M. B. M. ENGINEERING COLLEGE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE JAI NARAYAN VYAS UNIVERSITY, JODHPUR
DISSERTATION REPORT 2017-2018 INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
SUBMITTED TO:
SUBMITTED BY:
DR. PULKIT GUPTA
NEHA GUPTA B. ARCH IV YEAR M. B. M. ENGINEERING COLLEGE JODHPUR
(COURSE COORDINATOR)
FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE JODHPUR
DECLARATION I hereby declare that this written submission entitled “ INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN ” represents my ideas in my own words and has not been taken from the work of others (as from books, articles, essays, other media and online); and where others’ ideas or words have been included, I have adequately cited and referenced the original sources. Direct quotations from books, journal articles, internet sources, other texts, or any other source whatsoever are acknowledged and the source cited are identified in the dissertation references. No material other than that cited and listed has been used. I also declare that I have adhered to all principles of academic honesty and integrity and have not misrepresented or fabricated or falsified any idea/data/fact source in my submission. This work, or any part of it, has not been previously submitted by me or any other person for assessment on this or any other course of study.
NEHA GUPTA B. Arch IV Year Department Of Architecture M. B. M. Engineering College Jodhpur
Date: __/__/____
CERTIFICATE This is to certify that the Dissertation report made by student Ms. NEHA GUPTA is her bonafide work. The report presented is made by her under my guidance and supervision.
AR. ANSHU AGARWAL (GUIDE) Department Of Architecture M. B. M. Engineering College Jodhpur
AR. ANSHU AGRAWAL Head of Department Department Of Architecture M. B. M. Engineering College Jodhpur
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I have taken efforts in this project. However, it would not have been possible without the kind support and help of many individuals and organizations. I would like to extend my sincere thanks to all of them. I am highly indebted to Ar. Anshu Agrawal (Dissertation guide) and Dr. Pulkit Gupta (Course coordinator) for their guidance and constant supervision as well as for providing necessary information regarding the project & also for their support in completing the project. I would like to express my gratitude towards my parents & member of M.B.M. Engineering College, Jodhpur for their kind co-operation and encouragement which help me in completion of this project. I would like to express my special gratitude and thanks to Ar. Neelam Manjunath and Niharika Pareek for guiding me with the topic and industry persons for giving me such attention and time. My thanks and appreciations also go to my colleague in developing the project and people who have willingly helped me out with their abilities.
ABSTRACT From the beginning of creation, human being was surrounded by nature. Everything in nature is well organized and in harmony with the other parts of it. Through the history, nature has been always a source of inspiration for the human begin in different aspects of their life. Architecture as one of the remarkable features in every society cannot be separated from nature.
architecture, deconstructive architecture, and etc but this study is not going through the philosophy of inspiration from nature and it focusing on the Panch Maha Bhoot . This study has intended to draw the attention of architects as well as architectural students to nature and inspiration from nature in different perspectives.
In this dissertation, the role of nature in architecture has been discussed in order to find out how architecture has been affected by nature throughout the history. Based on the aim of this study, the dissertation concluded that nature has the most optimized organization in terms of low energy construction. In architecture design works even the ones which have been designed so close to nature, still there are some missing parts in one of their forms, function, or structure. Therefore, the best solution for the architects and designers to increase the optimization in their design works is looking at the nature in every aspect deeper and try to apply them as much as they can in their conceptual design of their project which is the heart of the design process, the point at which the actual form, character, and design details of the project are the best established and finalized. Although, there are a wider areas of inspiration from nature studies in architecture like organic architecture, constructive
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TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. OVERVIEW 1.2. AIMS & OBJECTIVES 1.3. METHODOLOGY 1.4. LIMITATION 1.5. DISSERTATION OUTLINE 2. PANCHA-MAHA-BHOOT 2.1. HISTORY 2.2. FIVE ELEMENTS OF NATURE 2.2.1. HUMAN PHILOSOPHY 2.2.2. CYCLE OF INTERRELATION WITH ELEMENTS 2.2.3. SIGNIFICANCE IN VAASTU 3. EARTH 3.1. OVERVIEW 3.2. EARTH OR MUD AS A MATERIAL 3.2.1. STACKED EARTH 3.2.2. RAMMED EARTH 3.2.3. WATTLE AND DAUB 3.2.4. SUPERADOBE 3.2.5. EARTH FILLED IN 3.3. EARTH SHELTERING 3.3.1. TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION 3.3.2. BENEFITS 3.3.3. POTENTIAL PROBLEMS 3.3.4. LANDSCAPE AND SITE PLANNING INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
1 2 2 3 3 5 6 6 8 10 11 12 13 15 16 17 20 22 23 25 26 26
3.3.5. CONSTRUCTION METHODS 3.4. EARTH TUBES 3.4.1. DESIGN 3.4.2. SAFETY 3.4.3. EFFECTIVENESS 3.4.4. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT 4. WATER 4.1. INTRODUCTION 4.2. WATER IN LANDSCAPE 4.2.1. THE ROLE OF WATER IN THE LANDSCAPE AESTHETICS 4.2.2. SELECTING WATER FEATURE MATERIALS 4.2.3. CONCLUSIONS 4.3. RAINWATER HARVESTING 4.3.1. BUILDING STORM DRAIN 4.3.2. SUMMARY 4.4. RECYCLED WATER 4.4.1. WATER COLLECTION AND REUSE 4.4.2. IRRIGATION 4.4.3. INDOOR WATER USE 4.4.4. WATER TREATMENT USING NATURE’S TOOLS 5. AIR 5.1. OVERVIEW 5.2. VENTILATION 5.2.1. FUNCTIONS OF NATURAL VENTILATION 5.2.2. VERTICAL POSITIONING OF APERTURES
29 32 33 35 37 38 39 41 42 43 44 44 52 56 57 57 57 58 58 60 61 64 64
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5.2.3. CATEGORIES OF VENTILATION 5.2.4. VENTILATION RATE STANDARDS 5.3. STACK EFFECT 5.3.1. STACK EFFECT IN BUILDINGS 5.3.2. STACK EFFECT IN FLUE GAS STACKS AND CHIMNEYS 5.3.3. CAUSE FOR THE STACK EFFECT 5.3.4. INDUCED FLOW 5.4. PASSIVE COOLING 5.4.1. PASSIVE COOLING OF BUILDINGS 5.4.2. INDUCED VENTILATION TECHNIQUES 5.4.3. RADIATIVE COOLING 5.4.4. EVAPORATIVE COOLING 5.4.5. EARTH COUPLING 5.5. CONCLUSION 6. FIRE 6.1. OVERVIEW 6.2. ACTIVE DAYLIGHTING 6.2.1. CLOSED LOOP 6.2.2. OPEN LOOP 6.3. BARRA SYSTEM 6.3.1. PASSIVE SOLAR COLLECTOR 6.3.2. THERMAL STORE 6.3.3. INTERMEDIATE THERMAL STORE 6.4. BRISE SOLEIL
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66 66 67 70 71 71 72 73 75 78 80 81 82 84
6.4.1. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOLAR SHADING AND BRISE SOLEIL 93 7. SPACE 7.1. INTRODUCTION 95 7.2. COURTYARDS 96 7.2.1. HISTORIC USE 99 7.2.2. COMPARISON THROUGHOUT THE WORLD 99 7.2.3. RELEVANCE TODAY 102 7.3. FLOW OF SPACE 102 8. CASE STUDY 104 8.1. BAMBOO SYMPHONY 105 8.2. HOUSE OF FIVE ELEMENETS 113 9. CONCLUSION 128
86 86 87 87 89 89 90 91 91
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LIST OF FIGUERS Fig. 1. 1 : Methodology Fig. 2. 1 : Three faculties of Man Fig. 2. 2 : Wheel of Destruction Fig. 2. 3 : Wheel of Support Fig. 2. 4 : Wheel of Restraint Fig. 2. 5 : Cardinal directions with Panch Maha Bhoot Table 2. 1: Relationship between energies and elements Fig. 3. 1 : Modern earth building Fig. 3. 2 : Mud plaster building Fig. 3. 3 : Earth blocks Fig. 3. 4 : Method of mud plastering Fig. 3. 5 : Soil mixture Fig. 3. 6 : Compression of soil mixture Fig. 3. 7 : Cob earth building Fig. 3. 8 : Parallel Planks Fig. 3. 9 : Cycle of rammed earth Fig. 3. 10 : Section of foundation in rammed eart Fig. 3. 11 : Bamboo and woven lattice Fig. 3. 12 : Material and mud plaster Fig. 3. 13 : House from wattle and daub construction Fig. 3. 14 : Filling of sand bag Fig. 3. 15 : Barbed Wire Fig. 3. 16 : Arrangement of sand bags Fig. 3. 17 : Section of adobe construction Fig. 3. 18 : Vault Fig. 3. 19 : Residence with sand bags and barbed wire
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3 6 8 9 9 10 8 12 14 14 14 15 15 15 16 16 16 17 17 17 19 19 19 20 20 20
Fig. 3. 20 : Circular Building Fig. 3. 21 : Boundary wall Fig. 3. 22 : Section of Earth filled in Fig. 3. 23 : Section of foundation wall Fig. 3. 24 : Excavation of foundation of wall Fig. 3. 25 : Sloping roof with trenches Fig. 3. 26 : Bamboo truss Fig. 3. 27 : Interior view Fig. 3. 28 : Earth sheltering Fig. 3. 29 : In-Hill construction Fig. 3. 30 : Section Fig. 3. 31 : Section Fig. 3. 32 : Detail Section of earth sheltering Fig. 3. 33 : Earth tube Fig. 3. 34 : Closed loop system Fig. 3. 36 : Combination system Fig. 3. 35 : Open system Fig. 4. 1 : Water Fig. 4. 2 : Water as a resource as well as beautification Fig. 4. 3 : Water as aesthetics Fig. 4. 4 : Landscaping Fig. 4. 5 : Fountain in garden Fig. 4. 6 : Water container Fig. 4. 7 : Streaming of water Fig. 4. 8 : Components of rain water harvesting Fig. 4. 9 : Catchments Fig. 4. 10 : Sand gravel filter Fig. 4. 11 : PVC – Pipe filter Fig. 4. 12 : Charcoal filter
20 20 21 22 22 23 23 23 24 25 25 25 31 34 35 36 36 39 40 40 41 43 43 44 45 46 47 48 48
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1. OVERVIEW Architecture had been created in different contexts and to facilitate different types of activities. Use of natural elements in these conditions varied in types, quality and quantity giving the built spaces different kinds of expression. Architecture has long drawn from nature as a source of inspiration. In the architecture, there is a dialog between nature and architecture. This dialog relates to how five elements (PanchaMahaBhoot) are transformed into experiences of nature and how they are transformed into elements of architecture and architectural experiences. The sensitive attention paid to these aspects enables us to feel the experience of the integration of the five. There are moments in the experience where nature and architecture become so integral that the distinction between these five becomes diffused. The layering of elements plays an important role in this integration. Earth, Water, Air, Fire and Space are primary factors in the understanding of the expression of this architectural relationship. But in order to understand this, first become aware of what elements help to define this dialog and what makes it occur. Thus look more closely at the role of Earth, Water, Air, Fire and Space in the dialog between nature and architecture.
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1.2. AIMS & OBJECTIVES This dissertation is aimed to fight back climate change by promoting the use of naturally abundant, low energy construction materials. Working with natural elements in itself has been an eye opener and put people on the path back to their roots. Using what is freely available i.e., Sun, Soil, Air, Water and Space that are within reach are the determining factors in the designs. Creativity is a mere result of this challenge. Through this dissertation, the building can be initiated into the ecosystem at micro and macro level. Thus striving towards making the building a living entity, responding and growing like any other living being, from dawn to dusk, from spring to summer, from rains to chilly winters! When this goal is met, even to a small extent, the built structure becomes a thread in the web of all life, one with nature, nature itself! It is time to change our consciousness in this regard and, focusing on solar energy, to come up with appropriate means of utilizing our resources such as Sun, Wind, Water and so on. Thus one must learn to use these limited resources carefully under the guidance of “THE MOTHER EARTH ECO-SYSTEM.”
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
1. To study the presence of elements within the building. 2. Techniques which can be used for low energy construction of a building with the help of these elements. 3. The use and need of elements with respect to human being and architecture. 4. The design principles and constraints applicable in the design of natural elements.
1.3. METHODOLOGY This study is a part of huge area that sought determines how get inspiration from nature and how nature can affect on conceptual design decisions and factors in any projects. The methodology of this research is includes the literature survey and documentary research and case study, rather than developing a new approach that sought respondents’ general opinion about inspiration from nature.
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1.4. LIMITATION Selection of Topic
Literature Survey
Study About Panch Maha Bhoot
Case Study
Conclusion
The limitations of this research are as follows: 1. The study of the elements has been done keeping in mind the low energy technique not the aesthetics value. 2. The case study included in the research is a typical example of architecture in the most moderate type of climate in INDIA. Thus it is not applicable for other zones. 3. The analysis of each element is explained by particularly covering three mechanisms.
1.5. DISSERTATION OUTLINE This study is structured so that each chapter is largely freestanding and this will allow to reader to make easy reference to the material. The order of the chapters begins by considering the natural inspiration and its relationship with conceptual design. The rest of this dissertation is organized as follow:
Fig. 1. 1 : Methodology
As a case study some examples of inspired building design will be analyzed considering the levels of consideration and the sources of inspiration.
Chapter II – Pancha Maha Bhoot. This chapter explains the brief about the elements and its philosophy with respect to human and significance to Vaastu. Chapter III - Earth as a building material.
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This chapter examines the development of man-made architecture. The purpose here is to demonstrate the architectural form of earth from where it comes and where it is going.
Chapter IX- Conclusion and future directions.
Chapter IV - Design and architecture with accordance to water. This chapter is explaining some natural way to use water and the design strategy and structural details of them and compares them. Chapter V - Design principle with harmony to wind. This chapter describes the natural ventilation systems which are used in nature and their relation with the external appliances. Chapter VI - Fire. This chapter describes the need for natural day lighting with various other techniques for low energy construction building. Chapter VII - Design aspect of the place with space. This chapter describes the spatial of the area with requirements and balance between the nature and architecture. Chapter VIII - Architect and inspiration from nature. This chapter highlights the level of inspiration and also the sources of inspiration by analyzing some case studies.
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CHAPTER 2: PANCHA-MAHA-BHOOT PANCHMAHABHOOT is a Sanskrit term meaning "five great elements" and is used to describe the five great elements that are said to be present in everything in the universe, including in the human body. Therefore, Space for human existence in this transcending time, it is desirable that the architect should design to cater to all the three faculties of Man –Physical, Psychological and Spiritual; possible by using these Panch Tatva. Man inherited, developed and nurtured this good earth and is nourished by it. Ecological disturbances and environmental problems are posing a grave situation for humanity. The repercussions of our destructive action will be for generations to come. Indeed it may take another millennium to put things right.
2.1. HISTORY India is a country with a golden history, a land of unsolved mysteries and infinite treasure of knowledge. Be it about science, be it about civilization & society, be it about art and culture or spreading knowledge through innovations & philosophies, India has played the role of a torchbearer to the world. India is one of the most ancient civilizations in the world and possesses many theories about the formulation and the existence of the world.
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Along with the evolution of Mother Earth, the PANCHMAHABHOOT theory also explains the creation of simple to complex lives with the combination of the five elements. SPIRITUAL
2.2. FIVE ELEMENTS OF NATURE The elements are as follows:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
PRITHVI (earth) JAL (water) VAYU (air) TEJ (fire) AKASHA (space)
2.2.1. HUMAN PHILOSOPHY PHYSICAL
PSCYCHOLOGICAL
Fig. 2. 1 : Three faculties of Man
From the history of architecture is clear that architecture is started by getting help from nature to use it directly or getting idea from it but as the technology is developed its affect on human life and also architecture and day by day architecture is getting far away from the nature, but also fortunately as it’s getting away from nature the architects and engineers are feeling that by forgetting the nature their products are guzzling the nature and without nature we cannot be also; so they try to get back to nature and find their solutions in nature.
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1. PRITHVI MAHABHOOT – EARTH represents the solid state of matter in the planet. It symbolizes stability, permanence and rigidity. The human body consists of bones, teeth, cells and tissues, as the manifestations of the Earth. Earth is regarded as a stable substance. 2. JAL MAHABHOOT – JAL is represented by water; Water is the prerequisite for the survival of living creatures, including humankind. About 70% of the human body is made up of water, required for smooth functioning. In addition to water, fluids including our blood and lymph move between our cells and through our vessels, thereby providing us the energy required. The body temperature is also regulated. Water is a form without stability.
