and other information, contact NCAAHPERD Publications Manager, Nathan Acosta, at the contact information listed at the bottom of this page. Additional Copies: Copies of this Journal are available for $5.00 each. Send check payable to NCAAHPERD to the contact address listed at the bottom of this page. Quantities are limited. The North Carolina Journal is published bi-annually and provided through annual NCAAHPERD membership dues: $30.00 for libraries and professionals, $20.00 for retirees and full time graduate students, and $10.00 for undergraduate students.

Dr. Ron Morrow, Executive Director NCAAHPERD PO Box 27751 Raleigh, NC 27611-7751

In This Issue Vol 45 Number 2 Fall 2010

Messages 4 President’s Message From the Editor Awards 5 2010 NCAAHPERD Awards 15 NCAAHPERD Research Award Winners Articles 8 IsPOD Results for Spring 2010 Articles - Peer Reviewed 12 Health Practices of Male Fitness Majors

Phoebe Butler-Ajibade

16 African American Students’ Perceptions of, and Interest in, NASCAR Jamie Robbins

James Hand Travis Teague

Knowledge of HIV/AIDS among College Students at a Historically Black University

29 35

Indhu Gopal Karen L. Butler

Using The Processes Of Change To Investigate The Effectiveness Of High School Fitness Education John C. Acquaviva

A Physical Educator’s Guide to the Technology Galaxy Michael Sloop Kevin Eades Todd White

NCAAHPERD News & Business 38 Guidelines for Authors 39 Board of Directors

Reviewers for this issue: Ron Morrow, Editor Teresa Dail Dennis Felder Sue Fisher Dan Grube John Janowiak Dennis Johnson Sarah Langer Sherry Lehman Valarie Nybo Scott Townsend Michele Wallen

NCAAHPERD PO Box 27751 Raleigh, NC 27611-7751 919.833.1219 ncaahperd@ncaahperd.org Copyright © 2010 by the North Carolina Alliance for Athletics, Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance. All rights Reserved. Opinions expressed by authors of articles summarized, quoted, or published in full in this Journal do not necessarily reflect the office policy of NCAAHPERD or the institutions which the author(s) is (are) affiliated, unless so specified. Publication preference is given to the members of NCAAHPERD. Current members have access to past NC Journals 1999-2010. Use your member login at the web site www.ncaahperd.org. The North Carolina Journal is copyrighted and pages may not be photocopied, except in limited quantities, or posted online without permission of NCAAHPERD. Copying for purposes other than personal or internal reference use without the expressed permission of NCAAHPERD is prohibited. Requests for special permission should be sent to ncaahperd@ncaahperd.org.

President’s Message Season’s Greetings to everyone and a fond hello to all those that I did not get to speak to during the 63rd Annual NCAAHPERD Convention in Winston-Salem. As members, we should continue our advocacy activities for as well as recruitment of new members to our organization. In what may be considered lean economic times, our commitment and dedication to uphold all the standards set before us is ever needed. I want to take this opportunity to thank each of you for your attendance at the convention, for your lively presentations at the convention, and for your general comrade attitude and friendliness. And to all of you who worked quietly “behind the scenes” and made this convention one of the best, also thanks to you. I am very proud and pleased to serve my term as your President and will keep in mind the NCAAHPERD’s mission of providing “advocacy, professional development and unity” to its members who will then enhance and promote the health of all North Carolinians. No treasure is worth more than one’s good health; and as we work with the children of the state and other North Carolinians to provide preventive health care through physical activities I hope we can keep all the great possibilities in mind and serve the state well. Unity in purpose will be what we will need to move forward with “Our Collective Strength” to host the Southern District AAHPERD Convention in February, 2011. Let’s show the Southern District membership what an amicable and spirited place North Carolina can be!

Meet the Staff... ncaahperd@ncaahperd.org

Front Row L-R: Grant/Special Project Director Judy Martino; Executive Director Ron Morrow; Senior Grant Coordinator Nick Dean Back Row L-R: Technical Operations Brandon Beasley; Office Manager Martina Barnett; Communications and Membership Coordinator Nathan Acosta

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Arcelia Jeffreys

GET UP, GET MOVING

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NCAAHPERD AWARDS

ATHLETIC AWARDS

PHYSICAL EDUCATION AWARDS

Male High School Coach of the Year, Joey Jones, East Duplin High School; Female High School Coach of the Year Danielle Blackburn, Wakefield High School; Middle School Athletic Director of the Year Cindy Swanger, Davis Drive Middle School; Athletic Director of the Year David Rothwell, Iredell-Statesville Schools; Lifetime Achievement Award Jerry McGee; President Keith Cannon and PresidentElect Lisa Robertson

President Ann Wiggin; University Physical Educator of the Year - Carol Smith; High School Physical Education Teacher of the Year James Bryan; Middle School Physical Education Teacher of the Year - Kim Ensley; Elementary School Physical Education Teacher of the Year Constance Cronk; Adapted Physical Education Teacher of the Year - Marc Lambert; Lifetime Service Award - Judy Wiggs; Lifetime Service Award - Linda McManama; Artie Kamiya Fall PELT Award - Artie Kamiya (accepted by his wife and son).

DANCE AWARDS

SPORTS MANAGEMENT AWARDS

K-12 Dance Educator of the Year Jan Adams, University Educator of the Year; Robin Harris, North Carolina State University, President Evette Clemons; Community Dance Educator of the Year award Cathy-Lee Hambright; Dance Student of the Year Leah Davis; Dance Administrator of the Year Angell Caudill

President-Elect Hal Walker; Sports Management Professional of the Year - Dave Olsen; Sports Management Educator of the Year - Greg Combs

GET UP, GET MOVING STUDENT MAJORS ASSOCIATION

ISPOD AWARDS

President-Elect Lauren Cranmer of the Student Majors Association; Student Major of the Year - Chris Johns

Judy Martino, Director of Grants and Special Programs, Outstanding IsPOD County Coordinators - Keba Baldwin, Currituck County Schools; Sharon Parks, Guilford County Schools. IsPOD Superintendent of the Year Maurice Green, Guilford County Schools. Dr. Barbara Zwadyk accepts this award

HEALTH AWARDS

NCAAHPERD AWARDS

President Charlotte Williams; Middle School Health Educator of the Year - Yvonne Robinson of Macon County Schools; High School Health Educator of the Year - Eric Toedtman of Smoky Mountain High School

NC Healthy Schools Superintendent of the Year - Dr. Steven Taylor, Wayne County Schools

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NCAAHPERD AWARDS

GET UP, GET MOVING N a t h a n Ta y l o r D o d s o n U n d e r g ra d u a t e Scholarship - Kelsey Holloman, Campbell University

GET UP, GET MOVING

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NCAAHPERD AWARDS

Ronald H. Hyatt Graduate Scholarship - William Charles O’Connor Jr., Wingate University

Legislator of the Year– Representative Verla Insko (center). HOOPS AND JUMP ROPE FOR HEART AWARDS

The AIAW Scholarship - June P. Galloway Undergraduate Scholarship - Sarah Joseph, High Point University

HONOR AWARD

2010 Advocacy Award - Pam Seamans, Executive Director of the North Carolina Alliance for Health and Betsy Vetter, NC Director of Government Relations at the American Heart Association’s Mid-Atlantic Affiliate

JJ Beale - Joint Projects State Coordinator; Robert Blackburn Jump Rope for Heart Coordinator of the Year, James V. Hall Jr of Cape Fear Academy; Hoops for Heart Coordinator of the Year, Teresa Pless - West Rowan Middle School

NCAAHPERD Honor Award - Nancy Hoover, Winston-Salem/Forsyth County Schools

GET UP, GET MOVING OUTGOING PRESIDENTS

PRESIDENTIAL CITATIONS

Evette Clemmons, Dance Association for North Carolina Educators; Keith Cannon, North Carolina Association for Athletic Education; Charlotte Williams, North Carolina Association for the Advancement of Health Education; Anne Wiggin, Physical Education Association. Not pictured - Jim Hand, North Carolina Sports Management Association

Freddie Lee Heath Presidential Citations to: Elizabeth Droessler and Dawn Clark a Presidential Citation

Mark Your Calendar... NCAAHPERD Convention Dates 2011 Feb 16-20 Greensboro** “Our Collective Strength”

** hosting w/Southern District

Southern District AAHPERD Convention 2012 February 9-12 Orlando, FL AAHPERD Convention 2011 March 29-April 2 San Diego, CA 2012 March 13-17 Boston, Massachusetts

JOIN US IN THE FALL FOR

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NCAAHPERD AWARDS

MOVEMENT MATTERS 64th Annual NCAAHPERD Convention November 16-19, 2011 Winston-Salem, NC GET INVOLVED! Apply to present Nominate a colleague for an award www.ncaahperd.org

IsPOD Results for Spring 2010

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Dr. Ron G. Morrow, NCAAHPERD Mary Hall, State Center for Health Statistics Judy Martino, NCAAHPERD

“In School Prevention of Obesity and Disease” (IsPOD) is a 4-year Kate B. Reynolds (KBR) grant-funded program that began in fall 2008, designed to improve the health and fitness of North Carolina K-8 grade students. IsPOD is an expansion of a program funded by the North Carolina Health and Wellness Trust Fund (HWTF) from fall 2006 to spring 2008. With IsPOD grant funds, the North Carolina North Carolina Alliance for Athletics, Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (NCAAHPERD) is providing specialized physical education training in the SPARK™ (Sports, Play and Active Recreation for Kids) curriculum to students in grades K through 8 in all 115 North Carolina School Districts or Local Educational Agencies (LEAs). SPARK Implementation Plan

SPARK™ is a research-based physical education program, designed to increase moderate-tovigorous physical activity (MVPA), improve fitness levels and sport skills, and enhance the enjoyment of physical education among students. As part of the IsPOD program school districts are expected to assess student fitness levels for all students in grades 3-8. Physical educators are encouraged to assess and report student fitness levels for grades K-2, although this is not a requirement of the IsPOD program. Software, manuals, and training for the FitnessGram™ software, a program to record and track fitness levels, such as BMI, strength, endurance, and flexibility, is provided during the training.

P r o g r a m e va l u a t i o n o f t h e a d o p t i o n , implementation, and “reach” of IsPOD more than midway through the KBR grant (from fall 2008 through fall 2010) indicate: • 83 of 115 NC LEAs (72%) have adopted SPARK™ and 6 additional LEAs are scheduled for SPARK™ training in spring 2011, for a projected adoption rate of 77% (89 of 115 NC LEAs). • Physical education teachers from 1,358 K-8 NC schools or 85% of the 1,589 NC K-8 schools in the 83 adopted LEAs have received training in SPARK. In addition, 12% of all NC high schools have received SPARK™ training, although high schools were not specifically targeted for the grant. • 2,235 or 72% of the 3,086 NC K-8 physical education teachers in the 83 adopted LEAs have received SPARK™. In addition to the 2,235 NC K-8 physical educators trained, 106 NC school district coordinators, 33 NC high school physical educators, and 63 other NC school staff has been trained, resulting in a total of 2,437 NC SPARK-trained staff. • Student “reach” (i.e., the percent of students receiving the benefits of the SPARK™ philosophy and curriculum in their PE classes) is estimated to be 19% to 87% of all K-8 students in the 61 LEAs adopting SPARK™ by spring 2010. Summary The adoption, implementation and reach of SPARK™ more than mid-way through the KBR grant are progressing well. NCAAPHERD program coordinators continue to promote the state-wide implementation of SPARK™ and establish the framework for a sustainable program by providing on-going training, support, and communication to districts that have already received training, and providing on-going training opportunities to schools from adopted districts that have not received training.

continued...

Student surveys - 64,000 submitted from students in 56 NC districts show: • A large percentage of students are not meeting the Center for Disease Control (CDC) health and nutrition guidelines. Only 50% of surveyed 1st-8th graders met recommended guidelines for 4 vegetable servings per day and 30% or fewer met recommended guidelines for 3 daily servings of dairy/milk and 60 minutes of daily physical activity. • Students in higher grade levels are engaging in significantly fewer “healthy” habits compared to students in lower grade levels. “Healthy” habits include eating a daily breakfast, eating dinner at home (versus eating out), getting sufficient sleep (8 hours per night), and being involved in extracurricular activities. • Students in higher grade levels are engaging in significantly more “unhealthy” habits compared to students in lower grade levels. “Unhealthy habits” include consuming 3 or more sweet beverages per day, eating French Fries 2 or more times per week, playing computer/video games 2 or more hours per day, watching T.V. 2 or more hours per day on week-days and 3 or more hours per day on week-ends.