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3. VAYU MAHABHOOT– VAYU One of the forms of the PanchaMahaBhoot is air. It is mobile and dynamic. Within the human body, air is present in the form of oxygen, which is the basis for all energy transfer reactions. Existent without form, air is the prerequisite for fire to burn. Talking about the human body, air is indirectly required to produce energy, which is the basic requisite for one survival. 4. TEJ MAHABHOOT – In order to convert solids into liquids, to gas and back again to the original state, a certain amount of power is required, which is provided by fire. Fire has the power to change the state of any substance. In human body, fire is present in the form of energy that binds atoms together, converts food to fat and muscle. In addition, fire creates impulses of nervous reactions and even our thought process. 5. AKASHA MAHABHOOT – AKASHA is described as the space. Space is everywhere and touches everything. It is the receptivity and nonresistance to what is true. Talking about the human body, space is the considered as the vessel that receives all impressions. In the heart, it is believed that space accepts love.
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2.2.1.1. REPRESENTATION OF ELEMENTS IN HUMAN BODY These five elements represent themselves in the form of three energies in humans called ‘Dosha’ or ‘TriDosha’. These Dosha can also be called Tri-Energies.
PRINCIPLE OF TRI-ENERGIES This can also be understood as combination of PanchaMahaBhoot into three the three biological or physiological forces that cater to the metabolic functions and structural composition of our body. The balance of these tri-energies is known as a state of health and their imbalance is disease. The tri-energies are: 1. VATA: Vata is considered as leader which governs all movement in the mind and body. It controls blood flow, elimination of wastes, breathing and the movement of thoughts across the mind. 2. PITTA: Pitta governs all heat, metabolism and transformation in the mind and body. It controls how we digest foods, how we metabolize our sensory perceptions, and how we discriminate between right and wrong.
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3. KAPHA: Kapha governs all structure and lubrication in the mind and body. It controls weight, growth, lubrication for the joints and lungs, and formation of all the seven tissues — nutritive fluids, blood, fat, muscles, bones, marrow and reproductive tissues.
2.2.2.1.
FIRE SPACE
There balance is responsible for health maintenance at the physical level.
TRI-ENERGIES
ENERGY COUNTERPART
WHEEL OF SUPPORT
ELEMENTRY COMPOSITION
EARTH
WATER
AIR
Fig. 2. 3 : Wheel of Support
VATA
KINETIC
AIR AND SPACE
PITTA
THERMAL
FIRE
KAPHA
POTENTIAL
EARTH AND WATER
Table 2. 1: Relationship between energies and elements
2.2.2. CYCLE OF INTERRELATION WITH ELEMENTS These five elements of nature not only support each other but also destruct and restrain each other.
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2.2.2.2.
WHEEL OF DESTRUCTION
FIRE
SPACE
WATER
EARTH
AIR
Fig. 2. 2 : Wheel of Destruction
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Space-Wind Space reduces the force of Air, affecting Vata Dosha imbalance.
2.2.2.3.
WHEEL OF RESTRAINT
FIRE
Air-Fire Excess of Air destroys Fire, blowing it out. Vata Dosha imbalance leads to the reduction of digestive fire (Agni). Lack of Air enhances Fire. Fire-Water Excess of Fire generating high level of Pitta can eliminate Water from the body, overheating it and causing dehydration. Shortage of Fire increases the symptoms of Kapha Dosha imbalance.
Water-Earth Excess of Water can destroy Earth; reduce its stiffness and hardness, lead to fluid retention in the body.
Earth-Space Excess of Earth can reduce Space and, conversely, decrease in density can strengthen Space.
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SPACE
WATER
EARTH
AIR
Fig. 2. 4 : Wheel of Restraint
Each element is associated with Dosha and bodies, and therefore restrained and balanced by other elements. Restraint is something like a shock absorber or a brake of the elements activity, allowing not losing the balance. If any element is not able to restrain the other element, the latter has a tendency to dysfunction in accordance with its characteristics. The restraint function is extremely important. Without the proper containment each element would develop uncontrollably in accordance with its inherent features. Page | 9
1. Earth restrains Water. 2. Water restrains Fire. 3. Fire restrains Wind. 4. Wind restrains Space.
2.2.3. SIGNIFICANCE IN VAASTU "VAASTU" has been derived from the word "VAAS" which means "to live". Vaastu helps us to align the energies of our house with that of the environment. It helps us to live in balance with nature. Our ancient saints have concluded that anything living or non-living in the universe is made up of five basic
elements or Panch Maha Bhoot. Vaastu is directly related to these five elements. The whole universe is made up of five basic elements namely the Earth, Water, Fire, Air and Space. Our body is also made up of these five basic elements of nature also known as Panch Maha Bhoot. Shelter is the one of the basic need of every living being on earth. Every one builds a house for living and to live a peaceful, happy and healthy life. A house or any building constructed as per Vaastu Shastra ensures maximum benefit to the habitant. The Panch Maha Bhoot are related to our five senses of smell, taste, hearing, touch and sight. Any imbalance in our external and internal Vaastu translates into unhappy situations. Vaastu makes the individual to live in balance and harmony with the Panch Maha Bhoot. Vaastu Shastra is the only science which instructs how to maintain best equilibrium of these five elements in a building and make best use of them to energize mental and physical energies of inhabitants to the maximum extent. In other words Vaastu tells how to make use of these five elements for the maximum convenience, comfort and security keeping them in perfect harmony in our home or place of work so that one should enjoy health, wealth, prosperity and growth.
Fig. 2. 5 : Cardinal directions with Panch Maha Bhoot
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CHAPTER 3: EARTH 3.1. OVERVIEW For thousands of years our ancestors built with earth as well as stone and wood in a rich diversity of construction methods. There is also an equally rich heritage of social cooperation and community building that is inherent in these technologies. The builders make walls and floors and roofs, using earth as a construction material with wood and stone, bamboo and many kinds of plant and animal fibers. Earth is used with fired bricks and lime too Millions of these buildings are still occupied in all corners of the world and even into the 21st century the thread of earth building remains unbroken in some places, or has been revived in others so that we have a new generation of earth builders . THE ADVANTAGES OF EARTH Earth meets the requirements for modern, i.e. contemporary, sustainable and futuristic construction. As a binder, clay uses low levels of primary energy, is in almost unlimited supply, releases no harmful substances into the environment, is nonallergenic and re-usable. Since construction waste forms a large part of overall waste generated, the importance of building materials being recyclable is clear. A promise to young people or adults to change the business model, where job creation in earthen materials is also an
indicator of success and self-realization. This is something to maintain and question throughout life with knowledge and practice. MODERN EARTH BUILDING Following the widespread loss of knowledge of techniques and methods since 1950, building with earth is once again on the rise. Contemporary earth building is characterized by rational working methods and innovative preparation and processing methods. There is a wide range of pre-fabricated earth building materials available (bagged materials and ready to use mix, earth panels boards, earth bricks). Earth has become competitive and innovative, if not the most innovative market in the construction industry, offering a wide range of possibilities. Clay surfaces and clay plaster work not only because they provide healthy living spaces but also because of their design qualities, interacting with light, color and other materials to create unique spaces with living surfaces.
Fig. 3. 1 : Modern earth building
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VERNACULAR EARTH BUILDING With the spread and density of earth buildings in many European regions, earth building skills were once very common. The longevity and diverse functions of these buildings illustrates how past builders mastered both the design and technology of this construction material. With the beauty of the buildings, the process was deeply grounded in local culture and environment. Given the weight of the raw material and the volume it takes to make an entire house, the process was based on participative site work. These are all characteristics of vernacular architecture, sustainable in essence. In the past few decades much of this has been forgotten in many parts of the world.
When geological deposits of mud are formed in estuaries the resultant layers are termed bay muds. Mud is closely related to slurry and sediment. Mud, in the construction industry, refers to wet plaster, stucco, cement or other similar substances.
Mud is used to cover a structure of wood, and that way the builder gets a very nice, flat wall - The kind of soil used gives the wall the desired color -usually red or black.
Mud is a building material which has been tested. It is used in modern day construction and method of using it is very different.
The techniques covered for element earth are:
The main advantage of mud is we do not need lot of energy to manufacture it unlike other materials.
Mud construction is mainly found in places which are relatively dry and have mud in abundance.
The mud houses uses minimal energy, is comfortable year around.
Mud has its own limitations which can be overcome by certain techniques.
Earth as a material
Earth Sheltering
Earth Tubes
3.2. EARTH OR MUD AS A MATERIAL
Mud is a liquid or semi liquid of water and some combination of soil, silt and clay. Mud has been the most essential building material; approximately 58% of all buildings in India are of mud brick.
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The basic ingredients of cob are soil, sand and straw. Under normal conditions, the topsoil removed
Cob is a very old method of building with earth and straw or other fibers.
It can add-on, cut-out, or reshape anytime, even after the cob is dry. Cob-building is a traditional technique that has been used for thousands of years and in all kind of climates.
Cob is highly resistant to weathering, because of its porous nature; it can withstand long periods of rain without weakening
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Fig. 3. 2 : Mud plaster building
the footprint of the building is enough to supply all construction needs.
3.2.1. STACKED EARTH
from
Cob is one of the cheapest building materials imaginable.
Fig. 3. 3 : Earth blocks
Cob homes are one of the most durable types of earth architecture. Because the mud mixture is porous, cob can withstand long periods of rain without weakening. A plaster made of lime and sand may be used to windproof the exterior walls from wind damage.
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Cob houses are suitable for the desert or for very cold climates. Building can consist entirely or partially of soil, depending on the location, climate, available skills, cost and use of the building.
derived from oaths, maize, oilseed, rape and field bean.
3.2.1.2. PRODUCTION OF COB: The production of cob involves three stages: 1. Preparation of the soil mix 2. Compression of the soil mix 3. Curing of the cob
Fig. 3. 4 : Method of mud plastering
3.2.1.1. MATERIALS METHODS
AND
Soil: The subsoil, from which the matrix of Cob is made, is the erosion of rock material producing the aggregate fraction. Chemical erosion of rock material produces the “binder fraction. A typical soil of cob is likely to contain about 30% gravel, 35% sand and 35% silt and clay. However each of these could vary by +/-10% and still acceptable.
Fig. 3. 5 : Soil mixture
Fig. 3. 6 : Compression of soil mixture
Rice straw: Straw gives Cob its tensile strength the ability to move and bend without breaking and to withstand ground movement and shear forces. Most of straw is derived from crops like rice, barley and wheat while much smaller amount are Fig. 3. 7 : Cob earth building
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3.2.2. RAMMED EARTH
The second method has developed from the cob wall so as to standardize or regularize the thickness of the wall.
It is also an attempt to increase the strength of the wall by ramming it. It is known as the Rammed Earth method.
Two parallel planks are held firmly apart by metal rods and clips or bolts, or by small crosspieces of wood.
Stiff mud is thrown in between these two planks and rammed down with either a wooden or metal ramrod.
When one section is completed and hard, the two boards are moved along and the process is repeated.
The two planks are then raised up and a second course of rammed earth is repeated over the first.
Shuttering forms are used and damp earth is placed
Fig. 3. 10 : Section of foundation in rammed eart
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and compacted with tamping rods until maximum compaction.
Fig. 3. 8 : Parallel Planks
Fig. 3. 9 : Cycle of rammed earth
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3.2.3. WATTLE AND DAUB
Wattle and daub method is an old and common method of building mud structures.
It includes composite building material which is used for making walls , in which a woven lattice of wooden strips called wattle is daubed with a sticky material usually made of some combination of wet soil, clay, sand, animal dung and straw.
There bamboo and cane frame structure that supports the roof.
Mud is plastered over this mesh of bamboo cane and straws
Mud is placed around this reinforcement and additional thickness provided in slight slope downwards to prevent water.
WATTLE & DAUB is elegant and fine for Seismic Zones.
Fig. 3. 12 : Material and mud plaster
Due to excessive rainfall the Wattle and Daub structures gets washed off.
However, the mesh of cane or split bamboo remains intact and after the heavy rain is over the mud is plastered on again.
A light framework of wood is made which acts as reinforcement.
Fig. 3. 11 : Bamboo and woven lattice
Fig. 3. 13 : House from wattle and daub construction
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
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3.2.4. SUPERADOBE
ADOBE (SANDBAG AND BARBED WIRE) TECHNOLOGY is a large, long adobe. It is a simple adobe, an instant and flexible line generator. It uses the materials of war for peaceful ends, integrating traditional earth architecture with contemporary global safety requirements. Long or short sandbags are filled with on-site earth and arranged in layers or long coils (compression) with strands of barbed wire placed between them to act as both mortar and reinforcement (tension).
Stabilizers such as cement, lime, or asphalt emulsion may be added
This concept was originally presented by architect Nader Khalili to NASA for building habitats on the moon and Mars, as “Velcro-adobe”.
It comes from years of meditation, hands-on research and development, and searching for simple answers to build with earth.
It comes from the concerned heart of someone who did not want to be bound to any one system of
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
construction and looked for only one answer in human shelter, to simplify.
The Superadobe can be coiled into vaults and domes, the way a potter coils a pot, with barbed wire reinforcement, to build structures which pass California’s earthquake codes.
These structures can last for one season before returning to earth, or they can be stabilized, waterproofed, and finished as permanent houses.
The system can be used for structural arches, domes and vaults, or conventional rectilinear shapes.
Natural woven jute bags have not been used by the architect because of toxic chemical preservatives like formaldehyde; instead, a synthetic, low UV (ultraviolet) resistant degradable material has been preferred.
The bags or long tubes are used primarily as temporary flexible forms. In a temporary building, the bags are allowed to degrade and the building returns to earth.
The barbed wire is four-point, two strand, galvanized barbed wire and is recyclable.
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By filling bags directly from the land and reinforcing with barbed wire, almost any earth can be used and the speed of building is much faster yet still in the hands of people.
3.2.4.1. ADVANTAGES ADOBE
OF
The earth-filled bags provide insulation and thermal mass.
Sandbags are resistant to fires, wind, and of course, floods.
The floor of a Super adobe building is usually finished last so that plumbing and electrical lines can be run underneath to feed branches that extend upward where needed.
Plumbing pipes are placed on, in, or under the lower Super adobe layers and run vertically through small channels cut into the walls. Electrical lines are run through flexible conduit that follows the contours of the bags.
Fig. 3. 14 : Filling of sand bag
Fig. 3. 15 : Barbed Wire
3.2.4.2. WHAT CAN ONE BUILD
Family houses, terraced houses;
Small block of flats, subdivisions, ecovillages;
semi-detached
and
Fig. 3. 16 : Arrangement of sand bags
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Holiday houses, bungalows, camps, garages;
Community, buildings;
Offices, shops, marketplace, pavilions, kiosks;
Industrial, farm and outbuildings, cellars;
Renovation, strengthening, protection or enlargement of old adobe or brick buildings;
Walls, steps, ovens, plasterwork inside and outside.
educational
and
cultural
Fig. 3. 17 : Section of adobe construction
Fig. 3. 20 : Circular Building
Fig. 3. 19 : Residence with sand bags and barbed wire Fig. 3. 21 : Boundary wall
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
Fig. 3. 18 : Vault
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3.2.5. EARTH FILLED IN
This method was developed from the bunkers made by the military
The basic construction method begins by digging a trench.
Rows of woven bags (or tubes) are filled with available inorganic material Fig. 3. 22 : Section of Earth filled in
After the foundation is laid, each successive layer will have one or more strands of barbed wire placed on top.
The weight of this earth-filled bag pushes down on the barbed wire strands, locking the bag in place on the row below.
The most popular type woven polypropylene.
Organic/natural materials such as hemp, be used.
of
bag
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
is
made
STEPS INVOVLE FOR MUD HOUSES:
Roof
of
Walls Foundation
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3.2.5.1. FOUNDATION
Foundation is made of 2 ft.
Foundation is filled with an appropriate textured mixture.
The mixture is called gaaro locally.
It is settled in 15 days.
Water is sprinkled at intervals.
3.2.5.2. WALLS MORTAR
Stabilised Earth Mortar is best suited for masonry using mud blocks.
Mud mortar shall be stabilised 1.5 times more than the mud blocks.
Add course sand (0.2 to 2mm) to reduce shrinkage.
Prepare plastic mix rather than dry mix.
Ideal mix = soil suitable for mud block + 40% to 50% of sand by weight + 7.5% cement.
WATER
Water and dampness are one of the major problems for mud as construction material.
The best way of protecting any wall from either rain or sun is to have a good big overhang to your roof.
Fig. 3. 23 : Section of foundation wall
Fig. 3. 24 : Excavation of foundation of wall
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The sloping, or pitched roof is better because the walls need not be so high as for a flat roofed house. Provide trenches round the house to receive dripping water and drain it away.
Fig. 3. 25 : Sloping roof with trenches
3.2.5.3. ROOF
Beams of bamboo sticks are used for support. They are kept tilted so that the rain water flows away.