• FitnessGram™ - physical educators are asked to submit six fitness measurements for each student: Body Mass Index (BMI) for body composition and indications of metabolic fitness, PACER for indications of aerobic and cardiovascular fitness; Curl-Up and Push-Up for measures of abdominal and upper body strength, respectively; Trunk Lift for a measure of low back strength and flexibility, and Sit-and-Reach to measure flexibility. Response rates were highest for Curl-Up, Trunk Lift, BMI, and Push-Up measurements and lowest for Sit-and-Reach and PACER measurements. FitnessGram™ - more than 82,000 1st-8th graders in 370 schools in 42 NC school districts show: • 43% of these students are over the HFZ (healthy fitness zone) for BMI, indicating that they are at risk for metabolic syndrome. A slightly higher, but statistically significant, percent of males were over the HFZ for BMI compared to females (44% versus 42%). Furthermore, the percent of students over the HFZ for BMI was found to be statistically significantly higher for older students compared to younger students. Whereas only 39% to 41% of 1st to 3rd graders were over the HFZ for BMI, 43% to 45% of 5th to 8th graders were over the HFZ for BMI. • PACER results, which are only submitted for 4th-8th graders, show 83% of females and 57% of males are in the HFZ. PACER FitnessGram™ standards, which are more stringent for males than females, showed a statistically significantly higher percent of males did not meet PACER HFZ standards compared to females. Furthermore, a steady and statistically significant decrease in aerobic fitness was observed for both females and males for grades 4th through 8th. • Although 84% of 1st-8th graders tested met HFZ Trunk Lift or “healthy back” standards, the percent of students in the HFZ was found to decrease significantly (alpha=0.05) for both males and females after grade 3. Results also showed that overall a higher percent of females met HFZ standards compared to males with 86% of females and 82% of males in the Trunk Lift HFZ. • FitnessGram™ Curl-Up results show that more than 78% of male and female students maintain abdominal HFZ standards throughout elementary school with core continued...

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Program Outcomes (Based on data submitted in spring 2010). Teacher surveys - 300 submitted from teachers in 44 NC districts show: • 91% of teachers felt the SPARK™ program enhanced their teaching style. • 75% or more of teachers indicated they observed the following positive benefits as a result of using SPARK: improved student skill levels, less students sitting out and not participating in PE, students being more active during PE and enjoying PE more. • Middle school students receive PE more days per week on average than lower elementary students. Physical educators in lower elementary grade levels, however, reported that they use the SPARK™ curriculum more often. • Although the percentage of time physical educators use the SPARK™ curriculum varied by grade level, most teachers for all grade levels are embracing the SPARK™ philosophy and incorporating the following SPARK™ strategies into their PE classes: activity from the “get-go”; individual and small group activities; and encouraging good sportsmanship and cooperation.

Summary Analysis of FitnessGram™ results for spring 2010 show that although student core and upper body strength is higher for upper

Figure 2

elementary students compared to lower elementary students, student fitness levels with regard to body composition, aerobic capacity, and lower back strength is significantly lower for upper elementary students compared to lower elementary students. BMI and PACER measurements provide the best indicators of students’ overall health. Body composition and aerobic capacity are linked and provide indications of students that may be at risk for metabolic syndrome, a group of risk factors that collectively promote and increase the risk of cardiovascular disease and diabetes. In addition these data show a steady trend from grades 4 through 8 – a higher percent of students over the HFZ for BMI and under the HFZ for PACER, suggesting more students are at risk for metabolic syndrome as they age.

Body Composition – Spring 2010 Percent of Students Above BMI HFZ Female

Male

50%

45%

Percent Above the BMI HFZ

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strength fitness levels improving in middle school. Curl-up fitness levels for 6th-8th grade middle school students were found to be statistically higher compared to 1st-5th grade students (alpha = 0.05). • FitnessGram™ Push-up results show a statistically significant higher percent of males in the HFZ (68%) compared to females (57%); and a statistically significant increase in the percent of 6th-8th graders in the Push-Up HFZ compared to1st-5th graders. • FitnessGram™ Sit-and-Reach results show about 65% of both males and females met sit-and-reach HFZ flexibility standards.

40%

35%

30% 1st

2nd

3rd

4th

5th

6th

7th

8th

Grade

Results based on FitnessGram™ results from 82,967 students in 42 NC school districts and 370 NC schools.

continued...

Figure 3

Aerobic Fitness – Spring 2010 Percent of Students In PACER HFZ Female

Male

70%

65%

Percent in HFZ

60%

55%

45%

40% 1st

2nd

3rd

4th

5th

6th

7th

8th

Grade

Results based on FitnessGram™ results from 38,948 students in 42 NC school districts and 370 NC schools. Analysis of combined student survey and FitnessGram™ results was performed to determine the impact students’ daily habits have on their measurements. Key statistically significant findings from this analysis show: • Students that were active 7 days/week for 60 minutes/day were more likely to be in the HFZ for BMI, PACER, Curl-up, Push-up, Sit and Reach, and Trunk Lift compared to students that did not. • Students that had PE 3 or more days/week were more likely to be in the HFZ for PACER, Sit and Reach, and Trunk Lift compared to students that did not. • Students that had breakfast 7 days/week, dinner at home 5 or more days/week and 4 or more servings of vegetables/day were more likely to be in the HFZ for every FitnessGram™ measurement compared to students that did not. • Students that had 3 or more servings of fruit daily were more likely to be in the HFZ for PACER, Curl-up, Push-Up, Sit-and-Reach, and Trunk Lift compared to students that did not. • Students that had 3 or more servings of dairy per day were more likely to be in the HFZ for BMI, PACER, Curl-up, Push-Up, and Trunk Lift compared to students that did not. • Students that watched T.V. less than 2

hours/day on week-days and less than 3 hours/day on week-ends were more likely to be in the HFZ for every FitnessGram™ measurement compared to students that did not. • Students that played computer or video games less than 2 hours/day were more likely to be in the HFZ for every FitnessGram™ measurement compared to students that did not. This is the first of several reports that will be issued from the NCAAHPERD. Greater detail can be found on the www.ispod.info site under the data tab. Each day our database grows and becomes a wealth of information. We are constantly seeking graduate students who might be interested in mining some of this rich data. Contact Dr. Ron Morrow if you are interested.

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50%

What’s Next NCAAHPERD will sustain IsPOD until funds are exhausted That means data collecting, maintaining servers, maintaining databases, supplying regional trainings for new teachers, and boosters for schools already trained. In addition, we have grant proposals for expanding the program to Pre-K using a coordinated school health model. We also hope to receive a grant to use FitnessGram™ to measure all high school students and look at fitness levels compared to drop out rates.

Health Practices of Male Fitness Majors

Phoebe Butler-Ajibade Assistant Professor

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Human Performance and Leisure Studies Department North Carolina A & T State University

ABSTRACT Healthy People 2010 and Healthy Campus 2010 promote healthy lifestyles to prevent disease and protect overall well-being. Tobacco use, physical activity and weight management are considered to be critical to preventing the leading causes of death. Unlike most college students, fitness science majors take numerous courses in health, fitness, and nutrition. This study examines whether their health behaviors are appropriate. Using the National College Health Risk Behavior survey, male students’ behaviors were assessed. The findings suggest that the behaviors of this group of students (N=70) have smoking, seat belt use when riding and driving, and obesity levels that are similar to those of college students. Recommendations regarding promotion of self care and behavior change for healthy lifestyles among high risk population are provided. It is important for fitness majors to practice self care to serve as models of optimal health in the communities that they will serve in their future careers. Background Fitness science majors will serve as role models in their future careers. At North Carolina A & T State University, we have 300 undergraduate fitness majors who desire to work in the health science or fitness leadership field. In addition to coursework in fitness leadership and exercise science, most of the students are also required to take four courses in health as a part of the health cluster. Many of these students are interested in a future career in physical therapy, whereas others desire a career as a coach or recreation administrator. By working in the fitness industry, they can

both promote healthy behaviors and motivate people in their communities to practice healthy lifestyles. This paper will describe health behaviors of 70 male fitness science students attending a Historically Black College or University (HBCU) in the Southeastern United States. This paper is significant because it describes the behaviors of a group of majors who are African American males. Not only do African American males have the shortest life expectancy of any other group in the country. They also have higher levels of academic failure. Thus, having a large number of males in a science rich major is noteworthy. Due to the rigor of science courses (anatomy and physiology, kinesiology, exercise physiology, nutrition, and research methods), most exercise science programs do not have large numbers of minority students. The findings of this study are also important because males living in the south reside in the stroke belt, which has a higher incidence of hypertension and cardiovascular disease – conditions that result from unhealthy lifestyles. In our state, cancer is the leading cause of death versus heart disease, which is the not case in most parts of the United States. Students’ behaviors (for example obesity, workouts, tobacco use) related to CVD will be described in this paper. Smoking, the leading behavioral cause of death is associated with both heart disease and cancer. The second main issue discussed in this paper is students’ seatbelt use which is associated with the 2nd leading cause of death among black males aged 15 – 24. Prior studies of physicians and physical therapists indicate that both groups have

The findings from this research can be useful to instructors teaching courses in nutrition and fitness. Further it can be helpful to health and physical educators who work in the field and serve as role models to preservice teachers. Lastly, it can assist health promotion faculty and staff who work with mentoring programs (i.e. exercise buddies, nutrition peer educators) that use undergraduate students as peer facilitators. It is important that fitness professionals be aware of the value of using appropriate versus inappropriate methods of weight management techniques. This can reduce their chances of harming themselves as well as promoting incorrect or harmful methods among their future students or clients. For example, the questionable behaviors of several coaches (related to nutrition and weight management) have been publicized in the news media in recent months. A second example is of a student who received an award for promoting responsible use of alcohol, but was later guilty for having alcohol in the residence hall. Thus, the purpose of this study is to ascertain the health practices of undergraduate student fitness majors. METHODS Participants A convenience sample of male fitness majors were recruited in exercise science classes at an urban and public university on the east coast. Classroom instructors explained the purpose of the research and distributed questionnaires, which were completed and collected during the classes. They also were entered into a drawing for a $25.00 gift certificate from the bookstore. Participants signed inform consent

forms. The University’s Human Subjects Review Panel approved the study. Instrument In the first section of the anonymous, self-administered questionnaire, student demographic information was collected. The other sections of the survey assessed student health behaviors including (1) tobacco use, (2) weight goals, and (3) weight management activities during the past week. The selfreported heights and weights were used to calculate the participants’ body mass index (BMI). Sound weight loss methods were considered to be “exercise” and “healthy eating.” Unsound weight loss methods were rated as “diet pills” or “vomiting.” Data Analysis The data was analyzed using SPSS 16. Frequencies and percentages were conducted. Binominal tests were also performed to determine differences by housing status, year in school, and employment. RESULTS The 72 participants in this study were African American males and fitness science majors. Two (2) students had incomplete surveys and were removed from the analyses. Most of the participants in this study were aged 18 – 22 (81.3%), juniors and seniors (70.9%), full time students (95.8%), unemployed (51.4%), had health insurance (77.8%) and lived off campus (57%). Few were in Greek organizations (8.6%) or freshmen (15.3%). The majority of the students did report their height (97.2%) and weight (97.2%). Almost one half (39.6%) reported weight more than 200 pounds. The mean BMIs was 28.25 (SD 6.0), ranging from 19 through 45. The mean weight was 195.96 (SD 43.64) ranging from 130 – 325 pounds. Most students believed that they were the right weight even though nearly 2/3 were overweight or obese (65.7%). Students indicated that they were using exercise for weight loss more frequently than dieting. Only 1/3 of the students indicated that they were at their desired weight. The behaviors of normal weight students were compared to the overweight/obese students. Although BMI

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higher levels of physical activity and less alcohol and tobacco use than the general population. For example, more than 60% of both groups reported participating in regular physical activity. Less than 2% of physicians reported smoking. Few studies have examined the health behaviors of fitness science majors. Small numbers of males have participated in earlier studies. Studies of male nursing majors found that the males were less likely to smoke, use seatbelts or have a job that they enjoyed than the female nursing students. This paper will add to the literature on health behaviors of students who are in training to become leaders and role models in the health and fitness industry.