Fig. 3. 26 : Bamboo truss
3.3. EARTH SHELTERING EARTH SHELTERING is the architectural practice of using earth against building walls for external thermal mass, to reduce heat loss, and to easily maintain a steady indoor air temperature. Earth sheltering has become relatively more popular in modern times, especially among environmentalists and advocates of passive solar and sustainable architecture. However, the practice has been around for nearly as long as humans have been constructing their own shelters. The expression earth-sheltering is a generic term, with the general meaning: building design in which soil plays an integral part. A building can be described as earth-sheltered if its external envelope is in contact with a thermally significant volume of soil or substrate (where “thermally significant” means making a functional contribution to the thermal effectiveness of the building in question.) Earth-sheltered buildings consist of one or more of three types: earth-covered, earth-bunded, and subterranean. An earth-covered building is one where the thermally effective element is placed solely on the roof, but is more usually a continuation of the earth-bunding at the unexposed elevations of the building. An earth-bunded building is one where the thermally significant element insulates one or more of the sheltered elevations of the building. The bunding can be partial or total. A subterranean building is one where the
Fig. 3. 27 : Interior view
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thermally significant element insulates all elevations of the building, leaving only the roof exposed; or, if the building is built into an incline, it may be that the roof is covered and only one elevation is left exposed. Living within earth shelters has been a large part of human history. The connection to earth shelter dwellings began with the utilization of caves, and over time evolving technologies led to the construction of customized earth dwellings. Today, earth shelter construction is a rare practice, especially in the U.S.A. During the energy crisis and the 1973 Oil Crisis, along with the back-to-theland movement, there was a Fig. 3. 28 : Earth sheltering
surge of interest in earth
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
shelter/underground home construction in an effort toward self-sufficient living. However, progress has been slow, and earth shelter construction is often viewed by architects, engineers, and the public alike as an unconventional method of building. Techniques of earth sheltering have not yet become common knowledge, and much of society still remains unaware of the process or benefits of this type of building construction.
3.3.1. TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION
TYPES
EARTH BERMING

IN HILL CONSTRUCTION
UNDERGROUND / FULLY RECESSED CONSTRUCTION
EARTH BERMING: Earth is piled up against exterior walls and packed, sloping down away from the house. The roof may or may not be fully earth covered, and windows/openings may occur on one or more sides of the shelter. Due to the building being above ground, fewer moisture problems are associated with earth
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Fig. 3. 30 : Section
berming in comparison to underground/fully recessed construction (Fig. 3.30).
IN-HILL CONSTRUCTION: The house is set into a slope or hillside. The most practical application is using a hill facing towards the equator (south in the Northern Hemisphere and north in the Southern Hemisphere). There is only one exposed wall in this type of earth sheltering, the wall facing out of the hill, all other walls are embedded within the earth/hill (Fig. 3.29).
UNDERGROUND/FULLY RECESSED CONSTRUCTION: The ground is excavated, and the house is set in below grade. It can also be referred to as an Atrium style due
Fig. 3. 29 : In-Hill construction
to the common atrium/courtyard constructed in the middle of the shelter to provide adequate light and ventilation (Fig. 3.31).
Fig. 3. 31 : Section
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3.3.2. BENEFITS The benefits of earth sheltering are numerous. They include: usage of the earth as a thermal mass, extra protection from the natural elements, energy savings, substantial privacy in comparison to more conventional homes, efficient use of land in urban settings, low maintenance requirements, and the ability to take advantage of passive solar building design. The Earth's mass absorbs and retains heat. Over time, this heat is released to surrounding areas, such as an earth shelter. Because of the high density of the earth, change in the earth’s temperature occurs slowly. This is known as ‘thermal lag.’ Because of this principle, the earth provides a fairly constant temperature for the underground shelters, even when the outdoor temperature undergoes great fluctuation. In most of the United States, the average temperature of the earth once below the frost line is between 55 and 57 degrees Fahrenheit (13 to 14 degrees Celsius). Frost line depths vary from region to region. In the USA frost lines can range from just under the surface to more than 40 inches. Thus, at the base of a deep earth berm, the house is heated against an exterior temperature gradient of perhaps ten to fifteen degrees, instead of against a steeper temperature grade where air is on the outside of the wall instead of earth. During the summer, the temperature gradient helps to cool the house. INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
The reduction of air infiltration within an earth shelter can be highly profitable. Because three walls of the structure are mainly surrounded by earth, very little surface area is exposed to the outside air. This alleviates the problem of warm air escaping the house through gaps around windows and door. Furthermore, the earth walls protect against cold winter winds which might otherwise penetrate these gaps. However, this can also become a potential indoor air quality problem. Healthy air circulation is key. As a result of the increased thermal mass of the structure, the thermal lag of the earth, the protection against unwanted air infiltration and the combined use of passive solar techniques, the need for extra heating and cooling is minimal. Therefore, there is a drastic reduction in energy consumption required for the home compared to homes of typical construction. Earth shelters also provide privacy from neighbors, as well as soundproofing. The ground provides acoustic protection against outside noise. This can be a major benefit in urban areas or near highways. In urban areas, another benefit of underground sheltering is the efficient use of land. Many houses can sit below grade without spoiling the habitat above ground. Each site can contain both a house and a lawn/garden.
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3.3.3. POTENTIAL PROBLEMS Problems of water seepage, internal condensation, bad acoustics, and poor indoor air quality can occur if an earth shelter has not been properly designed. Issues also include the sustainability of building materials. Earth sheltering often requires heavier construction than conventional building techniques, and many construction companies have limited or no experience with earth sheltered construction, potentially compromising the physical construction of even the best designs. The threat of water seepage occurs around areas where the waterproofing layers have been penetrated. Vents and ducts emerging from the roof can cause specific problems due to the possibility of movement. Precast concrete slabs can have a deflection of 1/2 inch or more when the earth/soil is layered on top of them. If the vents or ducts are held rigidly in place during this deflection, the result is usually the failure of the waterproofing layer. To avoid this difficulty, vents can be placed on other sides of the building (besides the roof), or separate segments of pipes can be installed. A narrower pipe in the roof that fits snugly into a larger segment within the building can also be used. The threat of water seepage, condensation, and poor indoor air quality can all be overcome with proper waterproofing and ventilation.
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
The building materials for earth sheltered construction tend to be of non-biodegradable substances. Because the materials must keep water out, they are often made of plastics. Concrete is another material that is used in great quantity. More sustainable products are being tested to replace the cement within concrete (such as fly ash), as well as alternatives to reinforced concrete (see more under Materials: Structural). The excavation of a site is also drastically time- and labor-consuming. Overall, the construction is comparable to conventional construction, because the building requires minimal finishing and significantly less maintenance. Condensation and poor quality indoor air problems can be solved by using earth tubes, or what is known as a geothermal heat pump—a concept different from earth sheltering. With modification, the idea of earth tubes can be used for underground buildings: instead of looping the earth tubes, leave one end open down slope to draw in fresh air using the chimney effect by having exhaust vents placed high in the underground building.
3.3.4. LANDSCAPE AND SITE PLANNING The site planning for an earth sheltered building is an integral part of the overall design; investigating the landscape of a potential building site is crucial. There are many factors to assess when surveying a site for
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underground construction. The topography, regional climate, vegetation, water table and soil type of varying landscapes all play dynamic roles in the design and application of earth shelters. 3.3.4.1. TOPOGRAPHY On land that is relatively flat, a fully recessed house with an open courtyard is the most appropriate design. On a sloping site, the house is set right into the hill. The slope will determine the location of the window wall; a south-facing exposed wall is the most practical in the Northern hemisphere (and north-facing in the Southern hemisphere) due to solar benefits. The most practical house design in the tropics (and with equal advantage in both hemispheres) is that the two shorter walls on the ends be exposed, one facing east and the other facing west. 3.3.4.2. REGIONAL CLIMATE Depending on the region and site selected for earth sheltered construction, the benefits and objectives of the earth shelter construction vary. For cool and temperate climates, objectives consist of retaining winter heat, avoiding infiltration, receiving winter sun, using thermal mass, shading and ventilating during the summer, and avoiding winter winds and cold pockets. For hot, arid climates objectives include maximizing
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
humidity, providing summer shade, maximizing summer air movement, and retaining winter heat. For hot, humid climates objectives include avoiding summer humidity, providing summer ventilation, and retaining winter heat. Regions with extreme daily and seasonal temperatures emphasize the value of earth as a thermal mass. In this way, earth sheltering is most effective in regions with high cooling and heating needs, and high temperature differentials. In regions such as the south eastern United States, earth sheltering may need additional care in maintenance and construction due to condensation problems in regard to the high humidity. The ground temperature of the region may be too high to permit earth cooling if temperatures fluctuate only slightly from day to night. Preferably, there should be adequate winter solar radiation, and sufficient means for natural ventilation. Wind is a critical aspect to evaluate during site planning, for reasons regarding wind chill and heat loss, as well as ventilation of the shelter. In the Northern Hemisphere, south facing slopes tend to avoid cold winter winds typically blown in from the north. Fully recessed shelters also offer adequate protection against these harsh winds. However, atria within the structure have the ability to cause minor turbulence depending on the size. In the
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summer, it is helpful to take advantage of the prevailing winds. Because of the limited window arrangement in most earth shelters, and the resistance to air infiltration, the air within a structure can become stagnant if proper ventilation is not provided. By making use of the wind, natural ventilation can occur without the use of fans or other active systems. Knowing the direction, and intensity, of seasonal winds is vital in promoting cross ventilation. Vents are commonly placed in the roof of bermed or fully recessed shelters to achieve this effect. 3.3.4.3. VEGETATION The plant cover of the landscape is another important factor. Adding plants can be both positive and negative. Nearby trees may be valuable in wet climates because their roots remove water. However a prospective builder should know what types of trees are in the area and how large and rapidly they tend to grow, due to possible solar-potential compromise with their growth. Vegetation can provide a windbreak for houses exposed to winter winds. The growth of small vegetation, especially those with deep roots, also helps in the prevention of erosion, on the house and in the surrounding site. 3.3.4.4.
SOIL AND DRAINAGE
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
The soil type is one of the most essential factors during site planning. The soil needs to provide adequate bearing capacity and drainage, and help to retain heat. With respects to drainage, the most suitable type of soil for earth sheltering is a mixture of sand and gravel. Well graded gravels have a large bearing capacity (about 8,000 pounds per square foot), excellent drainage and a low frost heave potential. Sand and clay can be susceptible to erosion. Clay soils, while least susceptible to erosion, often do not allow for proper drainage, and have a higher potential for frost heaves. Clay soils are more susceptible to thermal shrinking and expanding. Being aware of the moisture content of the soil and the fluctuation of that content throughout the year will help prevent potential heating problems. Frost heaves can also be problematic in some soil. Fine grain soils retain moisture the best and are most susceptible to heaving. A few ways to protect against capillary action responsible for frost heaves are placing foundations below the freezing zone or insulating ground surface around shallow footings, replacement of frost sensitive soils with granular material, and interrupting capillary draw of moisture by putting a drainage layer of coarser material in the existing soil. Water can cause potential damage to earth shelters if it ponds around the shelter. Avoiding sites with a high
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water table is crucial. Drainage, both surface and subsurface, must be properly dealt with. Waterproofing applied to the building is essential. Atrium designs have an increased risk of flooding, so the surrounding land should slope away from the structure on all sides. A drain pipe at the perimeter of the roof edge can help collect and remove additional water. For bermed homes, an interceptor drain at the crest of the berm along the edge of the roof top is recommended. An interceptor drainage swale in the middle of the berm is also helpful or the back of the berm can be terraced with retaining walls. On sloping sites runoff may cause problems. A drainage swale or gully can be built to divert water around the house, or a gravel filled trench with a drain tile can be installed along with footing drains. Soil stability should also be considered, especially when evaluating a sloping site. These slopes may be inherently stable when left alone, but cutting into them can greatly compromise their structural stability. Retaining walls and backfills may have to be constructed to hold up the slope prior to shelter construction.
3.3.5. CONSTRUCTION METHODS INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
3.3.5.1. CURRENT METHODS In earth sheltered construction there is often extensive excavation done on the building site. An excavation several feet larger than the walls' planned perimeter is made to allow for access to the outside of the wall for waterproofing and insulation. Once the site is prepared and the utility lines installed, a foundation of reinforced concrete is poured. The walls are then installed. Usually they are either poured in place or formed either on or off site and then moved into place. Reinforced concrete is the most common choice. The process is repeated for the roof structure. If the walls, floor and roof are all to be poured in place, it is possible to make them with a single pour. This can reduce the likelihood of there being cracks or leaks at the joints where the concrete has cured at different times. On the outside of the concrete a waterproofing system is applied. The most frequently used waterproofing system includes a layer of liquid asphalt onto which a heavy grade waterproof membrane is affixed, followed by a final liquid water sealant which may be sprayed on. It is very important to make sure that all of the seams are carefully sealed. It is very difficult to locate and repair leaks in the waterproofing system after the building is completed.
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One or more layers of insulation board or foam are added on the outside of the waterproofing. If the insulation chosen is porous, a top layer of waterproofing is added. After everything is complete, earth is backfilled into the remaining space at the exterior of the wall and sometimes over the roof to accommodate a green roof. Any exposed walls and the interior are finished according to the owners' preferences. 3.3.5.2. MATERIALS  STRUCTURAL: Reinforced concrete is the most commonly used structural material in earth shelter construction. It is strong and readily available. Untreated wood rots within five years of use in earth shelter construction. Steel can be used, but needs to be
encased by concrete to keep it from direct contact with the soil which corrodes the metal. Bricks and CMUs (concrete masonry units) are also possible options in earth shelter construction but must be reinforced to keep them from shifting under vertical pressure unless the building is constructed with arches and vaults. Unfortunately, reinforced concrete is not the most environmentally sustainable material. The concrete industry is working to develop products that are more earth-friendly in response to consumer demands. Products like Grancrete and Hycrete are becoming more readily available. They claim to be environmentally friendly and either reduce or eliminate the need for additional waterproofing. However, these are new products and have not been extensively used in earth shelter construction yet. Some unconventional approaches are also proposed. One such method is a PSP method proposed by Mike Oehler. The PSP method uses wooden posts, plastic sheeting and nonconventional ideas that allow more windows and ventilation. This design also reduces some runoff problems associated with conventional designs.
Fig. 3. 32 : Detail Section of earth sheltering
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The method uses wood posts, a frame that acts like a rib to distribute settling forces, specific construction methods which rely on fewer pieces of heavy equipment, plastic sheeting, and earth floors with plastic and carpeting.  WATERPROOFING: Several layers are used for waterproofing in earth shelter construction. The first layer is meant to seal any cracks or pores in the structural materials, also working as an adhesive for the waterproof membrane. The membrane layer is often a thick flexible polyethylene sheeting called EPDM. EPDM is the material usually used in water garden, pond and swimming pool construction. This material also prevents roots from burrowing through the waterproofing. EPDM is very heavy to work with, and can be chewed through by some common insects like fire ants. It is also made from petrochemicals, making it less than perfect environmentally. There are various cementations coatings that can be used as waterproofing. The product is sprayed directly onto the unprotected surface. It dries and acts like a huge ceramic layer between the wall and earth. The challenge with this method is, if the wall
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
or foundation shifts in any way, it cracks and water is able to penetrate through it easily. Bituthene (Registered name) is very similar to the three coat layering process only in one step. It comes already layered in sheets and has a selfadhesive backing. The challenge with this is the same as with the manual layering method, in addition it is sun sensitive and must be covered very soon after application. Eco-Flex is an environmentally friendly waterproofing membrane that seems to work very well on foundations, but not much is known about its effectiveness in earth sheltering. It is among a group of liquid paint-on waterproofing products. The main challenges with these are they must be carefully applied, making sure that every area is covered to the right thickness, and that every crack or gap is tightly sealed. Bentonite clay is the alternative that is closest to optimum on the environmental scale. It is naturally occurring and self-healing. The drawback to this system is that it is very heavy and difficult for the owner/builder to install and subject to termite damage.
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Bi-membranes have been used extensively throughout Australia where 2 membranes are paired together—typically 2 coats of water based epoxy as a 'sealer' and stop the internal vapor pressure of the moist concrete exploding bubbles of vapor up underneath the membrane when exposed to hot sun. The bond strength of epoxy to concrete is stronger than the internal bond strength of concrete so the membranes won't 'blow' off the wall in the sun. Epoxies are very brittle so they are paired up with an overcoat of high-build flexible water based acrylic membrane in multiple coats of different colors to ensure film coverage—this is reinforced with non-woven polypropylene textile in corners and changes in direction. INSULATION: Unlike conventional building, earth shelters require the insulation on the exterior of the building rather than inside the wall. One reason for this is that it provides protection for the waterproof membrane against freeze damage, another is that the earth shelter is able to better retain its desired temperature. There are two types of insulation used in earth shelter construction. The first is closecelled extruded polystyrene sheets. Two to three
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
inches glued to the outside of the waterproofing is generally sufficient. The second type of insulation is a spray on foam. This works very well where the shape of the structure is unconventional, rounded or difficult to get to. Foam insulation requires an additional protective top coat such as foil to help it resist water penetration. In some low budget earth shelters, insulation may not be applied to the walls. These methods rely on the U factor or thermal heat storage capacity of the earth itself below the frost layer. These designs are the exception however and risk frost heave damage in colder climates. The theory behind no insulation designs relies on using the thermal mass of the earth to store heat, rather than relying on a heavy masonry or cement inner structures that exist in a typical passive solar house. This is the exception to the rule and cold temperatures may extend down into the earth above the frost line making insulation necessary for higher efficiencies.