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was not significant for risky behaviors, the overweight students were less likely to wear seatbelts as a passenger or when driving (p >.05); and more likely to smoke (p >.05). The year in school did significantly adversely affect students’ health behaviors. The 3rd and 4th year students were more likely to smoke, be overweight, and fail to wear seatbelts. Perhaps the stress of more difficult classes or multiple roles influenced poorer health choices.

DISCUSSION Although students are participate in a high number of classes that promote healthy behaviors, health risks are practiced by a significant number of students. For example, smoking is the leading behavioral cause of death. The number of smokers among this group of fitness majors (14%) is consistent with the rate of smoking among black college students in other studies (Fennell, 2000; Gary, 2006). Likewise, there is a high incidence of failing to wear seatbelts among the students in this study. Only 44% reported that they always wear a seatbelt when driving. Even rare seatbelt use was higher when driving. Should instruction for fitness majors include more self assessment, goal setting, and support for development and maintenance of healthy lifestyles? Perhaps students enter the profession wanting to avoid medical conditions that run in their families, including obesity, heart disease, diabetes and/or cancer. Others may desire to serve as physical therapists to help rehabilitate persons injured during sports or other types of accidents (falls, automobile). Unfortunately, because health status is often the result of lifestyle behaviors, many students may find themselves in similar situations unless they adapt healthier lifestyles. It is not unusual for young people to believe that they may stop smoking, eating fast food, and riding without seatbelts in the future. Unfortunately, some risk taking of the fitness majors in this paper mirror the unhealthy behaviors of young adults who are not fitness behaviors. For example, with regards to smoking the numbers are very similar for the fitness majors as for black college youth (Fennell, 1997) and slightly higher than that of black college youth reported in the CORE Alcohol and Drug use survey (2006). Likewise, the rates of failing to wear seatbelts were extremely high. Even the obesity levels were

high. Because this study did not assess body fat composition or fat to muscle ratio, we are unable to demonstrate that the BMI accurately determined overweight status consistently. Conclusion Are students taking health risks to fit in with the male macho stereotypical images? Are they afraid that practicing healthy behaviors will make them less macho? It is assumed that the preventive practices of fitness science students are greater than those of the general public. Do we expect our majors to practice healthy behaviors? The selection of lifestyle factors can affect the students’ abilities to be effective in their future roles as promoters of fitness and health. The will be perceived as role models. Their students and clients will expect them to apply their professional knowledge to their own lifestyle. The findings of this study provide a profile of the health behaviors of fitness majors in one university’s fitness science undergraduate program. The research literature has scarce examination of this issue among fitness majors. Although the sample size is small and self-report data was used to obtain the participants’ weights and heights, the results serve as an indicator that these youth are currently practicing risky behaviors that may not only put their health at risk, but may also adversely influence their effectiveness in their future roles as fitness professionals. The students and clients that they serve in their future careers will likely expect them to practice model healthy behaviors, just as parishioners expect preachers to behave morally and above reproach. It is a tall order, but we need to expose the students to health information that includes self care and behavior change, as well as, resources that are available to assist them (Staib, Fusner & Consolo, 2006).. Social norms marketing campaigns and peer education and challenges can be used to gently motivate students to practice healthier lifestyles. Acknowledgements I thank the American Cancer Society for partial funding to conduct this study. I also thank Dr. Paul Ankomah, Mr. Ted Eaves, Dr. Brenda Swearingin and Ms. Shandolyn Jones for their assistance with this study.

Groth, J; Ayers, S.; Miller, M & Arbogast, W. (2008). Self-reported health and fitness habits of certified athletic trainers. Journal of Athletic Training, 43, 617 – 623. McArthur, L.H. & Howard, A.B. (2001). Dietetics majors’ weight-reduction beliefs, behaviors, and information sources. Journal of American College Health, 49, 175 – 181. Staib, S.; Fusner, S. & Consolo, K. (2006). How healthy are your nursing students? Teaching and Learning in Nursing, 1, 55-60.

Table 1. Selected Sample Characteristics Obesity Status Nonobese Overweight Obese

Frequency 24 24 22

Percent 34.3 34.3 31.4

NCAAHPERD Research Award Winners The following were awarded at the NCAAHPERD convention: Undergraduate Research Award Student: Doaw Xing East Carolina University Exploring Health Loci of Control Among College Students

Graduate Student Research Award Students: Krista Neumann, Jenny Smith and Jessica Clontz Western Carolina University The Effects of a Sport Education Season on MVPA, Skill Learning and Perceived Enjoyment

Congratulations to All!

JOIN US IN THE FALL FOR

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References Fennell, R. (1997). Health behaviors of students attending historically black colleges and universities: results from the national risk behavior survey. Journal of American College Health, 22, 109 – 117.

MOVEMENT MATTERS 64th Annual NCAAHPERD Convention November 16-19, 2011 Winston-Salem, NC GET INVOLVED! Apply to present Nominate a colleague for an award www.ncaahperd.org

African American Students’ Perceptions of, and Interest in, NASCAR Jamie Robbins, James Hand, and Travis Teague,

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Winston-Salem State University

Abstract Research on African American sport preferences has primarily focused on basketball, baseball and golf. No known empirical investigations have assessed the perceptions of African Americans with regard to NASCAR Sprint Cup racing, one of the most popular American spectator sports. The current study questioned 295 African American college students concerning their interest in, and perceptions of, NASCAR. Findings revealed that African American college students do not prefer NASCAR, are not fans of the sport, and consider it to be a Caucasian sport. However, findings indicated that 52% of those who attended a NASCAR race found it very enjoyable, while only 8% did not enjoy the race. Discussion of results will explain the significance of these findings while providing suggestions for increasing diversity in the sport. Keywords: Race, motorsports, sports Athletes in various sports are often identifiable by physical characteristics such as height, weight, musculature or skin color. It is rare to see a short basketball player, a tall gymnast or an African American race car driver. Although individuals rarely choose to watch sports based on the height or weight of athletes, skin color may reveal a different story. Researchers have addressed interest in and participation of African Americans in sports like golf, baseball and basketball over the years (Dawkins, 2004; Hatfield, 1996; Ogden, 2003; Ogden & Hilt, 2003). Shifts in interest have been identified and explained by both internal and external race related factors. Specifically, the low number of African Americans in golf has been explained by a lack of interest and the golf structure itself (Dawkins, 2004; Hatfield, 1996). The drop in participation and interest in baseball has been

attributed to the loss of the Negro Leagues (Early, 2000). Further declines have also been associated with a lack of resources, in addition to parental and community-based support (Ogden, 2003). While there are fewer African Americans involved in both baseball and golf, there is no scarcity of African Americans on the basketball courts. According to Ogden and Hilt (2003) basketball has become a part of the African American racial identity, thus demonstrating the strong link between race and sport preference. Basketball has been said to be a part of who African Americans are, not just what they like to watch (Ogden & Hilt, 2003). Sports, therefore, become ingrained in the community, which leads to even greater interest and participation among future generations. Preference of a certain population toward one sport versus another is important for individuals interested in recreation, specifically, as well as those concerned with the business of sport. Greater interest and fans draws more money and enhances the marketability of particular athletes and merchandise. In addition, identifying what one group prefers to do in their leisure time may provide greater insight into people and communities as a whole. Therefore, the current study aimed to identify African American college students’ perceptions of, and interest in, NASCAR Sprint Cup racing. In America, especially the South, NASCAR is one of the most popular spectator sports. Still, there are few, if any studies, focused on motor sports in general and there are no existing studies that track African American’s perceptions of or interest in the sport. The current study aimed to uncover how African American college students at a Southern Historically Black College/University (HBCU) perceived the sport of NASCAR Sprint Cup racing and their general level of interest in the sport. NASCAR has had the reputation of being an

Theories of Sport Interest It is evident that many factors may influence whether an individual, population or culture adopts or rejects a sport. Much of the literature focuses on “constraints” to participation only; however, Raymore (2002) adapted an earlier model for understanding leisure time choices by including both constraints and facilitators. More specifically, the model explains participation or non-participation in leisure time activity as a result of either (a) intrapersonal, (b) interpersonal, or (c) structural, facilitators or constraints. Constraints are explained as factors influencing non-participation, while facilitators promote participation in certain leisure activities. More specifically, Raymore (2002) proposes that personality, self-efficacy, past experiences, peers, family, gender, and ethnicity to name a few, all act as either facilitators or constraints to participation. Other researchers have identified similar influences including: (a) feelings of competency (i.e. playing what you are good at), and (b) social persuasion (i.e. playing what others tell us we are good at). According to Harter’s Competence Motivation theory, people are more likely to continue playing sports in which they have been

successful (Ogden, 2003). Similarly, people tend to practice and spend more time on sports when praised by others. According to the selffulfilling prophecy theory (Merton, 1948), others can impact feelings and behaviors through verbal and non-verbal responses. Therefore, if society believes African Americans are better at basketball than Caucasians, it is more likely to provide the experiences necessary to make that true. Parents, teachers and coaches may unintentionally treat African American children differently, leading them to believe they are good at the sport. Promoting interest in a sport early is significant since individuals who play a sport are likely to be future fans as well. Additional reasons for the shift of interest in certain sports have been explained by a lack of facilities, influence of role models and the idea of being “welcome.” It is cheaper and easier to find a basketball and a hoop than a baseball diamond or golf clubs (Ogden, 2003). Similarly, all of those sports are more accessible and inexpensive in comparison to race car driving. Aside from not having the facilities to engage in or watch racing as a child, or the money to fund such endeavors, African American children are not exposed to race car drivers as role models. African American children have an abundance of African American role models in basketball (Ogden & Hilt, 2003). Research shows that individuals who have public athletic role models during childhood are more likely to grow up and play that sport (Giuliano et al., 2007). Watching others and engaging in the sport further extends the interest of others in their environment (i.e. family and community), thus increasing the reach of basketball and explaining the limited attention to NASCAR. Ogden (2004) proposed that individuals who engage in sport are socially and culturally conditioned. They feel most comfortable in certain settings. This sense of belonging is perpetuated by family, friends and cultural forces. The media uses this and accentuates this sense of welcomeness, thus encouraging further interest. Philipp (1999) studied African Americans’ perceptions of “welcomeness” in a variety of activities. Responses showed that African Americans felt they were “somewhat welcome” and “somewhat unwelcome” in (a) going to the beach, (b) playing tennis, (c) soccer, (d) boating/sailing, (e) symphony, (f) hunting, or (g) camping. Interestingly,

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all-white sport for generations (Martin, 1997). Very few minority drivers have made their way to the most coveted of all NASCAR series, the NASCAR Sprint Cup. In an attempt at changing the image of the sport and recruiting a more diverse fan base, NASCAR initiated the “Drive for Diversity” program in 2004. The purpose of the program was to provide minority and female drivers and crew members a chance at being seen and heard on the NASCAR circuit (www.drivefordiversity.com). While fostering minority drivers and crew members, NASCAR hoped to attract more minority fans to the sport. Several articles from the popular press have claimed that this initiative has not been very effective at truly integrating the sport. Television ratings have generally been down for the past two years and although some minority crew members and team executives have appeared on the scene, there is still question as to whether NASCAR’s image as a “whiteman’s sport” has changed. Consequently, it is important to identify the current perceptions of African Americans before it will be possible to change those beliefs and increase viewership and interest.

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they only felt “welcome” on the basketball courts. More recently, different preferences in leisure activities were identified between African American and Caucasian individuals (Shinew, Floyd, & Parry, 2004). According to West (1989), African Americans may choose leisure activities according to the “blackness” or “whiteness” of the activity.

There are obviously many factors that impact leisure activity participation and interest. Everything from history of the sport, accessibility, competency and welcomeness impact whether individuals choose to go to a baseball game, play a round of golf or attend a NASCAR race. Currently the literature is limited to a few popular sports, while negating one of the most popular spectator sports in the country. The current study investigated students’ perceptions of, and interest in, NASCAR at an HBCU. It was hypothesized that the majority of African American students would show little interest in NASCAR Sprint Cup racing, viewing it as a “Caucasian-only” sport where they would not fit in. Methods Participants Three hundred and thirty seven college students from a HBCU participated in the study. Of the participating students, 84 (24.9%) were male and 253 (75.1%) were female, which is fairly representative of the University student body (71% female, 29% male). Seventy five percent were African American (n= 295). Remaining participants classified their race as Caucasian (n= 27); Asian/Pacific Islander (n= 3); Hispanic (n= 3), or other (n= 5). Four participants did not respond. Data will be presented for the African American students only as the purpose of the study was to understand their views regarding NASCAR Sprint Cup racing. All participants were recruited from large classes at a local HBCU. Stratified sampling was used to ensure selection of participants from all departments on campus. Classes containing possible participants were selected from a complete list of all undergraduate classes composed of at least 35 students. Two perspective courses from each department were randomly chosen from the list and the instructors were asked to provide class time for students to complete the survey.

Measurements All participants were asked to complete a consent form followed by a 31 item survey entitled, The NASCAR Sprint Cup Survey. Due to the novelty of research in the area, the survey was created by the investigators. It was pilot tested with a variety of students and professionals in the fields of motor sport management and sport psychology. The participants in the pilot project were asked to comment on wording, clarity, and overall understandability of the items. Results revealed the questions were clear and understandable as responses corresponded to the questions asked. The instrument assessed demographic information and questions regarding interest in, and perceptions of, NASCAR Sprint Cup Series racing. Results Responses to questions related to: (a) interest in sports in general and NASCAR Sprint Cup racing specifically; (b) attendance at sporting events in general and NASCAR Sprint Cup racing specifically; (c) being a fan and fitting in; (d) enjoyment at races; and (e) perception of NASCAR Sprint Cup racing as a Caucasian sport. Tables 1-3 reveal “interest in” and “perceptions of” NASCAR Sprint Cup racing for both male and female African American students at the HBCU. Further results are provided with regard to gender and the aforementioned topics as data indicated significant differences between responses of male and female African American students. Results from the collapsed data of all 295 African American respondents indicated that 85 percent reported enjoying watching sports on television, but only 39% reported having watched a NASCAR Sprint Cup race on television (see Table 1, next page). Thus, although the majority of students enjoy watching sports on television, most have never watched a NASCAR Sprint Cup race. Similarly, the majority (91%) of African Americans surveyed reported that they enjoy attending sporting events in person. However, only 12 out of 292 (4%) respondents indicated that they actually attended a NASCAR Sprint Cup race in the past five years (see Table 2, next page).

Table 1 African American Responses to “enjoy watching sports/NASCAR on television” Survey Item Yes No Do you enjoy watching 248 (85%) 44 (15%) sports on television? 114 (39%)

180 (61%)

Table 2 African American responses to “enjoy attending sports/NASCAR in person” Survey Item Yes No Do you enjoy attending 267 (91%) 26 (9%) professional sporting events in person? Have you attended a NASCAR 12 (4%) 280 (96%) Sprint Cup race in the past five years? Further results revealed that 71% of African Americans polled did not consider themselves to be NASCAR Sprint Cup fans. Only five percent of participants claimed to be fans of the sport. Additionally, only 15% of respondents felt they would “fit in” if they attended a race, and 45% of respondents believed NASCAR Sprint Cup racing was a Caucasian sport. Only 25 out of 295 African American students surveyed had ever attended a race. Interestingly, only eight of those 25 reported not enjoying the event (see Table 3). Table 3 African American perceptions of NASCAR Sprint Cup Series Survey Item

Strongly Disagree Disagree

Neither agree Agree or disagree

Strongly Agree

I am definitely a 131(45%) NASCAR Sprint Cup fan.

76 (26%)

68 (23%)

12 (4%)

4 (1%)

I would definitely fit in if I were to attend a NASCAR Sprint Cup Race.

72 (25%)

95 (33%)

33 (11%)

11 (4%)

40 (14%)

99 (34%)

60 (21%)

70 (24%)

1 (4%)

10 (40%)

9 (36%)

4 (16%)

81 (28%)

NASCAR Sprint Cup 19 (7%) racing is definitely a Caucasian sport. My experience at a 1 (4%) NASCAR Sprint Cup race was very enjoyable.

It also should be noted that there were significant differences (p < .05) between male and female respondents on six out of the eight questions asked. Females scored similar to males with regard to beliefs about “fitting in” at a NASCAR Sprint Cup race (p = .869) and the perception of NASCAR as a Caucasian sport (p = .792). However, a significantly higher percentage of males watch sports on television (p = .000), watch NASCAR on television (p = .028), enjoy attending sports in person (p = .000), and enjoy attending NASCAR Sprint Cup races (p = .000) when compared with their female counterparts. Significantly more (p = .016) males than females also reported being a NASCAR Sprint Cup fan. continued...

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Have you ever watched a NASCAR Sprint Cup race on television?

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Discussion

African-American participation within the sport of NASCAR racing has been very limited. Only one African American man, Wendell Scott Jr., has ever won at the highest levels of stock car competition, this occurring in 1963. Various reasons, including minimal African American representation in the sport could account for the low interest in NASCAR among African Americans. Research has indicated that numerous factors impact a person’s decision to participate in or become a spectator of a sport. Thus the history of the sport, accessibility, competency, and welcomeness all figure into the complex decision of becoming a fan of NASCAR Sprint Cup racing. The results of the current study indicated that there are perceptions and opinions among AfricanAmerican college students that preclude their propensity to be involved in NASCAR Sprint Cup racing. In large measure, African-American students surveyed are not NASCAR Sprint Cup fans (71%). This may in part be due to their perception that the sport is “definitely a Caucasian sport,” which was reported by 45% of respondents. Similar to Shinew et al. (2004), findings could be explained as African Americans choosing not to conform to “whitemainstream activities” (p.195). According to Washburne & Wall (1980) leisure choices may be selected to maintain intergroup differences. Thus, African American college students would not want to participate in leisure time activities they deem to be “Caucasian” sports. Other possible reasons the majority of participants claimed not to be NASCAR fans could include a lack of resources and opportunities for participation coupled with basically no AfricanAmerican drivers at NASCAR’s highest levels. Unlike the numerous basketball courts on college campuses, constant talk of “March Madness” or how the local team is fairing, NASCAR does not get as much daily non-media provoked publicity. According to Raymore (2002) structural facilitators and constraints influence leisure time pursuits. Therefore, local basketball courts facilitate African American interest in the sport, whereas, race tracks may be considered a constraint. More specifically, formal and informal basketball games are more easily accessible than NASCAR races. Additionally, interest in part is influenced by a collective identity. It has been said that baseball

lost its African American fans with the demise of the Negro Leagues (Ogden & Hilt, 2003). Individuals prefer activities where they view others like them, thus the activity becomes a part of their social identity (Ogden & Hilt, 2003). Not all NASCAR Sprint Cup drivers are Caucasian, but currently there are no African American drivers, which may dissuade many potential African American fans. The current study confirmed the notion that African American students are not typically NASCAR fans; however, they do consider themselves to be sports fans in general. Results of this study indicate that African-American college students enjoy watching sports on television and enjoy attending sporting events in person. While television and “in-person” viewership rates among respondents were high, 85 and 91 percent respectively, only 39% of African-Americans surveyed indicated that they had watched a NASCAR Sprint Cup race on television. Even more substantial was the fact that only 12(4%) of the 295 AfricanAmerican students surveyed had attended a Sprint Cup race in the previous five years. Again, 267 students responded that they enjoyed attending sporting events in person, but only 12 had actually attended a NASCAR Sprint Cup race in the last five years. Finally, of the 280 students indicating they had not personally attended a race, over half of those reported feeling as if they would not fit in at such an event. This confirms the “welcomeness” theory, which states that individuals will attend and participate in events only when they feel welcome (Ogden, 2004; Philipp, 1999). Just as African Americans reported only feeling “somewhat welcome” or “somewhat unwelcome” at a tennis match, soccer game, or hunting; African American students in the current study appear to share those thoughts with regard to NASCAR Sprint Cup races. Unless these individuals see others like them enjoying the events or hear about the races from family and friends, these impressions are unlikely to change. While the number was quite small with regards to African-American students who had attended a race in the past five years (12 or four percent), it is notable that 52% of those who have ever attended reported that the experience was “very enjoyable” and only 8% indicated they definitely did not enjoy the experience. This data, while very limited,

The results of this study seem to indicate that African-Americans, more specifically, African-American college students at an HBCU currently are not fans of NASCAR Sprint Cup racing, do not attend these events, and do not feel comfortable with the idea of attending such an event. Future studies will be necessary to determine reasons for negative perceptions of the sport. Follow up questions should be asked to identify whether the issue of non-interest in the sport is truly due to race or perhaps monetary constraints, facility constraints, or a mere lack of exposure. Additionally, a greater number of participants must be surveyed to determine if there are differences with regard to age, region, socio-economic level, and gender. The current finding regarding female interest in NASCAR compared to male interest is notable and deserves further attention. Therefore, follow up studies are needed to define specific reasons for the lack of interest in NASCAR Sprint Cup racing among African Americans. In addition, experimental studies could help identify whether attending a race actually changes individuals’ perceptions about the sport. Ultimately, the current study provides a limited view of how African American college students from a single university perceive the sport of NASCAR and how interested they are in the sport. Future studies must look at whether these findings can be generalized to African Americans as a whole and how those perceptions and interests can be changed to enhance participation, and/ or interest in NASCAR Sprint Cup racing.

References Dawkins, M. P. (2004). Race relations and the sport of golf: The African American golf legacy. The Western Journal of Black Studies, 28, 327-331. Early, G. (2000). Why baseball was the black national pastime. In T. Boyd & K.L. Shropshire (Eds.), Basketball Jones (pp. 27-50). New York: New York University Press. Giuliano, T.A., Turner, K.L., Lundquist, J.C., & Knight, J. L. (2007). Gender and the selection of public athletic role models. Journal of Sport Behavior, 30, 161-198. Hatfield, D. (1996). The Jack Nicklaus syndrome. The Humanist, 56, 38-39. Martin, G. (1997). The great white way; NASCAR to Formula One, auto racing is devoid of minority participation. The Houston Chronicle (Houston, TX) (Sept 21, 1997). Merton, R. K. (1948). The self-fulfilling prophecy. Antioch Review, 8, 193-210. Ogden, D. C. (2003). An approach to studying African American youth interest and involvement in baseball. Presented at the Tenth Annual NINE Spring Training Conference, March 20-23. Ogden, D. C (2004). The welcome theory: An explanation for the decreasing number of African Americans in baseball. Presented at the Ninth Annual Conference POCPWI. Ogden, D. C., Hilt, M. L. (2003). Collective identity and basketball: An explanation for the decreasing number of African Americans on America’s baseball diamonds. Journal of Leisure Research, 35, 213-227.

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indicates that mere race attendance will most likely have a dramatic effect on a person’s perceptions. This again demonstrates that many people choose leisure time activities because of interpersonal and structural reasons and thus if those factors were changed, different activities may be selected. More specifically, if African American college students are exposed to NASCAR, they may actually like it.

Philipp, S. F. (1999). Are we welcome? African – American racial acceptance in leisure activities and the importance given to children’s leisure. Journal of Leisure Research, 32, 121-124.