3.4. EARTH TUBES A ground-coupled heat exchanger is an underground heat exchanger that can capture heat from and/or dissipate heat to the ground. They use the Earth's near constant subterranean temperature to warm or cool air or other fluids for residential, Page | 32
agricultural or industrial uses. If building air is blown through the heat exchanger for heat recovery ventilation, they are called earth tubes (also known as earth cooling tubes or earth warming tubes) in Europe or earth-air heat exchangers (EAHE or EAHX) in North America. These systems are known by several other names, including: air-to-soil heat exchanger, earth channels, earth canals, earth-air tunnel systems, ground tube heat exchanger, hypocausts, subsoil heat exchangers, thermal labyrinths, underground air pipes, and others.
Ground-coupled heat exchanger may also use water or antifreeze as a heat transfer fluid, often in conjunction with a geothermal heat pump. See, for example down hole heat exchangers. The rest of this article deals primarily with earthair heat exchangers or earth tubes.
Earth tubes are often a viable and economical alternative or supplement to conventional central heating or air conditioning systems since there are no compressors, chemicals or burners and only blowers are required to move the air. These are used for either partial or full cooling and/or heating of facility ventilation air. Their use can help buildings meet Passive House standards or LEED certification.
Fig. 3. 33 : Earth tube
3.4.1. DESIGN Earth-air heat exchangers have been used in agricultural facilities (animal buildings) and horticultural facilities (greenhouses) in the United States over the past several decades and have been used in conjunction with solar chimneys in hot arid areas for thousands of years, probably beginning in the Persian Empire. Implementation of these systems in Austria, Denmark, Germany, and India has become fairly common since the mid-1990s, and is slowly being adopted in North America.
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
Earth-air heat exchangers can be analyzed for performance with several software applications using weather gage data. These software applications include GAEA, AWADUKT Thermo, Energy Plus, L-EWT Sim, WKM, and others. However, numerous earth-air heat exchanger systems have been designed and constructed improperly, and failed to meet design expectations. Earth-air heat exchangers appear best suited for air pretreatment rather
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than for full heating or cooling. Pretreatment of air for an air-source heat pump or ground-source heat pump often provides the best economic return on investment, with simple payback often achieved within one year after installation.
transferred, permitting more air exchanges in a shorter time period, when, for example, you want to clear the building of objectionable odors or smoke but suffer from poorer heat transfer from the pipe wall to the air due to increased distances.
Most systems are usually constructed from 100 to 600 mm (3.9 to 23.6 in) diameter, smooth-walled (so they do not easily trap condensation moisture and mold), rigid or semirigid plastic, plastic-coated metal pipes or plastic pipes coated with inner antimicrobial layers, buried 1.5 to 3 m (4.9 to 9.8 ft) underground where the ambient earth temperature is typically 10 to 23 °C (50 to 73 °F) all year round in the temperate latitudes where most humans live. Ground temperature becomes more stable with depth. Smaller diameter tubes require more energy to move the air and have less earth contact surface area. Larger tubes permit a slower airflow, which also yields more efficient energy transfer and permits much higher volumes to be
Some consider that it is more efficient to pull air through a long tube than to push it with a fan. A solar chimney can use natural convection (warm air rising) to create a vacuum to draw filtered passive cooling tube air through the largest diameter cooling tubes. Natural convection may be slower than using a solar-powered fan. Sharp 90degree angles should be avoided in the construction of the tube – two 45-degree bends produce less-turbulent, more efficient air flow. While smooth-wall tubes are more efficient in moving the air, they are less efficient in transferring energy. There are three configurations, a closed loop design, an open 'fresh air' system and a combination:
Fig. 3. 34 : Closed loop system
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
Closed loop system: Air from inside the home or structure is blown through a U-shaped loop of typically 30 to 150 m (98 to 492 ft) of tube(s) where it is moderated to near earth temperature before returning to be distributed via ductwork throughout the home or structure. The closed loop system can be more
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effective (during air temperature extremes) than an open system, since it cools and recools the same air. 
Open system: Outside air is drawn from a filtered air intake (Minimum Efficiency Reporting Value MERV 8+ air filter is recommended). The cooling tubes are typically 30 m (98 ft) long straight tubes into the home. An open system combined with energy recovery
kitchen or bathroom exhaust vents. It is better to draw in filtered passive cooling tube air than unconditioned outside air. Single-pass earth air heat exchangers offer the potential for indoor air quality improvement over conventional systems by providing an increased supply of outdoor air. In some configurations of single-pass systems, a continuous supply of outdoor air is provided. This type of system would usually include
Fig. 3. 36 : Open system
ventilation can be nearly as efficient (80-95%) as a closed loop, and ensures that entering fresh air is filtered and tempered. 
Combination system: This can be constructed with dampers that allow either closed or open operation, depending on fresh air ventilation requirements. Such a design, even in closed loop mode, could draw a quantity of fresh air when an air pressure drop is created by a solar chimney, clothes dryer, fireplace,
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
Fig. 3. 35 : Combination system
one or more ventilation heat recovery units.
3.4.2. SAFETY If humidity and associated mold colonization is not addressed in system design, occupants may face health risks. At some sites, the humidity in the earth tubes may be controlled simply by passive drainage if the water table is sufficiently deep and the soil has relatively high
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permeability. In situations where passive drainage is not feasible or needs to be augmented for further moisture reduction, active (dehumidifier) or passive (desiccant) systems may treat the air stream. Formal research indicates that earth-air heat exchangers reduce building ventilation air pollution. Rabindra (2004) states, “The tunnel [earth-Air heat exchanger] is found not to support the growth of bacteria and fungi; rather it is found to reduce the quantity of bacteria and fungi thus making the air safer for humans to inhale. It is therefore clear that the use of EAT [Earth Air Tunnel] not only helps save the energy but also helps reduce the air pollution by reducing bacteria and fungi.”[2] Likewise, Flueckiger (1999) in a study of twelve earth-air heat exchangers varying in design, pipe material, size and age, stated, “This study was performed because of concerns of potential microbial growth in the buried pipes of ground-coupled air systems. The results however demonstrate, that no harmful growth occurs and that the airborne concentrations of viable spores and bacteria, with few exceptions, even decreases after passage through the pipe-system”, and further stated, “Based on these investigations the operation of ground-coupled earth-to-air heat exchangers is acceptable as long as regular controls are undertaken and if appropriate cleaning facilities are available”.
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
Whether using earth tubes with or without antimicrobial material, it is extremely important that the underground cooling tubes have an excellent condensation drain and be installed at a 2-3 degree grade to ensure the constant removal of condensed water from the tubes. When implementing in a house without a basement on a flat lot, an external condensation tower can be installed at a depth lower than where the tube enters into the house and at a point close to the wall entry. The condensation tower installation requires the added use of a condensate pump in which to remove the water from the tower. For installations in houses with basements, the pipes are graded so that the condensation drain located within the house is at the lowest point. In either installation, the tube must continually slope towards either the condensation tower or the condensation drain. The inner surface of the tube, including all joints must be smooth to aid in the flow and removal of condensate. Corrugated or ribbed tubes and rough interior joints must not be used. Joints connecting the tubes together must be tight enough to prevent water or gas infiltration. In certain geographic areas, it is important that the joints prevent Radon gas infiltration. Porous materials like uncoated concrete tubes cannot be used. Ideally, Earth Tubes with antimicrobial inner layers should be used in installations to inhibit the potential growth of molds and bacteria within the tubes.
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3.4.3. EFFECTIVENESS Implementations of earth-air heat exchangers for either partial or full cooling and/or heating of facility ventilation air have had mixed success. The literature is, unfortunately, well populated with over-generalizations about the applicability of these systems – both pro and con. A key aspect of earth-air heat exchangers is the passive nature of operation and consideration of the wide variability of conditions in natural systems.
the earth approaches human comfort temperature. The higher the ambient temperature of the earth, the less effective it is for cooling and dehumidification. However, the earth can be used to partially cool and dehumidify the replacement fresh air intake for passive-solar thermal buffer zone areas like the laundry room, or a solarium / greenhouse, especially those with a hot tub, swim spa, or indoor swimming pool, where warm humid air is exhausted in the summer, and a supply of cooler drier replacement air is desired.
Earth-air heat exchangers can be very cost effective in both up-front/capital costs as well as long-term operation and maintenance costs. However, this varies widely depending on the location latitude, altitude, ambient Earth temperature, climatic temperature-and-relative-humidity extremes, solar radiation, water table, soil type (thermal conductivity), soil moisture content and the efficiency of the building's exterior envelope design / insulation. Generally, dry-and-low-density soil with little or no ground shade will yield the least benefit, while dense damp soil with considerable shade should perform well. A slow drip watering system may improve thermal performance. Damp soil in contact with the cooling tube conducts heat more efficiently than dry soil.
Not all regions and sites are suitable for earth-air heat exchangers. Conditions which may hinder or preclude proper implementation include shallow bedrock, high water table, and insufficient space, among others. In some areas, only cooling or heating may be afforded by earth-air heat exchangers. In these areas, provision for thermal recharge of the ground must especially be considered. In dual function systems (both heating and cooling), the warm season provides ground thermal recharge for the cool season and the cool season provides ground thermal recharge for the warm season, though overtaxing the thermal reservoir must be considered even with dual function systems.
Earth cooling tubes are much less effective in hot humid climates (like Florida) where the ambient temperature of
Renata Limited, a prominent pharmaceutical company in Bangladesh, tried out a pilot project trying to find out
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whether they could use the Earth Air Tunnel technology to complement the conventional air conditioning system. Concrete pipes with a total length 60 feet (~18¼m), inner diameter 9 inches, (~23 cm) outer diameter 11 inches (~28cm) were placed at a depth of 9 feet (~2¾m) underground and a blower of 1.5 kW rated power was employed. The underground temperature at that depth was found to be around 28 °C. The mean velocity of air in the tunnel was about 5 m/s. The coefficient of performance (COP) of the underground heat exchanger thus designed was poor ranging from 1.5–3. The results convinced the authorities that in hot and humid climates, it is unwise to implement the concept of Earth-Air heat exchanger. The cooling medium (earth itself) being at a temperature approaching that of the ambient environment happens to be the root cause of the failure of such principles in hot, humid areas (parts of Southeast Asia, Florida in the U.S. etc.). However, investigators from places like Britain and Turkey have reported very encouraging COPs-well above 20. The underground temperature seems to be of prime importance when planning an Earth-Air heat exchanger.
sustainable alternative to reduce or eliminate the need for conventional compressor-based air conditioning systems, in non-tropical climates. They also provide the added benefit of controlled, filtered, temperate fresh air intake, which is especially valuable in tight, well-weatherized, efficient building envelopes.
3.4.4. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT In the context of today's diminishing fossil fuel reserves, increasing electrical costs, air pollution and global warming, properly designed earth cooling tubes offer a INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
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CHAPTER 4: WATER 4.1. INTRODUCTION Nothing in this world is softer and more yielding than water. As fragile as it may look over time in masses it wears down the hard. Its strength in masses is such that no one can overcome it; many can conquer it. No living organism on earth would subsist without it. Our existence is sustained because of it. Water as element in architecture can be studied in various ways and its perspectives in defining a space. The analysis done on water, as in how it plays an important role as element in architectural design and aspects segregated as physical, dimensional and sensory effects (auditory, visual, touch and texture). Water(water body) defines space according to its size, placement and proportion, its consideration is done where it can alter the microclimate of place creating the comfort condition for which it is opted in hot and dry climate since Mughal period ,also defined as important aesthetic element in landscape architecture, where various aspects of water . The concepts of using it has resulted in evolution of space to different level, adapting water bodies for creating comfortable climate ,urban water front developments and various passive design techniques, that lead to define it as necessary element. Importance of water is studied where it’s analyzed from a macro level at urban scale to micro level as INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
microclimate modifier for comfort. The element (water) plays role in various aspects making this paper reveal its character and flexibility as important element in architecture. Besides needing water for our survival Fig. 4. 1 : Water we find ourselves seeking it for other purposes. On a general scale humans like to live close to water. Land is surrounded by huge expanses of water. Cities are built bordering water. Man creates great lakes and beach, river and lake front living has fast become the trend of the present. Is this because we are afraid to venture away from it? The answer to this is that water as much as it balances the systems within us also soothes our minds. Water seems to have a powerful calming effect. As the world becomes more human dominant and countries and cities get planned town planners and urban designers create cities with water sources primarily in mind. As rivers and canals are no longer being used for sewage disposal, river bank designs and canal developments have become one of the top priorities among urban development projects. On a micro level, architects, landscape architects and engineers adopt technically and aesthetically pleasing concepts for detailing and planning out the individual buildings with the use of water elements within their designs to achieve numerous
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experiences to a single individual space. In urban design projects, the developments of parks have become a crucial element in controlling urbanization. Extensive parks are needed to ensure that cities do not get over built. Industrialization in many countries did not leave space for the much needed urban parks. Architecture plays a huge role in the individual detailing of these urbanized communities. As architects resolve these spaces they consciously enrich Fig. 4. 3 : Water as aesthetics the community. In these spaces water is used as an entity to derive certain experiences, enhancements and character in a micro scale. The power of water in architecture comes from using senses by seeing, hearing, feeling, touching and communicating. Land and water have always had a visual relationship. Water’s reflective property, along with the audio-visual effects of moving water, offers architects a tool for creating energy and space. Water is generally used in architecture in such a way that their reflective property creates extra architectural values. Thus religious, administrative and monumental buildings have been built deliberately besides water. Not only INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
reflections but also transparency is an item dealing with water in architecture. Water’s transparency property creates visibility from interior to exterior. How Fig. 4. 2 : Water as a resource as well as beautification buildings and the views to and from them are managed and framed or even distorted and finally enriched to gain a certain conclusion owe thanks to water. Water, the essential element for the existence and development of life, is directly related to the design as dominant composition feature, revealing architecture’s dynamics. Water is an extremely useful synthetic tool. Besides improving the quality of the final aesthetic result, contributes to the local microclimate, with an environmentally friendly way, through natural cooling. The water through evaporation absorbs heat from the moving air masses, achieving the natural cooling of the building. The integration of the water element in the architectural design implies some direct effects on the user. At first, water is a natural element and a prerequisite for the development of life. Contact with this specific natural element, inevitably creates a sense of intimacy and psychological comfort. Meanwhile, the water, which can be at rest, intense activity, or even in an intermediate of these two extreme conditions Page | 40
state, is able to create plurality of different emotions. In addition, should not be overlooked the role of each water element as a visual, auditory or a combination of both stimulus. In conclusion, water may be included in architecture with various ways, offering increased interest and strongly diversified nature final results, always according to current requirements and the limits of designer’s imagination.
4.2. WATER IN LANDSCAPE
The techniques covered for element water are:
Water in Landscape
Rain Water Harvesting
Recycled Water
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
Fig. 4. 4 : Landscaping
The aquatic element has been considered by researchers and used by landscape architects as a characteristic aesthetic factor. Its perception and signification in real (visual and nonvisual) landscapes as well as in virtual landscapes depend on the idiosyncrasy and the perception filter of the observer. Theoretical and empirical approaches have been proposed about the role of water, lentic or lotic, of large or small extent, sweet or sea water, troubles or calm. Generally, the aquatic element constitutes a bridge between landscape and literature or other arts as well as a means of breaking the monotony caused by solid materials used by architects or artists. Water is a basis of literary and artistic perception of landscape as well as a neutral architectural element which cannot be clearly categorized as “natural” or “built”. The
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Values ascribed to the landscape which are derived
universality of aquatic element as aesthetic factor and architectonic means becomes evident through the multiplicity of its use and perception as well as its diachronic and wide implementation and resonance. Water is a multidimensional object of research which appears in various fields: environmentally it is a natural resource essential for living (drinkable water, river, lake etc.), socially it appears as a sensitive basis for developing human activities, financially it influences tourism, agriculture, fishery etc., culturally it is related to folklore, mythology, arts or religion, aesthetically it is represented as a beauty element of nature. Aim of this research is to present certain reflections of the water as it is represented in the fields mentioned above, through a historical back sight. From the past until now, the water was connected with the idea of the discovery and the conquest due to its agility, expansion, and its ecological stability.