Knowledge of HIV/AIDS among College Students at a Historically Black University

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Indhu Gopal, Ph.D, Assistant Professor, Karen L. Butler, Ph.D, Professor, Health & Human Performance Department, Johnson C Smith University

ABSRACT African Americans are disproportionately affected by HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) infection (Adedeji et. al, 2009) accounting for 55% of all HIV infections reported among persons aged 13–24 (CDC, 2005). College students' have been shown to have higher risk of HIV infection compared with other age groups (Bazargan, 2000). Students engage in unsafe sex and have multiple partners which are HIV high-risk behaviors (Desiderato & Crawford, 1995). Since college students embody a population at risk, they deserve further HIV prevention interventions. A comprehensive knowledge about HIV and AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) among college students is vital to the prevention of HIV infection. The highest incidence rates of HIV infection were in the Southeastern United States (CDC, 2004). Current researchers determined levels of knowledge about HIV and AIDS transmission and prevention among college students at Johnson C. Smith University, one of the nation’s oldest Historically Black University located in Southeastern United States using a knowledge scale adapted and modified primarily from the National Center for Health Statistics (1993). The survey was administered to 54 male and 97 female undergraduate students, ranging from freshmen to seniors. Eighty five percent of the students were between the ages of 18 to 25, the age range most adversely affected by HIV infection. While the results are suggestive that students understood the general idea about HIV and AIDS, there was a dearth in comprehensive knowledge.

INTRODUCTION Racial disparity exists in the area of HIV and AIDS. Although African Americans represent 12.3% of the U.S. population, they account for 50% of HIV/AIDS diagnoses and are 15 times more likely to be diagnosed with HIV compared to White population (Hall et. al, 2008). A range of issues may contribute to the disproportionate rates of HIV infection among African Americans in the United States, including, poverty, stigma, lack of access to effective HIV prevention services, higher rates of other sexually transmitted diseases, miscalculation of personal risk and not having personally experienced the severity of the early AIDS epidemic and partnering with older black men (CDC, 2008). Besides, they may be sexually adventurous, have multiple partners and not use condoms consistently, may have misperceptions about the risk of transmission from casual contact, and/or unaware of their male partner’s risk factors for HIV infection and the significance of safer sexual practices (Adedeji et. al, 2009). Moreover, African American women represent only 12 percent of the female population in the United States, yet they account for 64 percent of women living with HIV/AIDS at the end of 2006 (CDC, 2006 a) and they had 20 times the rate of diagnosis of AIDS compared to White women by the end of 2005 (Adedeji, et. al, 2009). African American women are most likely to be infected with HIV through high risk heterosexual contact (CDC, 2006). HIV and AIDS cases may be higher among African American college students’ due to the high prevalence of HIV infection among young African Americans in the general population (CDC, 2004). Additionally, the perceived pleasure of unprotected sex has been found to drive college students' participation

The objective of this study was to augment current understanding about HIV and AIDS knowledge among students at Johnson C. Smith University, serving approximately 1500 students (roughly 60% female and 40% male). Ninety nine percent of students enrolled are full time and 85% of them are between ages 18 to 25, the age group most adversely affected by HIV. Currently, the student body is about 98% African Americans, with a diversity of socioeconomic and geographical backgrounds. This study proposed to provide information about student knowledge about HIV and AIDS and explore whether students have detailed information about safe sex practices. The study also hopes to reach out to this group which is most at risk and provide the necessary tools to reduce transmission of HIV. This exploratory study found that while students had some knowledge about HIV and AIDS, unfortunately, this investigation also supported the conclusion that a lack of comprehensive information about HIV and AIDS could lead to risky sexual behaviors. METHODS Approval for the study was obtained from Johnson C. Smith University’s institutional review board. Participants for this study were recruited using flyers and classroom announcements. The support of the instructors was solicited in order to make announcements and recruit students to take the survey. Survey was implemented outside of the class time. The purpose, procedures, and time commitment were described and each student was given a copy of the informed consent statement. Two student volunteers were also recruited to assist in data collection. A thirty- minute training was conducted on how to administer the surveys and each student volunteer read from a uniform script to assure continuity in instruction and data collection.

Data Collecting Procedure The survey was administered on a designated day during the fall semester in 2005. After students were given the informed consent statement, the purpose and procedures of the study were discussed. Involvement in this study was voluntary. Further, before the questionnaires were administered they were assured that their privacy would be protected through anonymity and confidentiality. To obtain honest responses, participants were not allowed to communicate during the survey. The survey took approximately 20 minutes to complete. Instrumentation To measure knowledge about HIV and AIDS a knowledge scale was adapted and modified primarily from the National Center for Health Statistics (1993). The survey consisted of two parts. Part I had ten questions on background information, including gender, age, racial/ ethnic group, and sexual orientation (Tables I & II). Part II consisted of twenty true/false questions and fifteen multiple choice questions dealing with knowledge about HIV and AIDS (Tables III & IV). Data was analyzed using frequency tabulations by Dr. Gerald, Agbegha, a professor in Statistics, at Johnson C. Smith University. RESULTS Demographics The sample included 151 students enrolled as freshmen through seniors. They ranged in age from 18 to 25 years with a mean of 19.25 years. The largest number of students aged 19. There were 54 males and 97 females with no one reporting “transgender”. In reference to classification, the greatest number of students included sophomores. Two students indicated they were married and 4 students reported having children. (Tables I & II represent demographics). Knowledge Students’ knowledge about AIDS is indicated in Tables III & IV. The items that yielded the most correct answers ranged from 83% to 99% correct. Ninety six percent of the participants were aware of HIV and AIDS; while 88% of the students understood that African Americans were affected with HIV more than any other racial/ethnic group and 88% knew that HIV can

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in high-risk sexual activities (Parsons et. al, 2000). Futhermore, the number of total cases of HIV infection among men aged 18-30 years in North Carolina college students have been rapidly increasing since 2001 (Hightow et. al, 2005).

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be transmitted to others through body fluids. Only 83% of the participants knew that if a person is HIV positive he may not have AIDS. In reference to items most often answered incorrectly, results indicate that there are several misconceptions. For example, 32% of students believed that “AIDS is seen primarily in MSM (men who have sex with men)” and only 45% knew that “using alcohol or drugs before or during sex can increase a person’s risk of getting HIV”, and 7% did not know that young children can get AIDS. Ninety nine percent of students answered the question, “can you tell if someone is HIV positive by looking at the person” wrong and 95% of them had incorrect answer for the question, “a person can be infected with HIV the first time they have unprotected sex.” Also, 35% did not know that you can’t get infected through sharing eating utensils with an infected person and 32% (N = 48) did not know that a person cannot be infected by mosquito bites. DISCUSSION Knowledge This study found that students had some knowledge about HIV and AIDS, unfortunately, this investigation also supported the conclusion that a lack of comprehensive information about HIV and AIDS could lead to risky sexual behaviors. On the negative side, research has found that having HIV and AIDS knowledge does not always result in regular condom use (Johnsonet et. al, 1992). High incidence of unprotected sexual activity has been detemined by studies where college students exhibited inconsistent or no condom use (Lance, 2001). Table IV shows condom use during last sexual intercourse. Although 96% of students surveyed indicated that correct and consistent use of condoms is necessary to prevent HIV infection, only 63% of students used condoms, while 29% did not use condoms. The finding confirmed the prevalence of high risky behavior among college students. It also supported the study that having HIV and AIDS knowledge does not always result in regular condom use (Johnson et. al, 1992). Only 28% thought condoms are 100% effective in preventing HIV and 9% did not know the answer. One hundred and forty two participants responded to the question on sexual partners

for past three months. Fifty two percent indicated they had sexual intercourse with one partner during the past three months, 19% with 2 persons, 8% with more than 3 persons, and 2% did not know. Having multiple sexual partners is a predictable HIV risk. Therefore, reducing the number of sexual partners is a worthwhile HIV prevention strategy. Other Risky Behaviors This study supports previous studies that looked at college students’ who exhibit highrisk behaviors consistent with their age group, including multiple sexual partners and alcohol and other drug use combined with sexual involvement (Gayle, 1990). College students’ may have unprotected sex while under the influence of alcohol or other drugs, which they ordinarily might not do (Cooper, 2002). Thus, the potential exists for the rapid spread of HIV on college campuses. Factors such as peer pressure, lack of maturity, and drug use put college students’ at risk for HIV infection (Singh & Sainini, 2007). This study indicates that college students surveyed have general knowledge about HIV and AIDS, in accordance with previous studies (Stine, 2008; Lance, 2001). Majority of the respondents have heard of the disease AIDS and the causative agent HIV, recognize the symptoms, are aware that the infection cannot be transmitted through casual contact (hand shake) and that African Americans are vulnerable to HIV infection. Also they knew that people can reduce the risk of HIV infection and its ravaging effects on the immune system by using condoms correctly and consistently. Although students have generally been found to be knowledgeable about HIV/AIDS, they seem to have a number of false concepts which could impact risky behaviors. These misconceptions and risk factors could lead to rapid spread of the disease among college students. Fifty five percent have misconceptions about the risk of transmission while under the influence of drugs and alcohol and did not know that “using alcohol or drugs before or during sex can increase a person’s risk of getting HIV”. Alcohol and drugs can alter their judgment, leading to taking risks that might expose them to HIV that they would not take when sober. The false notion that one can get HIV through mosquito bites and from utensils used by infected persons could have more serious implications on those students who think this

CONCLUSION While students had some knowledge about HIV and AIDS, unfortunately, this investigation also supported the conclusion that a lack of comprehensive information about HIV and AIDS could lead to risky sexual behaviors. To fill this knowledge gap, as well as fullfill the request by 89% of students who wanted to know more about HIV and AIDS, this study provided the basis for the design and implementation of a new HIV prevention intervention, through the development and offering of a special topics course: AIDS and HIV Awareness, Education, Prevention & Behavioral Practices, in the Health and Human Performance department. Students could take it as an elective course. The course has been taught every semester by the principle investigator, since fall 2007. In light of this research, future studies should examine students’ self-perceptions of risk in relation to behaviors and determine the relationship between knowledge and behavior change. In addition, it is necessary to determine the impact of the “HED 590: AIDS and HIV Awareness, Education, Prevention & Behavioral Practices” course on students’ knowledge, beliefs, perceptions and sexual

behaviors. The instrument will be reassessed in light of the course content and revised as is appropriate. To overcome some of the limitations of the study, researchers can use scales with more reliability and validity for HIV and AIDS knowledge. Also, the revised survey should include another response option, “don’t know”. This would help us better understand gaps in student knowledge as well as those areas in which they feel confident. A larger sample size would be desirable. Another limitation is that this study looked at only African American students. The next step is to examine differences in HIV knowledge between African American and White college students, since there are very few comparative studies thus far. Bibliography Adedeji, S. A., Titilayo, C. A., Joseph, A. B., and Mainza, Lukobo-Durrell. (2009). HIV sexual risk behaviors and perception of risk among college students: implications for planning interventions. BMC Public Health 9:281 doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-9-281. Bazargan, M., Kelly, E., Stein, J., et. al. (2000). Correlates of HIV risk taking behaviors among African American students: the effect of HIV knowledge, motivation, and behavioral skills. J Natl Med Assoc., 92:391404. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of HIV/AIDS Prevention (2002). Young people at risk: HIV/AIDS among America's Youth. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2004). Cases of HIV Infection and AIDS in the United States. HIV/ AIDS Surveillance Report.15:1-45. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2005). HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report, Vol. 17. Rev ed. Atlanta: US Department of Health and Human Services, CDC: 2007:1–46. http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/topics/ surveillance/ resources/reports/2005report/pdf/2005 SurveillanceReport.pdf. Accessed August 13, 2007.

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is true. They may not be willing to live with an HIV-positive person, or have meals or work with an individual living with the virus. Some students surveyed believed that AIDS is primarily a disease that affects MSM (men having sex with men), obviously this implies that they feel safe since this contributes to the “it won’t happen to me” misperception. Lance (2001) concluded that college students often take risks because they believe they are not in the same high-risk category as gay males (males attracted to same sex) or intravenous drug users. Most alarming was that 95% of the respondents did not know that a person can get HIV infection the first time they have unprotected sex. It is possible that someone may have been infected with HIV during the first unprotected sexual encounter, yet this individual is unaware of the infection. This contradicts the association between knowledge and behavior. These data are really a cause for concern and the misconceptions around AIDS among the college population, could contribute to stigma and discrimination. The most important aspect of AIDS prevention is education and it is important to see that prevention messages are comprehensive.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2006 a). New Estimates of U.S. HIV Prevalence. Fact Sheet. Retrieved from http://origin2.cdc.gov/nchhstp/Newsroom/ docs/prevalence.pdf

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2006). HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report, Vol. 18. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, CDC; 2008: 1-54. (February 18, 200). Retrieved from http:// www.cdc.gov/hiv/topics/ surveillance/ resources/reports/ 2006report/ pdf/2006SurveillanceReport.pdf Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2008). Fact Sheet: MMWR Analysis Provides New Details on HIV Incidence in U.S. Populations. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (September 8). Retrieved from www. cdc.gov/hiv/topics/surveillance/resources/.../ MMWR-incidence.htm Cooper, M. Lynne. (2002). Alcohol Use and Risky Sexual Behavior among College Students and Youth: Evaluating the Evidence. J. Stud. Alcohol, Supplement, No.14: 101117. Desiderato, L.L. and Crawford. H.J. (1995). Risky Sexual Behavior in College Students: Relationship between Number of Sexual Partners, Disclosure of Previous Behavior & Alcohol Use. J. of Youth & Adolescence, Vol 24, No 1. Gayle, H., Keeling, R., and Garcia-Tunon, E. A. (1990). Prevalence of the human immunodeficiency virus among university students. N. Engl. J. Med., 323:1538-1541. Hall. H.I., An, Q., Hutchinson. A., and Sansom, S. (2008): Estimating the lifetime risk of a diagnosis of the HIV infection in 33 states, 2004-2005. Epidemiology and Social Science, 49(3):294-297. Hightow., Lisa. B., MacDonald, P. D., Pilcher, C. D., Kaplan, A.H., Foust, E., Nguyen, Q., and Leone, P. A. (2005). The Unexpected Movement of the HIV Epidemic in the Southeastern United States: Transmission among College Students. J Acquir ImmuneDefic Syndr: 15 April - Volume 38 Issue 5 - pp 531-537. Johnson, E.H., Grant, L., Hinkle, Y.A., Gilbert, D., Willis, C., and Hoopwood, T. (1992). Do African-American men and women differ in their knowledge about AIDS, attitudes about condoms, and sexual behaviors? J. Nat. Med. Assoc., 83:49-64.

Lance, L.M. (2001). HIV/AIDS perceptions and knowledge heterosexual college students within the context of sexual activity: suggestions for the future. College Student Journal, 35, 401- 409. National Center for Health Statistics (1993), Hyattsville, Maryland. Advance Data No. 225. AIDS Knowledge and Attitudes for 1991. Data From the National Health Interview Survey. Aguilar, S. M., Hardy, A. M. January 6, 1993. 16 pp. (PHS) 93-1250.[PDF - 2.1 MB] Parsons, J.T., Halkitis, P.N., and Bimbi, D. (2000). Perceptions of the benefits and costs associated with condom use and unprotected sex among late adolescent college students. J Adolesc. 32:377-391. Singh, S., and Saini, S. (2007). HIV risk perception in relation to peer pressure and drug abuse behavior among adolescents, Indian J of Sexually Transm Dis, [serial online] [cited 2008 Dec 12]; 28:53-4. Retrieved from: http://www.ijstd.org/text. asp?2007/28/1/53/35717 Stine, G. (2008). Aids Update. New York: McGraw Hill.

Table I. Demographic characteristics of the respondents (N =151)

Table III. Students’ knowledge about AIDS among 151 students

Categories

A person cannot be infected by mosquito bites

Classification Freshmen Sophomore Junior Senior

25 63 33 30

16 42 22 20

A person can be infected with HIV the first time they have unprotected sex

Marital status Never been married Married

149 2

99 1

HIV can be transmitted to others through body fluids True

Children Yes No

4 145

3 96

If a man or woman is HIV positive, will they know it

61 8 53

40 5 35

Working Yes Full Time Part Time

Is your mother or female guardian educated? High School 51 34 2 year college 52 34 4 year undergraduate 21 14 Graduate 20 14 Doctorate 4 3 Is your father or male guardian High School 76 2 year college 32 4 year undergraduate 19 Graduate 17 Doctorate 0

educated? 50 21 13 11 0

True

143

133

Yes No Don’t Know

18 109 24

12 72 16

HIV infection can be passed through sharing eating utensils with someone who has AIDS? Age Disagree Don’t Know

27 97 26

18 64 17

You can be infected with HIV from talking to, shaking hand with or playing sports with people with AIDS? Age Disagree Don’t Know

11 133 5

7 88 3

Table III Continued...

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Table II. Demographic characteristics of the respondents (N = 151)

Can HIV be transmitted from mother to child during pregnancy Yes No

144 8

95 5

Can you tell if someone is HIV positive by looking at the person? Yes 150 99 No 2 1 Don’t Know 2 1

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Table IV. Students’ knowledge about condoms, drugs or alcohol & sex partners

Responses

Using alcohol or drugs before or during sex can increase a person’s risk of getting HIV (N=151)

True

Condoms are 100% effective in preventing HIV infection (N=151)

I I I I I

14 29 11 29 70

Condoms must be used correctly and consistently to prevent HIV (N=151)

True

Condoms are 100% effective in preventing HIV (N=151)

Condom use during last sexual intercourse (N=149)

Number of sexual partners during last three months (N=142)

am sure it is true think it is true don’t know think it is false am sure it is false

145

True Did not know

42 14

28 9

Never had intercourse Used Condom Not use Condom

12 94 43

8 63 29

# 0f person =1 # 0f person =2 # 0f person =>3 Don’t remember

74 27 11 3

52 19 8 2

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Using The Processes Of Change To Investigate The Effectiveness Of High School Fitness Education

Abstract Processes of change, commonly associated with the Transtheoretical Model, were used to investigate how the physical activity patterns of adolescents were influenced by a high school fitness education course. The participants were students at three selected high schools in Florida who were in a cognitive-based fitness education course (called Personal Fitness). The instructors of the Personal Fitness course were surveyed to determine which processes (also known as strategies) they typically used during the semester. Students in those same classes completed an impact survey at the end of the course to determine the effectiveness of various processes used by their instructors. The results of the impact surveys indicate students had positive reactions to the instructional strategies used by their instructors and many were assisted in their efforts to be physically active outside of school. The data provide insight on the effectiveness of various processes that were used by the teachers throughout the Personal Fitness class. This study also provides preliminary support for the use of the processes of change data to improve the content of cognitive-based physical education courses. Using the Processes of Change to Investigate the Effectiveness of High School Fitness Education The alarming rate of obesity in our society is well documented (Hossain, Kawar, & El Nahas, 2007) and may be, in part, due to the lack of activity outside of physical education classes (Eaton, et al., 2006). As a result, there have

been strong efforts through a variety of interventions to combat against the high rate of obesity and low levels of physical activity (Dale & Corbin, 2000; Brown & Summerbell, 2009). One intervention in particular includes an innovative health-related fitness curriculum of “conceptual physical education” or “fitness education” which has been adopted by select school districts or entire states. The curriculum in fitness education classes provides a combination of class discussions and laboratories (or class activities) to apply the concepts. Ideally, learning health-related fitness concepts and exercise strategies will assist the students in adhering to fitness principles and developing the lifelong habit of regular exercises. Specific strategies have been identified to help individuals start or stop particular behaviors, including exercise (Marcus, Rossi, Selby, Niaura & Abrams, 1992). It is common in behavior change research to use one of the constructs of the Transtheoretical Model, known as processes of change, to identify strategies that individuals use (or are taught) to assist in changing a habit. Processes of Change. Processes are common activities that individuals use to modify behavior. Since the data indicate that subjects of all ages, including middle and high school students, the use of several processes to assist in behavior change is strongly encouraged (Nigg & Courneya, 1998; Rodgers, Courneya & Bayduza, 2001). There have been ten identified processes of change divided into five experiential processes and five behavioral processes. Using exercise as the desired behavior change, a description of the ten processes follows:

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John C. Acquaviva, Ph.D. Department of Sport Sciences Wingate University

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Experiential Processes: 1. Consciousness raising – the presentation of new information regarding exercise. 2. Dramatic relief - affective aspects of change, often involving intense emotional experiences related to exercising. 3. Environmental reevaluation - consideration and assessment by the individual of how exercise affects the physical and social environment. 4. Self-reevaluation - emotional and cognitive reappraisal of values by the individual in respect to exercise. 5. Social liberation - awareness, availability and acceptance by the individual of alternative, problem-free life styles in society. Behavioral Processes: 6. Counterconditioning - substitution of alternative behaviors for exercise. 7. Helping relationships - trusting, accepting, and utilizing the support of caring others during attempts to start exercising. 8. Reinforcement management - changing the contingencies that control or maintain exercise behavior. 9. Self-liberation - the individual’s choice and commitment to change exercise behavior, including the belief that one can change. 10. Stimulus control - control of situations and other causes that trigger the exercise (Marcus, et al., 1992). There has been plenty of literature involving the Transtheoretical Model on physical activity and adults (Marshall & Biddle, 2001; Kennett, Worth & Forbes, 2009), and several using adolescents as subjects (Nigg & Courneya, 1998; Bucksch, Finne & Kolip, 2008). To date, no research has been found that used the processes of change with a cognitive-based intervention and used adolescents as subjects. The purpose of this study was to use the processes of change to investigate the effects of the Personal Fitness Course on exercise habits outside of school. It should be noted that another major construct of the Transtheoretical Model, the stages of change, is not the focus of this article. However, knowledge of the stages can be beneficial, but it is safe to assume that all stages will be represented in each PE class (Rodgers, Courneya & Bayduza, 2001; Lorentzen, Ommundsen & Holme, 2007) (see Figure 1). Most important, students in any stage may respond to any process, but which ones are not absolute or can be predicted (Nigg & Courneya, 1998; Rodgers, Courneya

& Bayduza, 2001), thus the rationale of the methods used here. Methods Participants ne-hundred seventy-one (n=171) ninth and tenth grade students and their physical education teachers from three high schools in Florida participated in this study. All of the students were enrolled in a course called Personal Fitness. The three sets of high school students were called Group A (n=49), Group B (n=63), and Group C (n=59). The teachers in this study were specifically chosen because of their effectiveness, and were recommended by the supervisor of physical education in their county system. The supervisors verified teacher effectiveness through a variety of criteria including: (a) the student’s consistent use of the Personal Fitness textbook, (b) use of student portfolios to monitor progress, and (c) awards the teacher has received due to outstanding physical education instruction. Instruments A total of two instruments were used to collect data in this study. They were: (a) the Teacher’s Processes of Change Questionnaire, and the (b) Impact Questionnaire. Teacher’s Processes of Change Questionnaire. This questionnaire was developed by the researcher to determine the processes that the teachers typically used in their daily or weekly lessons of the Personal Fitness course. One question for each process was asked to collect information on how the process was used. The processes contained on the questionnaire included: (a) dramatic relief, (b) social liberation, (c) helping relationships, (d) self-liberation, (e) stimulus control, and (f) self-reevaluation since an analysis of the Personal Fitness text and instructional materials revealed that these processes are based in the course. Consciousness raising was omitted from this questionnaire since it was assumed to be part of every lesson. The three remaining processes, environmental reevaluation, reinforcement management, and counterconditioning are strategies not seemingly found within the Personal Fitness curriculum. Impact Questionnaire. The Impact Questionnaire was developed by the

Procedures The three teachers who were selected to participate in this study completed and returned the Teacher’s Processes of Change questionnaire. Personal Fitness was then taught by the instructor in the original manner. At the conclusion of the course, the Impact Questionnaires were administered to the students in an effort to determine which processes implemented by the teachers were effective. Intervention Beginning with the 1986-87 school year, the Personal Fitness course in Florida became the statewide physical education high-school graduation requirement. The purpose of the Personal Fitness course is to provide students with opportunities to: 1) Develop an individual, optimal level of fitness; 2) Acquire knowledge of physical fitness concepts; and 3) Understand the significance of lifestyle on one’s health and fitness. The developers of Personal Fitness recommend that the instructors reserve three days for laboratory activities while the remaining two days are for classroom instruction. However, depending on the particular content being covered, size of class, or classroom availability, teachers are free to alter the above mentioned routine (Johnson & Harageones, 1994). Analysis of Data The Impact Questionnaire was used to gather information that helped determine the impact of the specific processes used by their instructor throughout the Personal Fitness course. The responses were collapsed into four categories to demonstrate the impact of the strategies that the teachers used: (a) responses of 1 were classified as “low impact”, (b) responses of 2 and 3 were classified as “some impact”, (c) responses of 4 and 5 were classified as “high impact”, and (d) responses of DNR were classified as “the student does not remember” the activity.