4.2.1. THE ROLE OF WATER IN THE LANDSCAPE AESTHETICS 4.2.1.1.
WATER-RELATED LANDSCAPE VALUES
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
from the existence of water elements can be the following ones:
The sound of water or water birds.
The movement of rivers, waterfalls, waves etc.
The colors of water and coasts.
The reflections on the water surface.
The possibility of expanding biotopes of certain species.
The opportunities of emphasizing structural materials and lighting.
The opportunities education.
of
environmental
4.2.1.2. THE WATER AS LANDSCAPE DESIGN ELEMENT The important design characteristics of the water consist in its movement, sound, and reflection. It is argued that the water activates all senses and provides numerous opportunities of recreation such as swimming, angling, rowing etc. Moreover, it has been
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empirically found that visitors remain in beach zone about four hours daily. 4.2.1.3. STIMULATION OF SENSES THROUGH IMAGE ANDSOUND The water stimulates the senses. In order to strengthen this stimulation, the landscape designer can intervene e.g. on the bottom of a lake. The water cause memorial and emotional impacts with its tranquil and sensitive properties. The movement of water presents a dynamic and charming character which may cause thunderous sound or predominate the sound of city. The lotic water implies instability or movement against the balance. EXPERT APPROACH TO THE AESTHETIC FUNCTION OF WATER IN THE LANDSCAPE The contributions of water to the environments of recreation and everyday life are intensively explored by expert groups. Classification patterns have been proposed for native characteristics and these are considered together with man-made changes. These patterns are of visual character and consist of landscape units, setting units, and waterscape units. This scope includes comparative analyses and suggests settings through which water can contribute to
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
environmental quality. Policy recommendations are usually made in expert approaches.
4.2.2. SELECTING MATERIALS
WATER
FEATURE
When choosing and planning a water feature, make sure that it fits in with the composition of your garden, perhaps using materials that feature elsewhere in the design. The following examples are characteristic:  FOUNTAIN IN THE GARDEN: The running water in the garden makes a dynamic impression which breaks any visual monotony which may caused by extensive green material.
Fig. 4. 5 : Fountain in garden
 CONTAINING WATER: Waterproof masonry, such as concrete, will seal in the water in your feature, whether it is a raised or sunken pool. Any material with
joints,
such
as
Fig. 4. 6 : Water container
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bricks, will leak, so add a specialized render to the inside of your pond, which can then be colored or glad with tiles.
EDGING AND LINING STREAMS: Natural-looking water features, such as artificial streams or wildlife ponds, are usually irregularly shaped, and lined with flexible waterproof materials.
Fig. 4. 7 : Streaming of water
4.2.3. CONCLUSIONS The water belongs to the most important aesthetic sources. Its existence (natural or artificial) improves drastically the aesthetic effect. The water has been connected with the life and beauty. The aquatic element is of crucial importance for the quality of life and the sustainability of ecosystems and also for the attractiveness of landscapes which include water elements.
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
4.3. RAINWATER HARVESTING Architecture have been called solidify music. Certainly its elements and details are like musical notes, if we see an architectural structure as a musical creation. Architecture consists from “notes”, strokes, a rhythm, a rate or a dynamic and an aesthesia just like every music composition. Emotional condition and aesthetic impression originate in connecting all elements. The emotional force of the building depends on how right and how original an architect punctuate all marks beginning from creation a space-and-planning composition and then making details, actions and elements using different architectural, stylistic, decorative and artistic methods. Consistent pattern construction of forms is not only the result of a creative way of architects and builders but first of all it consists in goals and missions of architecture, own function, the reasonability of a predestination. It depends on the nature conditions and the climate too, the national traditional and the architectural tendencies, the building materials which are given by the nature of different regions. But a main task is own making a favorable situation for a people’s life independent of the climate in which a process of architectural creation goes on. Every building - a house,
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a church, a railway station, a theatre - is first of all roof over a heard, a shelter. Nature forces to people to build a first covering. And in turn the creative potential of people has developed, improved and found new forms of satisfying utilitarian as well as aesthetic needs. Water is one of a nature’s elements which have a great role in organizing the living space of people, but a man has ambiguous relation with it.
METHODS OF RAINWATER HARVESTING Broadly there are two ways of harvesting rainwater. 1. Surface runoff harvesting 2. Roof top rainwater harvesting Rainwater harvesting is the collection and storage of rainwater for reuse on-site, rather than allowing it to run off. These stored waters are used for various purposes such as gardening, irrigation etc. Various methods of rainwater harvesting are described in this section.
2. ROOFTOP RAINWATER HARVESTING: It is a system of catching rainwater where it falls. In rooftop harvesting, the roof becomes the catchments, and the rainwater is collected from the roof of the house/building. It can either be stored in a tank or diverted to artificial recharge system. This method is less expensive and very effective and if implemented properly helps in augmenting the groundwater level of the area. ROOFTOP SYSTEM
RAINWATER
HARVESTING
Components of the Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting: The illustrative design of the basic components of roof top rainwater harvesting system is given in the typical schematic diagram shown in Fig
1. SURFACE RUNOFF HARVESTING: In urban area rainwater flows away as surface runoff. This runoff could be caught and used for recharging aquifers by adopting appropriate methods.
Fig. 4. 8 : Components of rain water harvesting
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The system mainly constitutes of following sub components:
Catchments
Transportation
First flush
Filter
CATCHMENTS: The surface that receives rainfall directly is the catchment of rainwater harvesting system. It may be terrace, courtyard, or paved or
unpaved open ground. The terrace may be flat RCC/stone roof or sloping roof. Therefore the catchment is the area, which actually contributes rainwater to the harvesting system. TRANSPORTATION: Rainwater from rooftop should be carried through down take water pipes or drains to storage/harvesting system. Water pipes should be UV resistant (ISI HDPE/PVC pipes) of required capacity. Water from sloping roofs could be caught through gutters and down take pipe. At terraces, mouth of the each drain should have wire mesh to restrict floating material. First Flush: First flush is a device used to flush off the water received in first shower. The first shower of rains needs to be flushed-off to avoid contaminating storable/rechargeable water by the probable contaminants of the atmosphere and the catchment roof. It will also help in cleaning of silt and other material deposited on roof during dry seasons Provisions of first rain separator should be made at outlet of each drainpipe. Filter: There is always some skepticism regarding Roof Top Rainwater Harvesting since doubts are
Fig. 4. 9 : Catchments
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raised that rainwater may contaminate groundwater. There is remote possibility of this fear coming true if proper filter mechanism is not adopted. Secondly all care must be taken to see that underground sewer drains are not punctured and no leakage is taking place in close vicinity. Filters are used for treatment of water to effectively remove turbidity, colour and microorganisms. After first flushing of rainfall, water should pass through filters. A gravel, sand and ‘netlon’ mesh filter is designed and placed on top of the storage tank. This filter is very important in keeping the rainwater in the storage tank clean. It removes silt, dust, leaves and other organic matter from entering the storage tank. The filter media should be cleaned daily after every rainfall event. Clogged filters prevent rainwater from easily entering the storage tank and the filter may overflow. The sand or gravel media should be taken out and washed before it is replaced in the filter.
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
There are different types of filters in practice, but basic function is to purify water. Different types of filters are described in this section. 1. Sand Gravel Filter: These are commonly used filters, constructed by brick masonry and filleted by pebbles, gravel, and sand as shown in the figure. Each layer should be separated by wire mesh. A typical figure of Sand Gravel Filter is shown
Fig. 4. 10 : Sand gravel filter
2. Charcoal Filter: Charcoal filter can be made in-situ or in a drum. Pebbles, gravel, sand and charcoal as shown in the figure should fill the drum or chamber. Each layer should be separated by wire mesh. Thin layer of charcoal is used to absorb odor if any. A schematic diagram of Charcoal filter is indicated fig. 4.12. Page | 47
3. PVC –Pipe filter: This filter can be made by PVC pipe of 1 to 1.20 m length; Diameter of pipe depends on the area of roof. Six inches dia. pipe is enough for a 1500 Sq. Ft. roof and 8 inches dia. pipe should be used for roofs more than 1500 Sq. Ft. Pipe is divided into three compartments by wire mesh. Fig. 4. 12 : Charcoal filter
Each component should be filled with gravel and sand alternatively as shown in the figure. A layer of charcoal could also be inserted between two layers. Both ends of filter should have reduce of required size to connect inlet and outlet. This filter could be placed horizontally or vertically in the system. A schematic pipe filter is shown in fig 4.11. Fig. 4. 11 : PVC – Pipe filter
4. Sponge Filter: It is a simple filter made from PVC drum having a layer of sponge in the middle of drum. It is the easiest and cheapest form filter, suitable for residential units. A typical figure of sponge filter is shown fig 4.13.
Fig. 4. 13 : Sponge filter
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Methods of Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting: Various methods of using roof top rainwater harvesting are illustrated in this section: 1. Storage of Direct Use: In this method rainwater collected from the roof of the building is diverted to a storage tank. The storage tank has to be designed according to the water requirements, rainfall and catchment availability. Each drainpipe should have mesh filter at mouth and first flush device followed by filtration system before connecting to the storage tank. It is advisable that each tank should have excess water over flow system. Excess water could be diverted to recharge system. Water from storage tank can be used for secondary purposes such as washing and gardening etc. This is the most cost effective way of rainwater harvesting. The main advantage of collecting and using the rainwater during rainy season is not only to save water from conventional sources, but also to save energy incurred on transportation and distribution of water at the doorstep. This also conserves groundwater, if it is being extracted to meet the demand when rains are on. A typical fig of storage tank is shown
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
Fig. 4. 14 : Storage tank
2. Recharging groundwater aquifers: Groundwater aquifers can be recharged by various kinds of structures to ensure percolation of rainwater in the ground instead of draining away from the surface. Commonly used recharging methods are:-
Recharging of bore wells
Recharging of dug wells.
Recharge pits
Recharge Trenches
Soak aways or Recharge Shafts
Percolation Tanks
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3. Recharging of bore wells: Rainwater collected from rooftop of the building is diverted through drainpipes to settlement or filtration tank. After settlement filtered water is diverted to bore wells to recharge deep aquifers. Abandoned bore wells can also be used for recharge.
4. Recharge pits: Recharge pits are small pits of any shape rectangular, square or circular, contracted with brick or stone masonry wall with weep hole at regular intervals. Top of pit can be covered with perforated covers. Bottom of pit should be filled with filter media.
Optimum capacity of settlement tank/filtration tank can be designed on the basis of area of catchment, intensity of rainfall and recharge rate. While recharging, entry of floating matter and silt should be restricted because it may clog the recharge structure.
The capacity of the pit can be designed on the basis of catchment area, rainfall intensity and recharge rate of soil. Usually the dimensions of the pit may be of 1 to 2 m width and 2 to 3 m deep depending on the depth of pervious strata.
First one or two shower should be flushed out through rain separator to avoid contamination.
These pits are suitable for recharging of shallow aquifers, and small houses.
Fig. 4. 15 : Recharging of bore wells Fig. 4. 16 : Recharge pits
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
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5. Soakway or Recharge shafts: Soak away or recharge shafts are provided where upper layer of soil is alluvial or less pervious. These are bored hole of 30 cm dia. up to 10 to 15 m deep, depending on depth of pervious layer. Bore should be lined with slotted/perforated PVC/MS pipe to prevent collapse of the vertical sides.
rate. The filtration method suggested for bore well recharging could be used.
At the top of soak away required size sump is constructed to retain runoff before the filters through soak away. Sump should be filled with filter media.
Fig. 4. 17 : Recharging of dug well
Fig. 4. 18 : Soakway or recharge shafts
6. Recharging of dug wells: Dug well can be used as recharge structure. Rainwater from the rooftop is diverted to dug wells after passing it through filtration bed. Cleaning and desalting of dug well should be done regularly to enhance the recharge INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
7. Recharge trenches: Recharge trench in provided where upper impervious layer of soil is shallow. It is a trench excavated on the ground and refilled with porous media like pebbles, boulder or brickbats. it is usually made for harvesting the surface runoff. Bore wells can also be provided inside the trench as recharge shafts to enhance percolation. The length of the trench is decided as per the amount of runoff expected. This method is suitable for small houses, playgrounds, parks and roadside drains. The recharge trench can be of size 0.50 to 1.0 m wide and 1.0 to 1.5 m deep. Page | 51
Fig. 4. 19 : Recharge trenches
8. Percolation tank: Percolation tanks are artificially created surface water bodies, submerging a land area with adequate permeability to facilitate sufficient percolation to recharge the groundwater. These can be built in big campuses where land is available and topography is suitable. Surface runoff and roof top water can be diverted to this tank. Water accumulating in the tank percolates in the solid to augment the groundwater. The stored water can be used directly for gardening and raw use. Percolation tanks should be built in gardens, open spaces and roadside greenbelts of urban area.
4.4.1. BUILDING STORM DRAIN
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
Anyway the bringing life water can be deleterious force. To some extent people had began to build own first houses saving from it. «At the beginning they stood forks, bound them by branches and coated these walls by clay. Others built walls from dry cobs of clay binding them above by wood, and covered by a cane and foliage for protection from rain and heat. After this so far as such roofs couldn’t withstand rains of winter bad weather they began doing batters and deflected water on coating with clay tilting roofs», - Vitruvius wrote in the Treaties about architecture. There were descriptions of outlet systems of rain water in the chart concerning kavediums. Vitruvius separated constructions and spatial structure on five types (kinds). Those were the Tuskian, the Corinthian, the four-columned, the flowing and the roofed. He explained on different methods of diversion rain water too. In the Tuskian beams were laid across the width of the atrium and should bear the cross beams and timbers under gutters extending from the corners of the walls to the corners of the beams intersection, and had slopes for rainwater along the rafters to the hole in the middle of the roof. (Fig. 4.20 [1]) The same system was in the Corinthian, but extension from the walls beams based on the columns located on the inner perimeter of the atrium (Fig. 4.20 [3]). Page | 52
Fig. 4. 20 :Drawings and comments by Auguste Choisy [1]Sistems1–TheTusksian [2]The four-column [3]The Corinthian in which Choisy assumed two lines of columns [4]The flowing(dis pluviatum) [5]The roofed (test udina tumor tent –roofed by Vitruvius),but it had a wide meaning as it could be seen from the context.
In the four-columns support (columns) were set at the intersections of the beams increasing the strength of the beam and facilitating the construction. In the flowing rafters supporting the roof, throw off rainwater not inside the atrium but outside (Fig.4.20 [2]). "Such coatings of kavediums are easier for winter houses because their raised holes in roofs do not interfere with the lighting in dining rooms. But they cause great inconvenience in terms of repair, because the pipe in which rainwater flows around the walls can’t quickly absorb the water drained from the gutters and so filled to the top, pour it over the edge and spoiling such house scarped try work and own walls". First of all, a big the carry-over of a roof was made for water diversion from building walls. A cornice got the most proliferation with development of architectural INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
construction. It allows not only making the carry-over of roof, but didn’t give water drips of all down on the walls by a combination form sand belts. In Ancient Greece and Rome cornices were often ornamented and it was the unique ornamental talisman including sacral content. Ornaments of wooden Russian houses had the same meaning. Canals were used everywhere what can be understandable by reading antic texts. Every order of classical architecture necessarily was completed by a cornice. Romanesque architects refused to do it and Romanesque cornice became only a projection stone slab on consoles which moved away the edge of a roof from the wall. (Fig. 4.22 , 4.23). This cornice was without gutter and used to in saving buildings for all Middle Ages. Gutter had begun using again only in XIII century (Fig. 4.21).
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Fig. 4. 21 : Different kinds of a cornice with and without water spouts a) Cornice profile as a fillet with modillions which is often used in the XIII century and was a copy of Romanesque cornice b) The cornice profile of Capella’s apses of Reims Cathedral. The first example of dripstone c) Cornice with gutter which became widespread in the 13th century
of architectural elements… Particularly Palladio wrote in “The book about roofs”: «It not only saves inhabitants from rains, snow, sun hot and night dew, but carries sizeable good for own housing throw off far from walls rain streams which though seems harmless, but really make a great destructions for the time”. He quoted from Vitruvius and precise his statement about inclined roofs explaining what ramps were used and in which climatic zones so that roofs should be a nice form and water flow down on them easy.
Fig. 4. 22 : Italy (Abruzzo) Rocco Calascio a) Consoles for gutter were design simultaneously with a house b) Gutter between houses. Fig. 4. 23 : Water channel a) Greece, Il. Koss, the fragment of antic cornice with a gutter and channel outs in the forms of lion’s heads, b) Italy, Castel vecchio Calvisio, Palazzo Capitano, The channel out, XIII c.