Results Results of Processes of Change Questionnaires The instructor for Group A used four of the possible seven processes (dramatic relief, social liberation, help relationships and selfliberation). Coincidentally, both instructors of Groups B and C indicated they used the same six processes (dramatic relief, social liberation, help relationships, self reevaluation, stimulus control and self-liberation). Recall that all teachers used consciousness raising, but due to the nature of the intervention, it was excluded from the surveys. Below are the questions asked to the teachers to determine if the process was used, and some of their responses: 1. In what ways are students encouraged to reflect on the negative health consequences of inactivity? What do you do in addition to providing them with information? (negative health consequences refer to high stress levels, overweight and personal appearance, etc.) (dramatic relief) • discussion physiological effects when physically inactive. • discussion of stress and its effects. 2. In what ways are students encouraged to exercise outside of school? (social liberation) • notify students of weekly/monthly 5k runs, fun runs, etc. • notify students of special discounts for students at local health club. • extra credit given for students who participates in sports, activities not affiliated with school 3. Do the students have support in their effort to exercise outside of school (other than school sports)? If so, where does this support come from? (helping relationships) • teacher provides feedback on their outof-school exercise program. • students are encouraged to find a workout partner in/out of school. 4. Do the students learn any goal setting techniques to assist in their exercise habits? (self-liberation) • discussion on difference between short and long term goals. • students practice goal setting techniques through journal entries, and other class activities.

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researcher to investigate the perceived impact that specific processes had on the students’ participation in physical activity. Students were asked to recall the processes used by their teacher and rate the impact of each of these activities (strategies) on their exercise levels on a five-point Likert scale ranging from low impact (1) to high impact (5).

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5. Are there any stimuli (e.g. bulletin boards, advertisements) in the classroom or gymnasium that might help encourage the students to be more physically active? (stimulus control) • bulletin boards, posters, advertisements are placed in gymnasium, locker rooms, and classrooms.

6. Are the students given the opportunity to determine how physical activity is affecting them psychologically? If yes, explain how? (self-reevaluation) • discussion/activities of how exercise affects self-confidence, self-esteem, and emotional state. • guest speakers’ discussion on “before and after” effects of habitual exercise. Results of the Impact Questionnaires The intention of this study was to determine the effectiveness of the Personal Fitness class through the Impact Questionnaires. Students in the Personal Fitness classes were asked to recall the processes of change used by their teacher and rate the impact that each of these activities had on their exercise levels outside of school on a five-point Likert scale ranging from low impact (1) to high impact (5). The scale also included an option for students if they did not remember (DNR) the particular process being taught. To simplify the process of change data, all three sets of students from the different high schools (Groups A, B and C) were collapsed (see Table 1). Note however, that the total number of responses was not identical in the final two processes of Table 1 since one teacher did not use those particular processes in their instruction practices. In short, 75% of the students revealed every process (with the exception of stimulus control) was considered effective when the “some impact” and “high impact” numbers were combined. In addition, as a way to summarize the effectiveness of the intervention, when students were asked if the Personal Fitness class had directly helped them become more physically active outside of school, 47% of Groups A and C students said yes, while 41% responded similarly from Group B.

Discussion and Conclusions It appears that specific strategies used within a cognitive-based physical education course influence a student’s effort to be active outside of physical education class. For years, the literature has shown the effectiveness of these processes on adults, so this data confirms that these strategies can have its impact on a younger population as well. This data also provides insight into the specific strategies that all instructors can use when teaching a cognitive-based fitness education course. Despite their effectiveness of the process used by the teachers in this study, there are a few explanations on why their impact could have been limited. First, the time in which change could occur was brief, especially for one school whose classes were taught only over a nineweek period of time (Group A), while the other two were over a four-month period of time (Groups B and C). Although it was assumed that each group’s classes were taught in an effective manner and by a highly competent teacher, perhaps these time-frames are too brief to see major changes in activity patterns among adolescents. Second, since the curriculum focuses on such topics as goal setting and the negative health consequences of inactivity, it is very likely the effects of this class may not be seen for several more months or maybe years. It can be assumed that these ninth and tenth graders are receiving this type of information in a formal class setting for the first time in their lives. Therefore, it may take similar instructional experiences as well as other associated occurrences over a longer period of time to find significant change in stages of exercise. Third, the age of the students in the Personal Fitness class needs to be considered since the state recommends that students in the ninth and tenth grade enroll in this class. It is possible that older students (eleventh or twelfth grade) would benefit more from the Personal Fitness class due to maturity and thus have a greater appreciation of the topics presented. While it is encouraging to see a noticeable percentage of subjects in this study find the processes effective, the assumption is that repeating the processes, and applying them in various ways and over a long period of time

References Brown, T. & Summerbell, C. (2009). Systematic review of school-based interventions that focus on changing dietary intake and physical activity levels to prevent childhood obesity: an update to the obesity guidance produced by the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. Obesity Reviews, 10,110-141. Bucksch, J., Finne, E., & Kolip, P. (2008). The transtheoretical model in the context of physical activity in a school-based sample of German adolescents. European Journal of Sport Science, 6, 403-412. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1997). Guidelines for school and community programs to promote lifelong physical activity among young people. MMWR. 46 (no. RR-6): 1-33. Dale, D. & Corbin, C. (2000) Physical activity participation of high school graduates following exposure to conceptual or traditional physical education. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 71, 61-68. Eaton, D., Kann, L., Kinchen, S., Ross, J., Hawkins, J., Harris, W., â&#x20AC;ŚWechsler, H. (2006). Youth risk behavior surveillance - United States. Journal of School Health, 76, 353-372. Hossain, P., Kawar, B., & El Nahas, M. (2007). Obesity and diabetes in the developing world â&#x20AC;&#x201C; a growing challenge. New England Journal of Medicine, 3, 213-215. Johnson, D.J., & Harageones, E.G. (1994). A health fitness course in secondary physical education: The Florida experience. In Pate, R.R. & Hohn. R.C., (Eds.), Health and Fitness Through Physical Education (pp165-175). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Kennett, D., Worth, N., & Forbes, C. (2009). The contributions of Rosenbaum's model of self-control and the transtheoretical model to the understanding of exercise behavior. Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 6, 602-608. Lorentzen, C., Ommundsen, Y., & Holme, I. (2007). Psychosocial correlates of stages of change in physical activity in an adult community sample. European Journal of Sport Science, 2, 93-106. Marcus, B.H., Rossi, J.S., Selby, V.C., Niaura, R.S., & Abrams, D.B. (1992). The stages of change and processes of exercise adoption and maintenance in a worksite sample. Health Psychology, 11, 386-395. Marshall, S.; & Biddle, S. (2001). The transtheoretical model of behavior change: A meta-analysis of applications to physical activity and exercise. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 4, 229-247. Nigg, C.R., & Courneya, K.S. (1998). Transtheoretical model: examining adolescent behavior. Journal of Adolescent Health, 22, 214-224. Rodgers W., Courneya K., & Bayduza A. (2001). Examination of the transtheoretical model and exercise in 3 populations. American Journal of Health Behavior, 25, 33-41. See Table 1 on next page.

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may be required to show more meaningful change in exercise behavior. However, where maintenance of physical activity is the desired outcome of an intervention, perhaps the adoption of a cognitive-based course like the one in Florida will bring about such adherence.

Table 1 1. Impact of information of negative health consequences of not exercising. (dramatic relief) low impact some impact high impact DNR 15 (9%) 92 (53%) 52 (30%) 12 (7%) 2. Impact of instructor encouraging you to exercise after school and weekends. (social liberation) low impact some impact high impact DNR 30 (17%) 92 (54%) 45 (26%) 4 (2%)

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3. Impact of support from people (other than your teacher) to exercise outside of school. (helping relationships) low impact some impact high impact DNR 39 (23%) 72 (42%) 57 (33%) 3 (1%)

4. Impact of exercise-related goal setting techniques discussed by teacher. (self-liberation) low impact some impact high impact DNR 23 (13%) 85 (50%) 49 (28%) 14 (8%) 5. Impact of bulletin boards and advertisements encouraging active lifestyles. (stimulus control) low impact some impact high impact DNR 56 (46%) 44 (36%) 17 (14%) 6 (4%) 6. Impact of information of exercise on self esteem and stress relief. (self-reevaluation) low impact some impact high impact DNR 14 (11%) 57 (46%) 48 (39%) 4 (3%) Precontemplation

Contemplation

Preparation

Action

Maintenance

(not considering change)

(considering change)

(some change)

(successful change (successful change

less than 6 mos.) more than 6 mos.) _____________________________________________________________________ Consciousness raising Dramatic relief Environmental reevaluation Self-reevaluation Social-liberation Self-liberation Reinforcement Mgmt. Helping relationships Counterconditioning Stimulus control Figure 1. Process of change emphasis for each stage of change.

A Physical Educator’s Guide to the Technology Galaxy

Michael Sloop, West Virginia University East Wake Academy

Todd White, West Virginia University Long Fellow Middle School

Purpose Over the past decade, technology has gotten more sophisticated than ever before. It seems that everyone in our society has some form of technology, whether it is a cell phone or a laptop computer. There has also been a rise in technology in our classrooms, from Smart Boards to projectors. But what about technology in the gym? With YouTube readily accessible, digital photography and video much more economical than 5 years ago, and the rise in popularity of Exer-Gaming, the possibilities for technology in physical education are endless. The purpose of this paper will be to explore several methods of delivering technology to students in physical education to enhance student learning. In addition to student learning, methods to help enhance teacher’s effectiveness will be presented on as well. Program Description Out of all the available technology that can be used in physical education, what comes to mind when someone sees “physical education technology” would be the use of active gaming or exer-gaming. Active gaming is “defined as video games that provide physical activity or exercise through interactive play”, also noting that “these games go beyond simple hand/ finger movements as the primary interface

and require the user to apply full body motion to participate in virtual sports, group fitness exercise, or other interactive physical activities” (Mears & Hansen, 2009, p. 26). Our society is technology-driven in that technology can be used in just about every part of our lives. People have cell phones, HDTV’s, computers, and video games. With “a net-ready generation of learners and an increasing number of policy makers pointing to the importance of learners knowing how to operate in an increasingly digital world”, it seems as if it was just a matter of time before the society we live in would add the tech trend to physical education (Schembri, 2009, p. 12). When students go home, a good majority of them use some type of technology to perform a sedentary activity, such as watching YouTube, texting a friend, or playing their newest game on the PS3. Since these students are so technology savvy, it seems that “today's youth may be motivated to partake in fitness activities that are interactive, technologically driven, and ultimately more rewarding than traditional physical education models” (Sheehan & Katz, 2010, p. 13). For purposes of this abstract/presentation, physical education technology will be broken into 3 categories: gaming technology, assistive technology and physical activity monitoring technology. Gaming technology consists of

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Kevin Eades, West Virginia University Henry County Middle School

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active gaming and Exer-gaming. Examples of gaming technology include: Nintendo Wii, Dance Dance Revolution, iDance, Eye Toy Kinetic, and Brain Bike. Dance Dance Revolution, commonly known as DDR, is probably the most widely known type of active gaming technology, which “requires players to step to the beat and rhythm of various types of music” (Gasperetti, Milford, Blanchard, Yang, Lieberman & Foley, 2010, p. 15). Another popular type of gaming technology is the Eye Toy Kinetic device, which “displays a live video of the game player onto the television screen using a small web-camera” (Gasperetti, Milford, Blanchard, Yang, Lieberman & Foley, 2010, p. 15). Assistive technology would be the more generic types of technology, which includes digital video projectors, computers, digital video cameras, digital photography, student response systems, and MP3 players. Student response systems are becoming more popular in a classroom setting because they provide the student with a sense of anonymity and also provide the teacher with immediate feedback. The teacher has the program on his/her computer and can use the program to project questions on the screen for his/her students to answer. Each student has a small device, often called a “clicker”, which allows the student to choose the answer choice that they believe is correct. After the student answers a particular question, the answer they chose is wirelessly transmitted to the teacher’s computer. Once all of the answers are sent to the teacher, the teacher is able to see who missed a question, who got a question correct, and a percentage of correct answers. The last category, measuring technology, would include any type of technology that a physical education teacher could use to measure student progress, ability, or activity level. Examples of this technology are heart rate monitors, pedometers and the FITNESSGRAM software, etc. Pedometers and heart rate monitors allow the teacher to track a student’s progress, such as the number of steps taken and the target heart rate of a student during vigorous physical activity. The FITNESSGRAM software allows a teacher to administer the fitness test to his/her students, to input all of the data into a database, and to generate an individual print-out of each part of the test that the student completed. On the printout, the student can see recommendations and suggestions for improving his/her fitness levels, which will lead to the student setting a goal to try and reach for the next time he/she

is tested. Some examples of technology for students are the use of video, exer-gaming, pedometers and heart rate monitors. Some examples of technology for teachers are the use of student response systems and fitness testing software. There are many ways to integrate technology into an existing physical education lesson, and two examples will be given to show a “before” and “after” of what the lesson will be like once technology is integrated in. The first example is a strength and conditioning lesson, working on fitness stations. In the gym there are 6 stations: Jump rope, sit-ups, push-ups, fitness steps, shuttle run and medicine balls. Some of the students may not be performing the exercises with proper form and the teacher may not be able to get around to all of the students while they are performing their skills. A way to enhance this lesson through technology would be through the use of the students using digital video during their station work. “Digital video technology, in particular, is a strong tool that can enable students to develop a variety of skills, including research, communication, decision-making, problemsolving, and other higher order criticalthinking skills” (Lim, Pellett & Pellett, 2009, p. 40). Students could partner up with one another and use a hand-held video camera to record each other performing push-ups. After the students have recorded one another, they could hook the video recorder up to a laptop that is in the gym and watch themselves performing the exercise. This would be able to give the student immediate feedback about whether or not the student had correct form or needed to adjust their form for the exercise. Another example is with the use of technology in a dance lesson, specifically adaptive physical education. If a teacher is trying to teach their class a lesson on dance, but some of the students who have disabilities are struggling a little bit more when it comes to the movements of the dance, a way that the teacher could use technology to enhance this lesson would be through the use of a Nintendo Wii, specifically through a game called Just Dance. This game uses a hand-held Wii remote control and minimal foot movement. So, if the teacher has a wheelchair student in class who cannot move around, the student could hold the remote in hand and still be able to dance along with the class. The interesting thing about using this technology is that not all of the students have to hold the remote. If the teacher’s budget only allows for the school to obtain two remotes, the teacher could have

The first thing that goes through a physical educators mind after hearing about interesting technology and seeing its capabilities is the issue one may have with the cost of this technology. Technology can range from being free of charge to being thousands of dollars for high-end exer-gaming equipment. In the examples given, a digital video camera and a Nintendo Wii were used. For the digital video camera, a low-level camera can be purchased for roughly $50 and high-resolution camera will cost around $200. Both cameras connect via a USB connection, which all computers have ports for easy connectivity and transfer. The Nintendo Wii can be purchased for $200, which includes one Wii remote and all the cords needed to hook the Wii up to a TV or projector. All video games have to be purchased extra and cost as low as $20 used to $50 new. If a teacher wanted every student to be able to have their own remote, extra remotes cost $40 each. After all prices are taken into effect, a school still may not be able to afford low-level technology simply because budgets are being cut due to the economic decline. Alternatives to this dilemma are through the use of writing a Physical Education Grant or participating in a fundraising program at the school. According to PEcentral.org, there are several opportunities for grants, including the PEP grant, NASPE grant opportunities and visiting the website Grants4Teachers.com. In addition to the more costly technology possibilities, there are also programs that can be obtained for a low cost or completely free of charge to help enhance technology in physical education classrooms. Brain Pop is an animated website for grades K-12 that allows a teacher to show their students videos related directly to the standards of the subject he/she is teaching. Brain Pop does offer free trials, or you can ask your school’s administration to purchase a school license which allows for all subject area teachers to use this form of technology. Discovery Learning has a program called United Streaming, which is similar to Brain Pop with the use of subject area related videos that students can watch to enhance their learning. This costs as well, but can be purchased for the whole school the same way Brain Pop can be bought. A few free options for enhancing learning through technology are YouTube, which streams videos to a computer at no cost. Windows Movie Maker is a free

downloadable program through Microsoft that allows students and teachers to create and edit videos. Either way you decide to go, whether it be by purchasing high-level equipment or starting out by adding free technology to your school’s physical education program, the opportunities are endless and continue to grow and enhance every day. The purpose of this paper was to share several methods of delivering technology to students to enhance learning in physical education and to also share methods for teacher’s to help enhance their effectiveness in physical education teaching. The three categories of technology were discussed: gaming technology, assistive technology and physical activity monitoring technology. Each category was broken down in detail and several examples were given for each of the types of technology. The cost of this technology was factored in and prices were given for a few technology items that were mentioned. In addition to costly items, low-cost and nocost items were shared as well for teachers with minimal physical education budgets. Last, resources were given involving physical education grants and fundraising. References Gasperetti, B., Milford M., Blanchard D., Yang S.P., Lieberman L., & Foley J.T. (2010). Dance Dance Revolution and EyeToy Kinetic Modifications. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 81(4), 15-17. Lim, J., Pellett H.H., & Pellett, T. (2009). Integrating Digital Video Technology. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 80(6), 40-45. Mears, D., & Hansen, L. (2009). Active Gaming: Definitions, Options and Implementation. Strategies (08924562), 23(2), 26-29. Retrieved from SPORTDiscus with Full Text database.

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students rotate turns using the actual remotes while the other students in class could pretend to hold a remote and still be able to perform the exact same dance routine.

Schembri, G. (2009). Web Tools and their use in teacher HPE. Active & Healthy Magazine, 16 (2/3), 11-12. Sheehan, D., & Katz, L. (2010). Using Interactive Fitness and Exergames to Develop Physical Literacy. Physical & Health Education Journal, 76(1), 12-19. Retrieved from SPORTDiscus with Full Text database.

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Author Guidelines

The North Carolina Journal of the North Carolina Alliance for Athletics, Health, Physical Education, Recreation & Dance (NCAAHPERD) is a professional peer-reviewed journal intended to meet the needs of AHPERD educators and to serve as a forum for socioeconomic, educational, and ethical issues. • Manuscripts submitted to NCJ should not be submitted to other publications simultaneously. • To ensure that topic and treatment are appropriate for NCJ, authors should submit an email query (journal@ncaahperd.org) before preparing the manuscript. • Original data-based research is generally not published in NCJ. Manuscripts with practical implications for educators at all levels are given priority. • Manuscript acceptance is based on originality of material, significance to the PERD profession, validity, and adherence to the prescribed submission requirements stated below. Manuscript Preparation Prepare the manuscript in an electronic format, using an 8.5-by-11-inch page set-up with 1-inch margins. Double-space the entire manuscript, including references and quotations, and number the pages and lines throughout. Do not list author names, affiliations, or contact information on the manuscript; this information should be given in an accompanying letter. Do not use footnotes or endnotes, and do not submit the text in an editing-program format or with “track changes” in the text. Save the manuscript in either a native word-processing format (e.g., Microsoft Word, Wordperfect, Macwrite), or text (ASCII) format. Manuscript Submission Manuscripts must be submitted as email attachments. “Manuscript Submission” should be placed in the subject line of the email. Manuscripts sent as email text will not be read. All submissions must include a cover letter (which may be sent as email text) that references the title of the manuscript and gives the names, academic degrees, positions, and institutional affiliations of all the authors, as well as the corresponding author’s mail address, telephone number, and email address. Manuscript receipt is acknowledged only by email. Manuscript Content Tie manuscript length to the scope of the content, generally limiting articles to between 7 and 16 pages. Simple, straightforward writing—concise, logical, and clear—is best. Focus the manuscript, use examples, capture readers’ interest, and

stimulate their thinking. Avoid educational jargon and passive voice, vary sentence structure, and keep paragraphs short. The NCJ Editorial Board encourages authors to have colleagues review manuscripts before submission. Abstracts. Include an abstract of 250 words or less. The abstracts for accepted articles will appear on the NCJ web site after the article has been published. References. Check all references; authors are responsible for accuracy. Printed references are preferred over web references. For reference style, follow the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (5th ed.). Illustrations. Submit tables, charts, drawings, and graphs in one or more files separate from the text file. Photographs. NCJ encourages authors to submit clear, sharp, well-composed color photographs. Digital photos should be saved at 300 dpi or with the largest possible dimensions. Do not paste digital photos into the text file. The Review Process The editor reviews all manuscripts for appropriateness of topic and conformance to NCJ writing style. If the topic and style are deemed appropriate, manuscripts are sent to at least three reviewers with expertise in the topic area. Allow from 12 to 16 weeks for the review process. Publication Manuscripts are printed in the earliest appropriate and available issue following acceptance. Authors receive two complimentary copies of the issue in which their article appears. Reprinting. Upon request, authors receive permission to reprint their own articles. However, NCJ prohibits the free posting of articles on web sites. Penalty for Plagiarism If it is determined that an article incorporates plagiarized material, the following actions will be taken: (1) the author will receive a formal reprimand from NCJ and from his or her association; (2) a copy of the reprimand will be sent to the author’s institution or place of employment; and (3) the author will be precluded from submitting articles to NCJ for two years following the infraction.

NCAAHPERD Board for 2009-2010 President: Freddie-Lee Heath President-Elect: Arcelia Jeffreys Vice President: Vic Aeby Executive Director: Ron Morrow

Executive Board Physical Education Association pea@ncaahperd.org President: Anne S. Wiggin Past President: Dan Grube

spelt@ncaahperd.org SPELT Coordinator: Dee Hall

Dance Association for North Carolina Educators dance@ncaahperd.org Past President: Kimberly Ashby

Ex-Officio Board Members

ncaahperd@ncaahperd.org Alliance Secretary: Joanna Caves secretary@ncaahperd.org Alliance Parliamentarian Ann H. Dishong Wake County Public School System parliamentarian@ncaahperd.org DPI Vacant NC Department of Public Instruction NCDHHS - Cathy Thomas NC DPH cathy.thomas@dhhs.nc.gov Joint Projects State Coordinator JJ Beale jumphoops@ncaahperd.org

Board of Trustees Class of 2013 – Class of 2011 – eligible through Class of 2012 – eligible through

Artie Kamiya/Linda Harrill Rudisill, Carey Hughley/Rick Barnes, 2014 Dave Gardner/Sarah Langer, 2015

North Carolina Association of Athletic Education athletics@ncaahperd.org President: Keith Cannon President-Elect: Lisa Robertson

North Carolina Association for the Advancement of Health Education health@ncaahperd.org President:Charlotte Williams Rockingham County Schools President-Elect: Phoebe Butler-Ajibade North Carolina A&T State University

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Executive Committee

executiveboard@ncaahperd.org

Student Majors Association

sma@ncaahperd.org President-Elect: Lauren Cranmer High Point University Advisor: Dr. Joe Ellenburg

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Executive Board

Front L-R: SMA President (resigned), Sports Management President Jim Hand, Alliance President Freddie Lee Heath, PEA President Ann Wiggin, Dance President-Elect Marsha Lester (resigned) Back L-R: Sports Management President Elect Hal Walker, SMA President-Elect Lauren Cranmer, Athletics PresidentElect Lisa Robertson, Dance President Evette Clemmons, PEA Vice President Linda Hinkle, Alliance Secretary Joanna Caves, Health President-Elect Phoebe Butler-Ajibade, Athletic President Keith Cannon, Health President Charlotte Williams, Alliance Vice President Vic Aeby.

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