In period of the Renaissance architects, researchers and theorists turning on the antic architectural school discussed about the interaction of architecture and constructions, about reasonability and functionality
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
Palladio wrote about water canals which were made around a house in which water flow down from roof’s covering and was dropped out far from walls by special pipes. He meant water jets which were widely extend in the Middle Ages. The same principle was used to a water collect in Russian houses, when wooden often double batter roof’s
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covering like a batten or a wood lathing set in either a wood canal by lower own side. The canal has a bend near façade’s center, changing a horizontal level with lower direct to side-to-side walls and has a carry-over until 1 meter for carry out of water inside from walls (Fig. 4.24). Fig. 4. 24 : Water Channel a) Germany, Tubingen. The waterspout, gutter and channel out on a fortress tower b) London. Southwark Cathedral. Spout pipes.
Fig. 4. 25 : Water channel (a)Arkhangelsk. The museum (Malie Koreli).The wooden gutter is an utility structure. b)Germany. The channel out looks like a dragon.
Rainspouts were made from different materials such as wood, burnt clay, marble, limestone. Sheet copper, zinc, lead and steel were used to far later. It depended on the method and the kind of rainwater system: inside, outside, with gutter or with spout rainwater pipe which moved water to underground drainage (Fig. 4.25).
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In the most cases in different periods the outlet systems of rain water had have just only utilitarian function and so there simple form was dictated on an empiric experience of builders only from technical features, square and slope of the roof and amount of precipitation. But heeding on “generous products of nature and abundance of giving reserves of building materials’ people ‘working up them, got the taste for fine and developing them by arts, began to decorate with luxury own life” . Guttering and watercourses of beautiful and mean buildings became things of decorative art. Craftsmen made them by hand and kept own secrets of work. They often had become artists. Different stylistic trends in architecture, along with the technological advances made in the art of building its own characteristic manner and appearance of the
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period of eclecticism against the mixing of styles and the use of new manufacturing techniques hinged water systems, there is a huge variety of forms and techniques in accordance with the style buildings. At the beginning of the twentieth century the water pipe were brought under the laws of functionality and constructivism. Fig. 4. 28 : Water Channel a)Gargoyles of Romanesque and Gothic buildings in the forms of animals b)Italy. Florence. Cathedral of Saint Mary of the Flower c) Prague, St. Vita Cathedral.
Fig. 4. 27 : a) Modern interpretation a water pipe in Riga, Latvia b)Ordinary rain water pipes in Saint-Petersburg c)Rain water system in Kunsth of passage. Dresden. Germany
building, and guttering elements which are an integral part of the overall decoration of facades. Most clearly in this respect proved to be gothic, eclectic or modern. Gargoyles of Gothic buildings are not just outfalls for rain water; they embody the sacred and mystical images (Fig. 4.26). During the
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Fig. 4. 26 : a) Moscow. The Igumnov’s house on Yakimanka with water pipes and water leader head b) Helsinki. The water pipe is on the building at the beginning XX
4.4.2. SUMMARY Modern architecture lost the value of small architectural forms of utilitarian purposes such as porches and umbrellas over the entrances, railings for balconies and parapets on the roof, chimney and vent pipes. Architects turn to them abstractly unified,
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leaving them outside the architectural creativity. But these elements can beautify any building, framing it of water pipes (Fig. 4.26).
4.5. RECYCLED WATER There are few things we take for granted as much as our ability to turn on the tap and get water in a seemingly endless supply. Even during droughts, and despite warnings about shortages and conservation, most of us treat this precious resource as a given. The average American uses 80-100 gallons of water per day, and while less than half of that will be used for cooking or drinking, chances are that all of it is treated, potable water from the municipal provider. What many people don’t realize is that it’s fairly easy to implement systems for recycling and reusing water on your own property, thereby decreasing the demands on shared supplies, and reducing your water bills. Read on for details on the three LEED-H criteria for water efficiency at home, plus additional info on wastewater treatment and reuse.
4.5.1. WATER COLLECTION AND REUSE If you hate to miss out on a great bargain, look out the window next time it storms to see what you’re passing up—there’s no more cost-effective water source than rain. In fact, if a single thunderstorm drops 1 inch of rain on
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
your yard, you have just watched the equivalent of over 250 bathtubs full of water trickle by! The first step for increasing water efficiency at home is to reduce the use of drinkable water for non-consumption purposes. There are two ways to do this: collect rainwater, and reuse indoor wash water. You can install cisterns above or below ground that will collect and store run-off from rooftops and other impervious surfaces, as well as water from laundry machines, dishwashers, bathtubs, and sinks. The latter is classified as grey water, meaning that it does not include human waste or sewage. These collection tanks can then serve as an on-site supply for watering your lawn and garden. It’s also possible to reuse grey water indoors in toilets and for washing, but the regulations and requirements are a bit more complex than for outdoor use. Regardless, there are varying degrees of treatment and filtration that can be installed in conjunction with your cistern, depending on how you intend to use the water.
4.5.2. IRRIGATION How many times have you seen a sprinkler going full blast on someone’s lawn in the middle of a summer downpour? The irrigation of lawns and gardens consumes up to 50% of the potable water we bring onto our
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property, and much of that just ends up as runoff, rather than being absorbed by the plants being watered. This is situation in which technology can be hugely beneficial in conserving natural resources. You can install smart, programmable sprinkler systems and moisture sensors that allow you to measure the amount of water your yard needs at any given time, and control irrigation from a central shut-off valve. Combine this system with your rain and waste water collection and you’ve got your outdoor greenery dialed. As was pointed out the Green Building 101 installment on Sustainable Sites, it’s wise to choose landscaping elements that are appropriate to the climate and require minimal water. Because of their varying root systems, grass, trees, and flowers all have different water requirements, so when you design your garden, consider the layout of the irrigation system, and try to arrange plants according to the amount of water they need.
4.5.3. INDOOR WATER USE The primary means of reducing indoor water use has to do with the fixtures you choose. Selecting low-flow sink and bathtub faucets, showerheads and toilets can reduce indoor water use by 30-40%. Over the last few years, the quality of low-flow fixtures has increased. Whereas at first
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
they gained a reputation for flushing inefficiently or delivering unsatisfactory water pressure, new products are surpassing the original designs. The other great way to ensure that you are getting maximum water efficiency indoors is to purchase Energy Star appliances, which guarantee a certain degree of water efficiency, and save energy to boot.
4.5.4. WATER TREATMENT NATURE’S TOOLS
USING
Because water is so vital, and because the ability to clean and reuse it becomes increasingly important, it’s an area where we’ve seen significant evolution and real innovation over the years. Early building strategies recognized the value on a single slant roof, which allows runoff to be collected in one place. Likewise, gravity obviously supports water pressure, so the higher above ground a storage tank sits, the more efficiently the water will feed out. Then there is the natural water-filtering ability of plants—a form of bioremediation— which a number of ecologists, scientists and engineers have learned to harness for large scale filtration of contaminated water. Ecologist John Todd devised consolidated ecosystems which treat wastewater and sewage using aquatic plants, fungi, and other organisms. These have generally been used in commercial-scale operations, and not scaled down for
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residential purposes, or up for city-wide water treatment. But the concept reminds us that our own green space can be a filter for the water we waste, making reuse easier.
Recycled water is treated wastewater that can be used for landscapes. There are multiple grades of recycled wastewater. Grey water is domestic wastewater from kitchen sinks, dishwashers, and washing machines, and may include household cleaning products and food particles. Black water refers to water used in toilets that contains human excrement. In total, 50 to 80 percent of water used in homes is recyclable. Grey water, and even Fig.4.28: Grey Water System
Decentralized grey water systems, which are installed at or near the point where wastewater is generated, can supply up to 50 percent of landscape irrigation needs. Currently, however, reused water accounts for less than 1 percent of water used in the U.S., according to the National Academy of Sciences, due in part to concerns over safety of using reclaimed water for domestic purposes. Depending on the extent of treatment, recycled water can be cleaner and safer to use than tap water. In an effort to maximize the use of recycled water, the city and county of San Francisco’s Recycled Water Ordinance requires property owners located within a designated area to install recycled water systems in new construction, modification, and remodeling projects. Each state has a set of specific regulations on the use of recycled water use, and some states require permits. Using recycled water can significantly reduce residential water waste, and therefore energy use and greenhouse gas emissions.
Fig. 4. 29 : Grey water
black water, can be diverted and treated through a filter system and then further used to irrigate residential, commercial, and agricultural landscapes.
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CHAPTER 5: AIR 5.1. OVERVIEW The intro of wind in architectural and environmental design is to study the wind, not just as a natural phenomenon, but also in terms of its influence on the human environment, i.e., structures, the urban agglomerates, and the landscape. SYMBOLISM AND MYTHOLOGY Wind is the one of the manifestations of nature that catches the imagination of humans, often inspiring feelings of awe and fear that can be linked with primitive religious experiences. Associated with the primary elements of earth, air, fire and water, wind is also related to the idea of creative breath or human exhalation. From the Latin ventus (‘wind’), the ventilation is an air current, either through open spaces or through the interior of buildings. With regard to buildings, natural ventilation is the process that exchanges indoor air for fresh outdoor without mechanical power. The only natural forces involved are wind pressure and/or the temperature differential between the indoor and outdoor air. A general understanding of the ventilation process includes knowledge of:
Wind velocity with respect to the direction and magnitude
Pressure coefficients
Inlet size in itself, with respect to the outlet
Number of inlets
Inlet shape
Inlet orientation with respect to the wind direction
Outlet size in itself, with respect to the inlet
Pattern of airflow within building(interior layout)
Distribution of the air velocity through the building
Ventilation rate
the
interior
of
the
The techniques covered for element air are:
Ventilation
Passive Cooling
Wind energy
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5.2. VENTILATION The energy required to sustain the air motion through a building is the kinetic energy of the wind: 1/2p V2 , where p and V are the density and the velocity of the air, respectively. This is in reality a pressure, which can be expressed as: q=0.002558 V2 , where q is in psf and V in mph. The magnitude of the wind velocity (wind speed) is proportional to the attainable energy; the direction of the wind with respect to the building is also essential in order to establish the wind pressure at the inlet and outlet, which in turn controls the energy that can be used for ventilation. The ventilation process consists of air entering a building through on or more inlets (vents, windows, doors, etc.) and escaping through outlets. The driving force is the difference in pressure, /_\p, between the wind pressure over the inlet and that at the outlet. The larger the difference, the greater the driving force, but the wind pressure varies from point to point over the building surface and is given by: P= Cpe*q Where Cpe is the pressure coefficient found experimentally through wind-tunnel tests. It is necessary therefore to establish the pressure coefficients either through tables for simple shapes or by the direct wind-
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
tunnel tests. Knowing the pressure coefficients, it is possible to locate the inlets and outlets so that their pressure difference is the largest possible. The size of the inlet per se, independent of other factors, has particular effects in cases where there is only one aperture in the spaces (absence of cross ventilation) that functions also as outlet. This is, the air enters at one part and exits at another part of the same aperture. When the wind is perpendicular to the inlet, tests have shown that there is a little differences as the size varies; however, if the wind is oblique to the inlet, an increase in size raises considerably the average wind speed within the space. The size of the inlet with regard to that if the outlet has a significant influence on the air velocity inside the building, especially when inlet and outlet areas increase at the same rate. As their size expands, the interior air velocity doesn’t rise. This, of course, is intuitive because an impediment, regardless of where it occurs, at the entrance or at the exit, slows down the flow. When inlet and outlet have different sizes, there is not much significance to identifying which is the larger. In fact, the average air velocity is approximately the same in either case (a little higher when the outlet is larger than the inlet). The number of apertures within a building space without cross-ventilation is very important because they can be subdivided into inlets and outlets or be partially both an inlet and outlet with a considerable effect on the one window to
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the same space with two windows, then, assuming equal window area in both cases, we see that the average interior velocity is higher in the latter case. Furthermore, this is accentuated when the wind is at the angle rather than perpendicular to the window. The shape of the inlet can produce large differences in the interior velocity, especially when cross-ventilation is missing. Baffles installed on the side of the windows, for instance, can increase the ventilation considerably. In the case of a space with two windows on the same wall and wind bowing at an angle, the interior air velocity can rise up to three times the original value when baffles are installed. Contrary to first impressions, when the wind is at an angle different than 90 degree with the surface of an inlet, the interior velocity is higher than it would be if the wind were perpendicular to the inlet. The increase can be up to 300% in some case. The size of the outlet has particular significance only when examined as a function of that of the inlet, as previously seen. Outlets, of course, should be located in zones of suction to obtain pressure differentials that maximize ventilation.
obstructions and the tortuosity of the pattern of the airflow are such that systematical generalizations are not meaningful. Each case should be analyzes experimentally. Examples of aircirculation patterns and velocities within various space configurations are illustrated in Figure 5.1 through 5.3. In the latter two, the findings, determined through model tests, are based on a square space of a constant size where the relative location of inlets and outlets and the location of an intermediate partition, when used, are arranged in a different ways. The distribution of the air velocity throughout a building varies considerably. It is convenient to show the variation in magnitude by expressing the interior velocity at any point as a function of the free velocity of the wind outside. The ventilation rate is a quantitative value that depends on all the parameters previously discussed. Desired values can be established for a specific use of the space, and, on this basis, all the design parameters, such as inlet and outlet sizes and locations, can be established, For an existing building under given conditions (wind direction, speed, sizes, and location of apertures, etc.), the ventilation rate is the parameter to be computed.
As the air enters the building, it circulates all the way through it to the outlet, following a pattern that is determined by the geometry of the interior space. The influence of the
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(a) best
(a) best
(a) best
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Fig. 5. 1 : Apertures on the same wall (b) good (c) poor
Fig. 5. 2 : Apertures on the adjacent wall (b) good (c) poor
Fig. 5. 3 : Apertures on the adjacent wall (b) good (c) poor
(d) poor
(d) poor
(d) poor
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5.2.1. FUNCTIONS VENTILATION
OF
NATURAL
A certain amount of natural ventilation takes place spontaneously by infiltration through doors, windows, and cracks. Ventilation, however, should be controlled to satisfy specific needs in a calculated amount. Air exchanges, measured in cubic feet per hour, cubic meters per hour, or in number of air exchanges per hour, are required for the proper comfort of the occupants in various requirements, removal of odors and humidity, and cooling.
5.2.2. VERTICAL APERTURES
POSITIONING
OF
The height of inlets and outlets above the floor of the space to be ventilated greatly influences the effectiveness of ventilation. Also very important is the position of one with respect to the other. When inlet and outlet are both high above the floor, the air current is always near ceiling and totally above the body level without interaction with the lower. Warm air on the top would be removed, which is a positive aspect in the summer, but the ventilation doesn’t include the whole space not does it give direct relief to the occupants. When both apertures are low, all the air current is at body level, thus allowing direct contact with the occupants of the
space, but leaving inactive the upper layers where heat accumulates. Locating the inlet at a higher level than the outlet expands the motion of air through a better vertical distribution of air velocities. As upper pocket of stationary air, however, is left in the space over the outlet. The most efficient ventilation occurs when the inlet is low and the outlet is high above the floor. The air current crosses all the air layers, envelops the occupants, and rises, gradually pulling out the warm air near the ceiling. These generalizations, however, can’t be easily offset by other conditions, and therefore have a little influence in the solution of practical cases. On the other hand, they point out the factors that are involved in the design of
Fig. 5. 4 : Single side double opening ventilation
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architectural spaces for natural ventilation. While it’s not the biggest pressure affecting buildings, stack effect (or “chimney effect,” as it’s sometimes called) is an important consideration in most houses and is a big deal in tall buildings.
Inside air speed 35% of outside
Inside air speed 44% of outside
Fig. 5. 5 : Relative window opening sizes
Ventilation is the intentional introduction of ambient air into a space and is mainly used to control indoor air quality by diluting and displacing indoor pollutants; it can also be used for purposes of thermal comfort or dehumidification. The correct introduction of ambient air will help to achieve desired indoor comfort levels although the measure of an ideal comfort level varies from individual to individual. The intentional introduction of sub aerial air can be categorized as either mechanical ventilation, or natural ventilation. Mechanical ventilation uses fans to drive the
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
flow of sub aerial air into a building. This may be accomplished by pressurization (in the case of positively pressurized buildings), or by depressurization (in the case of exhaust ventilation systems). Many mechanically ventilated buildings use a combination of both, with the ventilation being integrated into the HVAC system. Natural ventilation is the intentional passive flow of sub aerial air into a building through planned openings (such as louvers, doors, and windows). Natural ventilation does not require mechanical systems to move sub aerial air, it relies entirely on passive physical phenomena, such as diffusion, wind pressure, or the stack effect. Mixed mode ventilation systems use both mechanical and natural processes. The mechanical and natural components may be used in conjunction with each other or separately at different times of day or season of the year. Since the natural component can be affected by unpredictable environmental conditions it may not always provide an appropriate amount of ventilation. In this case, mechanical systems may be used to supplement or to regulate the naturally driven flow. In many instances, ventilation for indoor air quality is simultaneously beneficial for the control of thermal comfort. At these times, it can be useful to increase the rate of ventilation beyond the minimum required for indoor air quality. Two examples include air-side economizer strategies and ventilation pre-
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cooling. In other instances, ventilation for indoor air quality contributes to the need for – and energy use bymechanical heating and cooling equipment. In hot and humid climates, dehumidification of ventilation air can be a particularly energy intensive process. Ventilation should be considered for its relationship to "venting" for appliances and combustion equipment such as water heaters, furnaces, boilers, and wood stoves. Most importantly, the design of building ventilation must be careful to avoid the back draft of combustionproductsfrom"naturallyvented"appliancesintot heoccupiedspace.Thisissueisofgreaterimportanceinnewbuil dings with more air tight envelopes. To avoid the hazard, many modern combustion appliances utilize "direct venting" which draws combustion air directly from
outdoors, instead of from the indoor environment.
5.2.3. CATEGORIES OF VENTILATION
Mechanical ventilation refers to any system that uses mechanical means, such as a fan, to introduce sub aerial air to a space. These includes positive pressure ventilation, exhaust ventilation, and balanced systems that use both supply and exhaust ventilation.
Ventilation refers to intentionally designed passive methods of introducing sub aerial to a space without the use of mechanical systems.
Mixed mode ventilation (or hybrid ventilation) systems use both natural and mechanical processes.
Infiltration is the uncontrolled flow of air from outdoors to indoors through leaks (unplanned openings) in building envelope. When a building design relies on environmentally driven circumstantial infiltration to maintain indoor air quality, this flow has been referred to as adventitious ventilation.
5.2.4. VENTILATION RATE STANDARDS The ventilation rate, for CII buildings, is normally expressed by the volumetric flow rate of sub aerial air, introduced to the building. The typical units use dare cubic feet per minute(CFM)or liters per second(L/s).The ventilation rate Fig. 5. 6 : Horizontal window placement
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can also be expressed onaper person or per unit floor area basis, such as CFM/p or CFM/ft², or air changes per hour (ACH).
air is outside the house. Cool inside air tends to fall and get pushed out at the bottom of the building, which draws hot air in at the top.
Stack effect is controlled by two things: the height of the building and the difference between inside and outside temperatures. The greater the temperature difference and the taller the building, the greater the pressures created. It’s the same principal that creates a strong draft in a chimney.
Standards for residential buildings
For residential buildings, which mostly rely on infiltration for meeting their ventilation needs, a common ventilation rate measure is the air change rate(or air changes per hour): the hourly ventilation rate divided by the volume of the space (I or ACH; units of1/h). During the winter, ACH may range from 0.50 to 0.41 in a tightly air sealed house to 1.11 to 1.47 in a loosely air-sealed house. ASHRAE now recommends ventilation rates dependent upon floor area, as a revision to the 62-2001 standard, in which the minimum ACH was 0.35, but no less than 15 CFM/person (7.1L/s/person). As of 2003 ,the standard has been changed to 3CFM/100sq.ft. (15 l/s/100 sq. m.) plus 7.5 CFM/person (3.5 L/s/person).
5.3. STACK EFFECT How Stack Effect Works? In winter, warm air inside a building rises. This pressurizes the top of the building, pushing hot air out and sucking cold air in at the bottom. In summer in an air-conditioned building, stack effect works in reverse because the warmer
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
The pressures, whether positive or negative, are greatest at the bottom and at the top and tend to be neutral somewhere near the middle. In the winter model, the bottom tends to have high negative pressure, the top tends to have high positive pressure, and the middle or “neutral pressure plane,” is right in the sweet spot. In summer, negative and positive pressure peaks are reversed. Stack effect creates a comfort problem that feeds on itself. In winter, people in the upper floors are overheated, so they open windows. This relieves pressure at the top, which draws cold air in at the bottom, prompting people on lower floors to turn up their thermostats. The problem can really escalate in some multifamily buildings that have poor insulation and air sealing between floors: The
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overheated penthouse dwellers open their windows, which freezes the feet of the folks at street level. Stack effect can also cause moisture damage. Moisture rides on air currents, so in any part of a building that experiences a large flow of air between inside and out, moisture will condense on cold surfaces. You can sometimes see the results on brick buildings—as moist air accumulates in the brick, it can cause staining, efflorescence, and spalling from freeze-thaw cycles. But the problems aren’t confined to brick. Anytime there is pressure pushing moist inside air—or pulling moist outside air—into the wall cavity, you can definitely get condensation leading to mold and rot.
temperature differential is typically smaller in summer than in winter. Pressure is equalized at the Neutral Pressure Plane (NPP) in both scenarios, though its location can rise or fall depending on how leaky the building is. One solution to stack effect problems is to build extremely
Energy loss is another effect of the stack. Obviously, when you’re heating or cooling inside air, if it escapes, energy is wasted. Again, the problem is cyclical: conditioned air escapes, drawing in unconditioned air that requires more energy to heat or cool it. Rinse and repeat. In a heated building (left diagram), warm 68°F air rises, creating positive pressure at the top of a building and negative pressure at the bottom. Warm air escaping to the outside creates an air current that draws cold 14°F air in at the bottom to replace it. The situation is reversed in an airconditioned building (right diagram), though the
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
Fig. 5. 7 : Stack effect
short buildings. That works (sort of) for ranch houses and ramblers, but it won’t fly in buildings where there’s more “up” than “out.” In fact, if you’ve ever tried to open a standard hinged door on a very tall building, you know that
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it takes superhuman strength to get it open because suction from the stack effect is so strong. To relieve that pressure, many tall buildings have revolving doors at ground level. Elevator vestibules accomplish the same thing. Because an elevator shaft is a continuous “chimney” that runs the full height of the building, it’s essential to isolate it from the rest of the building, otherwise the drafts created could create strong air currents around the elevator doors. Stopping the stack effect in houses. In a house, stack effect pressures aren’t as high as in taller buildings, but they still cause uncomfortable drafts, moisture movement, and energy loss. As in all buildings, positive or negative pressure is highest at the top and at the bottom, so make
sure the ceiling plane is tight. That means sealing all holes for can lights, connections between floors through dropped soffits and tray ceilings, and other pathways for air movement. At the bottom of the building, the biggest leaks are in the rim joist assembly because so many components are fastened together there. If all parts of the air barrier system aren’t correctly detailed, you’ll get fairly significant air leakage at the rim joist. One of the niftiest applications using the stack effect is a solar chimney. Basically, a wind generator is placed inside a really tall tower that’s surrounded by a huge solar collector on the ground. The solar energy heats the air in the tower, which, because of the height of the chimney and the temperature difference, creates stack-effect
Fig. 5. 8 : Stack effect in heated and cooling building
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pressures. This creates enough airflow to turn the generator turbine and produce energy. Estimates are that one of these solar chimneys can power 100,000 houses. Stack effect was used in the design of The State Capital Building of Texas. Before air conditioning, the tall structure would create a updraft in the hot months with openings around the ground level to let the fresh air in. This created a natural airflow for the occupants on the lower level while naturally exhausting the heat up and out of the building. Stack effect or chimney effect is the movement of air into and out of buildings, chimneys, flue-gas stacks, or other containers, resulting from air buoyancy. Buoyancy occurs due to a difference in indoor-to-outdoor air density
resulting from temperature and moisturedifferences.Theresultiseitherapositiveornegativeb uoyancyforce.The greater the thermal difference and the height of the structure, the greater the buoyancy force, and thus the stack effect. The stack effect helps drive natural ventilation, air in filtration, and fires (e.g. the Kaprun tunnel fire and King's Cross underground station fire).
5.3.1. STACK EFFECT IN BUILDINGS Since buildings are not totally sealed (at the very minimum, there is always a ground level entrance), the stack effect will cause air infiltration. During the heating season, the warmer indoor air rises up through the building and escapes at the top either through open windows, ventilation openings, or unintentional holes in ceilings, like ceiling fans and recessed lights. The rising warm air reduces the pressure in the base of the building, drawing cold air in through either open doors, windows, or other openings and leakage. During the cooling season, the stack effect is reversed, but is typically weaker due to lower temperature differences.
Fig. 5. 9 : An abambar (water reservoir) with double domes and wind catchers (openings near the top of the towers) in the central desert city of Naeen, Iran. Wind catchers are a form of natural ventilation.
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outside air. Furthermore, an industrial flue gas stack typically provides little obstruction for the flue gas along its length and is, in fact, normally optimized to enhance the stack effect to reduce fan energy requirements.
Fig. 5. 10 : Modern high rise building
In a modern high-rise building with a well-sealed envelope, the stack effect can create significant pressure differences that must be given design consideration and may need to be addressed with mechanical ventilation. Stairwells, shafts, elevators, and the like, tend to contribute to the stack effect, while interior partitions, floors, and fire separations can mitigate it. Especially in case of fire, the stack effect needs to be controlled to prevent the spread of smoke and fire, and to maintain tenable conditions for occupants and firefighters.
5.3.2. STACK EFFECT IN FLUE STACKS AND CHIMNEYS
GAS
The stack effect in industrial flue gas stacks is similar to that in buildings, except that it involves hot flue gases having large temperature differences with the ambient
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
Large temperature differences between the outside air and the flue gases can create a strong stack effect in chimneys for buildings using a fireplace for heating. Fireplace chimneys can sometimes draw in more cold outside air than can be heated by the fireplace, resulting in a net heat loss. Before the development of large volume fans, mines were ventilated using the stack effect. A downcast shaft allowed air into the mine. At the foot of the up cast shaft a furnace was kept continuously burning. The shaft (commonly several hundred yards deep) behaved like a chimney and air rose through it drawing fresh air down the down cast stack and around the mine.
5.3.3. CAUSE FOR THE STACK EFFECT There is a pressure difference between the outside air and the air inside the building caused by the difference in temperature between the outside air and the inside air. That pressure difference ( ΔP) is the driving force for the stack effect and it can be calculated with the equations presented below. The equations apply only to buildings where air is both inside and outside the buildings. For buildings with one or two floors, h is the height of the
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building. For multi-floor, high-rise buildings, h is the distance from the openings at the neutral pressure level (NPL) of the building to either the topmost openings or the lowest openings. Reference explains how the NPL affects the stack effect in high-rise buildings. For flue gas stacks and chimneys, where air is on the outside and combustion flue gases are on the inside, the equations will only provide an approximation and h is the height of the flue gas stack or chimney.
The stack effect in chimneys: the gauges represent absolute air pressure and the airflow is indicated with light grey arrows. The gauge dials move clockwise with increasing pressure. U.S. customary units: where: ΔP = available pressure difference, in psi C = 0.0188, in °R/ft a = atmospheric pressure, in psi h = height or distance, in ft To = absolute outside temperature, in °R
SI units: where: ΔP = available pressure difference, in Pa C = 0.0342, in K/m a = atmospheric pressure, in Pa h = height or distance, in m To = absolute outside temperature, in K Ti= absolute inside temperature, in K
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
Ti= absolute inside temperature, in °R
5.3.4. INDUCED FLOW The draft (draught in British English) flow rate induced by the stack effect can be calculated with the equation presented below. The equation applies only to buildings where air is both inside and outside the buildings. For buildings with one or two floors, h is the height of the building and A is the flow area of the openings. For multifloor, high-rise buildings, A is the flow area of the openings and h is the distance from the openings at the neutral
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pressure level (NPL) of the building to either the topmost opening or the lowest openings.
To = outside air temperature, K U.S. customary units:
For flue gas stacks or chimneys, where air is on the outside and combustion flue gases are on the inside, the equation will only provide an approximation. Also, A is the crosssectional flow area and h is the height of the flue gas stack
or chimney. SI units: Where: Q = stack effect draft (draught in British English) flow rate, m3/s A = flow area, m2 C = discharge coefficient (usually taken to be from 0.65 to 0.70) g = gravitational acceleration, 9.81 m/s2 h = height or distance, m Ti= average inside temperature, K
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
where: Q = stack effect draft flow rate, ft3/s A = area, ft2 C = discharge coefficient (usually taken to be from 0.65 to 0.70) g = gravitational acceleration, 32.17 ft/s2 h = height or distance, ft Ti= average inside temperature, °R To = outside air temperature, °R This equation assumes that the resistance to the draft flow is similar to the resistance of flow through an orifice characterized by a discharge coefficient C.
5.4. PASSIVE COOLING There has been a drastic increase in the use of air conditioning system for cooling the buildings all around the world. The last two decade has witnessed a severe energy crisis in developing countries especially during summer season primarily due to
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cooling load requirements of buildings. Increasing consumption of energy has led to environmental pollution resulting in global warming and ozone layer depletion. Passive cooling systems use non-mechanical methods to maintain a comfortable indoor temperature and are a key factor in mitigating the impact of buildings on the environment. Passive cooling techniques can reduce the peak cooling load in buildings, thus reducing the size of the air conditioning equipment and the period for which it is generally required. This paper reviews and critically analyses various passive cooling techniques and their role in providing thermal comfort and its significance in energy conservation. The last two decade has witnessed a severe energy crisis in developing countries especially during summer season primarily due to cooling load requirements of buildings. The energy consumption in buildings is quite high and is expected to further increase because of improving standards of life and increasing world population. Air conditioning use has increasingly penetrated the market during the last few years and greatly contributes in the upsurge of absolute energy consumption. According to the World watch Institute, buildings consume about 40% of the world’s energy production. As a result, buildings are involved in producing about 40% of the sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides that cause acid rain
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
and contribute to smog formation. Building energy use also produces 33% of all annual carbon dioxide emissions, significantly contributing to the climate changes brought about by the accumulation of this heat-trapping gas. In India, the building sector represents about 33% of total electricity consumption, with commercial sector accounting for 8% and 25 % respectively. Before the advent of mechanical refrigeration, ingenious use was made of the many means of cooling (e.g. damp cloths hung in draughts created by the connective stack effect in buildings). So dwellings and life styles were developed to make best possible use of these sources of cooling. The introduction of mechanical refrigeration permitted not only the ability to increase the likelihood of achieving complete thermal comfort for more extended periods, but also a great deal of flexibility in building design, and simultaneously led to changes in life style and work habits. However, increasingly, the use of a 'higher technology' resulted in natural-cooling techniques being ignored. Now with the growing realization of the rapid depletion of non-renewable energy sources and of the adverse environmental impacts of fossil-fuel dissipating processes, it is accepted that it is foolish to continue consuming vast amounts of non-renewable fuels for the air-conditioning of buildings, when our ancestors achieved thermal comfort by natural means [3]. Hence to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases, caused by fossil fuels Page | 74
to power the cooling requirement of the buildings has stimulated the interest towards adoption of passive cooling techniques for buildings. This paper reviews and discusses in detail various passive cooling techniques with a special focus on solar shading techniques, as they are most economical and thus most suitable for houses in developing countries.
5.4.1. PASSIVE COOLING OF BUILDINGS A ‘passive’ solar design involves the use of natural processes for heating or cooling to achieve balanced interior conditions. The flow of energy in passive design is by natural means: radiation, conduction, or convection without using any electrical device. Maintaining a comfortable environment within a building in a hot climate relies on reducing the rate of heat gains into the building and encouraging the removal of excess heat from the building. To prevent heat from entering into the building or to remove once it has entered is the underlying principle for accomplishing cooling in passive cooling concepts. This depends on two conditions: the availability of a heat sink which is at a lower temperature than indoor air, and the promotion of heat transfer towards the sink. Environmental heat sinks are:
Outdoor air (heat transfer mainly by convection
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
through openings) Water (heat transfer by evaporation inside and / or outside the building envelope) The (night) sky (heat transfer by long wave radiation through the roof and/or other surface adjacent to a building Ground (heat transfer by conduction through the building envelope) Passive cooling techniques can reduce the peak cooling load in buildings, thus reducing the size of the air conditioning equipment and the period for which it is generally required. The important cooling concepts like shading are discussed in details:
5.4.1.1. SOLAR SHADING Among all other solar passive cooling techniques solar shading is relevant to thermal cooling of buildings especially in a developing country owing to their cost effectiveness and easy to implement. Rural India and developing countries in Middle-east region has witnessed a steep rise masonry houses with RCC roofs. However the availability of electric power in the villages especially during summer is limited. These RCC roofs tend to make the indoor Page | 75
temperature very high around 41°C: This is due to high roof top temperature of around 65°C in arid regions. Solar shading with locally available materials like terracotta tiles, hay, inverted earthen pots, date palm branches etc. can reduce this temperature significantly. Shading with tree reduces ambient temperature near outer wall by 2°C to 2.5°C. On an average a depression of six degree centigrade in room temperature has been observed when solar shading techniques are adopted [4]. Kumar, Garg and Kaushik evaluated the performance of solar passive cooling techniques such as solar shading, insulation of building components and air exchange rate. In their study they found that a decrease in the indoor temperature by about 2.5°C to 4.5°C is noticed for solar shading. Results modified with insulation and controlled air exchange rate showed a further decrease of 4.4°C to 6.8°C in room temperature. The analysis suggested that solar shading is quite useful to development of passive cooling system to maintain indoor room air temperature lower than the conventional building without shade.
5.4.1.2. SHADING BY OVERHANGS, LOUVERS AND AWNINGS ETC.
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Well-designed sun control and shading devices, either as parts of a building or separately placed from a building facade, can dramatically reduce building peak heat gain and cooling requirements and improve the natural lighting quality of building interiors. The design of effective shading devices will depend on the solar orientation of a particular building facade. For example, simple fixed overhangs are very effective at shading south-facing windows in the summer when sun angles are high. However, the same horizontal device is ineffective at blocking low afternoon sun from entering west- facing windows during peak heat gain periods in the summer.
Fig. 5. 11 : The different types of shading devices
5.4.1.3. SHADING OF ROOF Shading the roof is a very important method of reducing heat gain. Roofs can be shaded by providing
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roof cover of concrete or plants or canvas or earthen pots etc. Shading provided by external means should not interfere with night-time cooling. A cover over the roof, made of concrete or galvanized iron sheets, provides protection from direct radiation. Disadvantage of this system is that it does not permit escaping of heat to the sky at night-time A cover of deciduous plants and creepers is a better alternative. Evaporation from the leaf surfaces brings down the temperature of the roof to a level than that of the daytime air temperature. At night, it is even lower than the sky temperature Covering of the entire surface area with the closely packed inverted earthen pots, as was being done in traditional buildings, increases the surface area for radiative emission. Insulating cover over the roof impedes heat flow into the building. However, it renders the roof unusable and maintenance difficult Broken china mosaic or ceramic tiles can also be used as top most layer in roof for reflection of incident radiation. Another inexpensive and effective device is a removable canvas cover mounted close to the roof. During daytime it prevents entry of heat and its
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removal at night, radiative cooling. Fig. 5 shows the working principle of removable roof shades. Painting of the canvas white minimizes the radiative and conductive heat gain .
5.4.1.4. SHADING BY VEGETATION
TREES
AND
Proper Landscaping can be one of the important factors for energy conservation in buildings. Vegetation and trees in particular, very effectively shade and reduce heat gain. Trees can be used with advantage to shade roof, walls and windows. Shading and evapotranspiration (the process by which a plant actively release water vapor) from trees can reduce surrounding air temperatures as much as 5°C. Different types of plants (trees, shrubs, vines) can be selected on the basis of their growth habit (tall, low, dense, light permeable) to provide the desired degree of shading for various window orientations and situations. The following points should be considered for summer shading [7]:  Deciduous trees and shrubs provide summer shade yet allow winter access. The best locations for deciduous trees are on the south and southwest side of the building. When these trees drop their leaves in the winter, sunlight can reach inside to heat the interiors.
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Trees with heavy foliage are very effective in obstructing the sun’s rays and casting a dense shadow. Dense shade is cooler than filtered sunlight. High branching canopy trees can be used to shade the roof, walls and windows. Evergreen trees on the south and west sides afford the best protection from the setting summer sun and cold winter winds. Vertical shading is best for east and west walls and windows in summer, to protect from intense sun at low angles, e.g. screening by dense shrubs, trees, deciduous vines supported on a frame, shrubs used in combination with trees.
5.4.1.5. SHADING SURFACES
BY
TEXTURED
Surface shading can be provided as an integral part of the building element also. Highly textured walls have a portion of their surface in shade as shown in Figure 5. The increased surface area of such a wall results in an increased outer surface coefficient, which permits the sunlit surface to stay cooler as well as to cool down faster at night (Fig. 5.12). Fig. 5. 12 : Shading due to surface texture
Shading and insulation for walls can be provided by plants that adhere to the wall, such as English ivy, or by plants supported by the wall, such as jasmine. Horizontal shading is best for south-facing windows, e.g. deciduous vines (which lose foliage in the winter) such as ornamental grape or wisteria can be grown over a pergola for summer shading.
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5.4.2. INDUCED VENTILATION TECHNIQUES 5.4.2.1. SOLAR CHIMNEY
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A solar chimney is a modern device that induces natural ventilation by the thermal-buoyancy effect. The structure of the chimney absorbs solar energy during the day, thereby heating the enclosed air within and causing it to rise. Thus air is drawn from the building into an open near the bottom of the chimney. The air exhausted from the house, through the chimney, is replaced by ambient air. However, if the latter is warmer than the air inside the house, as it usually is during the day in hot climates, the continued use of the solar chimney will then begin to heat the structure of the building previously cooled overnight [9]. The solar chimney is used to exhaust hot air from the building at a quick rate, thus improving the cooling potential of incoming air from other openings. Thus solar chimneys having a relatively low construction cost, can move air without the need for the expenditure of conventional forms of energy, and can help achieve comfort by cooling the building structure at night. They can also improve the comfort of the inhabitants during the day if they are combined with an evaporative-cooling device.
5.4.2.2. AIR VENTS Curved roofs and air vents are used in combination for passive cooling of air in hot and dry climates, where
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Fig. 5. 13 : Induced ventilation through curved roof and air vents
dusty winds make wind towers impracticable. Suited for single units, they work well in hot and dry and warm and humid climates. A hole in the apex of the domed or cylindrical roof with the protective cap over the vent directs the wind across it (Fig. 7). The opening at the top provides ventilation and provides an escape path for hot air collected at top. Arrangements may be made to draw air from the coolest part of the structure as replacement, to set up a continuous circulation and cool the living spaces. The system works on the principle of cooling by induced ventilation, caused by pressure differences.
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5.4.2.3. WIND TOWER In a wind tower, the hot ambient air enters the tower through the openings in the tower, gets cooled, and thus becomes heavier and sinks down. The inlet and outlet of rooms induce cool air movement. When an inlet is provided to the rooms with an outlet on the other side, there is a draft of cool air. It resembles a chimney, with one end in the basement or lower floor and the other on the roof. The top part is divided into several vertical air spaces ending in the openings in the sides of the tower (Fig. 8). In the presence of wind, air is cooled more effectively and flows faster Fig. 5. 14 : Section showing detail of a wind tower
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down the tower and into the living area. The system works effectively in hot and dry climates where diurnal variations are high. Figure 8 shows the section and detail of a wind tower.
5.4.3. RADIATIVE COOLING The roof of a building can be used both as a nocturnal radiator and also as a cold store. It is often a cost-effective solution. During the night the roof is exposed to the night sky, losing heat by long- wave radiation and also by convection. During the day, the roof is externally insulated in order to minimize the heat gains from solar radiation and the ambient air. The roof then absorbs the heat from the room below.
5.4.3.1. DIODE ROOF The diode roof eliminates the water loss by evaporation and reduces heat gains without the need for movable insulation. It is a pipe system, consisting of a corrugated sheet-metal roof on which are placed polyethylene bags coated with white titanium oxide each containing a layer of pebbles wetted with water. The roof loses heat by longwave heat radiation to the sky and by the evaporation of water which condenses on the inside surface of the bags and drops back onto the pebbles.
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By this means, it is possible to cool the roof to 4°C below the minimum air temperature.
5.4.3.2. ROOF POND In this system a shallow water pond is provided over highly conductive flat roof with fixed side thermal insulation. The top thermal insulation is movable. The pond is covered in day hours to prevent heating of pond from solar radiation. The use of roof pond can lower room temperature by about 20°C. While keeping the pond open during night the water is cooled by nocturnal cooling. The covered pond during the day provides cooling due to the effect of nocturnally cooled water pond and on other side the thermal insulation cuts off the solar radiation from the roof. The system can be used for heating during the winter by operating the system just reverse. The movable insulation is taken away during day so the water of pond gets heated up by solar radiation and heating the building. The pond is covered in night to reduce the thermal losses from the roof and the hot water in the pond transfers heat into building.
5.4.4. EVAPORATIVE COOLING Evaporative cooling is a passive cooling technique in which outdoor air is cooled by evaporating water before it is introduced in the building. Its physical principle
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lies in the fact that the heat of air is used to evaporate water, thus cooling the air, which in turn cools the living space in the building. However passive evaporative cooling can also be indirect. The roof can be cooled with a pond, wetted pads or spray, and the ceiling transformed into a cooling element that cools the space below by convection and radiation without raising the indoor humidity.
5.4.4.1. PASSIVE DOWNDRAFT EVAPORATIVE COOLING (PDEC) Passive downdraft evaporative cooling systems consist of a downdraft tower with wetted cellulose pads at the top of the tower. Water is distributed on the top of the pads, collected at the bottom into a sump and recirculated by a pump. Certain designs exclude the re-circulation pump and use the pressure in the supply water line to periodically surge water over the pads, eliminating the requirement for any electrical energy input. In some designs, water is sprayed using micron risers or nozzles in place of pads, in others, water is made to drip. Thus, the towers are equipped .evaporative cooling devices at the top to provide cool air by gravity flow. These towers are often described as reverse chimneys. While the column of warm air rises in a chimney, in this case the column of cool air falls. The air flow rate depends on the efficiency of the Page | 81
evaporative cooling device, tower height and cross section, as well as the resistance to air flow in the cooling device, tower and structure (if any) into which it discharges . Passive downdraft evaporative cooling tower has been used successfully at the Torrent Research Centre in Ahmadabad. The inside temperatures of 29 –30 °C were recorded when the outside temperatures were 43 – 44 °C. Six to nine air changes per hour were achieved on different floors.
5.4.4.2. ROOF SURFACE EVAPORATIVE COOLING (RSEC)
overheating of rooms below them. Roof surfaces can be effectively and inexpensively cooled by spraying water over suitable water-retentive materials (e.g., gunny bags) spread over the roof surface. Wetted roof surface provides the evaporation from the roof due to unsaturated ambient air. As the water evaporates, it draws most of the required latent heat from the surface, thus lowering its temperature of the roof and hence reduces heat gain. Therefore, the wetted roof temperatures 40°C are much lower than the ambient air about 55°C. However, the water requirement for such arrangement is very high and it is a main constrain in the arid region to adopt this technique.
5.4.5. EARTH COUPLING
Fig. 5. 15 : Passive Downdraught Evaporative Cooling in Torrent Research Centre, Ahmedabad.
In a tropical country like India, the solar radiation incident on roofs is very high in summer, leading to
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This technique is used for passive cooling as well as heating of buildings, which is made possible by the earth acting as a massive heat sink. At depths beyond 4 to 5m, both daily and seasonal fluctuations die out and the soil temperature remains almost constant throughout the year. Thus, the underground or partially sunk buildings will provide both cooling (in summer) and heating (in winter) to the living space. A building may be coupled with the earth by burying it underground or berming. Figure 9 shows the functioning of earth baring during summer and winter. Page | 82
5.4.5.1. EARTH AIR TUNNEL The use of earth as a heat sink or a source for cooling/heating air in buried pipes or underground tunnels has been a testimony to Islamic and Persian architecture. The air passing through a tunnel or a buried pipe at a depth of few meters gets cooled in summers and heated in winters (Fig. 10). Parameters like surface area of pipe, length and depth
In an earth sheltered building or earth bermed structure the reduced infiltration of outside air and the additional thermal resistance of the surrounding earth considerably reduces the average thermal load. Further the addition of earth mass of the building acts like a large thermal mass and reduces the fluctuations in the thermal load. Besides reducing solar and convective heat gains, such buildings can also utilize
Fig. 5. 16 : Working principle of earth air tunnel
of the tunnel below ground, dampness of the earth, humidity of inlet air velocity, affect the exchange of heat between air and the surrounding soil.
5.4.5.2. EARTH BERMING Fig. 5. 17 : Working principle of earth berming during (a) summer and (b) winter conditions.
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the cooler sub-surface ground as a heat sink. Hence with reference to thermal comfort, an earth sheltered building presents a significant passive approach. Fig. 11(a) and Fig. 11(b) shows the working principle of earth berming during summer and winter conditions.
5.4.5.3. DESICCANT COOLING Desiccant cooling is effective in warm and humid climates. Natural cooling of human body through sweating does not occur in highly humid conditions. Therefore, a person’s tolerance to high temperature is reduced and it becomes desirable to decrease the humidity level. In the desiccant cooling method, desiccant salts or mechanical dehumidifiers are used to reduce humidity in the atmosphere. Materials having high affinity for water are used for dehumidification. They can be solid like silica gel, alumina gel and activated alumina, or liquids like triethylene glycol. Air from the outside enters the unit containing desiccants and is dried adiabatically before entering the living space. The desiccants are regenerated by solar energy. Sometimes, desiccant cooling is employed in conjunction with evaporative cooling, which adjusts the temperature of air to the required comfort level.
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5.5. CONCLUSION In this paper several passive cooling techniques were reviewed and discussed with reference to their design implications and architectural interventions. The continuing increase of energy consumption of air conditioning suggests a more profound examination of the urban environment and the impact on buildings as well as to an extended application of passive cooling techniques. Appropriate research should aim at better understanding micro-climates around buildings, and to understand and describe comfort requirements under transient conditions during the summer period. Also of importance are improving quality aspects, developing advanced passive and hybrid cooling systems, and finally, developing advanced materials for the building envelope .Theoretical studies have shown that the application of all the above techniques in buildings may decrease their cooling load up to 50% - 70%. Generally, concern for energy consumption is only marginal in the majority of architectural-design practices, even in the developed countries. Passive solar energy-efficient building design should be the first aim of any building designer, because, in most cases, it is a relatively low-cost exercise that will lead to savings in the capital and operating costs of the airconditioning plant. In today’s architecture, it is now essential for architects and building engineers to incorporate passive cooling techniques in buildings as an inherent part of
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design and architectural expression and they should be included conceptually from the outset. Incorporation of these passive cooling techniques would certainly reduce our dependency on artificial means for thermal comfort and minimize the environmental problems due to excessive consumption of energy and other natural resources and hence will evolve a built form, which will be more climate responsive, more sustainable and more environmental friendly of tomorrow.
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CHAPTER 6: FIRE 6.1. OVERVIEW Fire is the rapid oxidation of a material in the exothermic chemical process of combustion, releasing heat, light, and various reaction products. Slower oxidative processes like rusting or digestion are not included by this definition. Fire is hot because the conversion of the weak double bond in molecular oxygen, O2, to the stronger bonds in the combustion products carbon dioxide and water releases energy (418 kJ per 32 g of O2); the bond energies of the fuel play only a minor role here.[2] At a certain point in the combustion reaction, called the ignition point, flames are produced. The flame is the visible portion of the fire. Flames consist primarily of carbon dioxide, water vapor, oxygen and nitrogen. If hot enough, the gases may become ionized to produce plasma. Depending on the substances alight, and any impurities outside, the color of the flame and the fire's intensity will be different. Every natural ecosystem has its own fire regime, and the organisms in those ecosystems are adapted to or dependent upon that fire regime. Fire creates a mosaic of different habitat patches, each at a different stage of succession. Different species of plants, animals, and microbes specialize in exploiting a particular stage, and by creating these different
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
types of patches, fire allows a greater number of species to exist within a landscape. The techniques covered for element fire are:
Active Day Lighting
Barra System
Brise Soleil
6.2. ACTIVE DAYLIGHTING Active day lighting is a system of collecting sunlight using a mechanical device to increase the efficiency of light collection for a given lighting purpose. Active day lighting Fig. 6. 1 : Interior of Jacobsen House systems are different Bathroom Earth ship from passive day lighting systems in that passive systems are stationary and do not actively follow or track the sun. Two Types of active day lighting control systems:
Closed loop solar Open loop solar tracking systems.
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6.2.1. CLOSED LOOP
often the starting point for our designs. In a way, architects
Closed loop systems track the sun by relying on a set of lens or sensors with a limited field of view, directed at the sun, and are fully illuminated by sunlight at all times. As the sun moves, it begins to shade one or more sensors, which the system detect and activates motors or actuators to move the device back into a position where all sensors are once again equally illuminated.
6.2.2. OPEN LOOP Open loop systems track the sun without physically following the sun via sensors (although sensors may be used for calibration). These systems typically employ electronic logic which controls device motors or actuators to follow the sun based on a mathematical formula. This formula is typically a pre-programmed sun path chart, detailing where the sun will be at a given latitude and at a given date and time for each day. Natural light is one of the most important elements in architecture, helping to transform spaces and save energy. It seems like design is moving towards natural light and finding ways for it to permeate further into the interior of buildings. Natural light has always been important for architects. We consider it the most important building material and it is
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
Fig. 6. 2 : Difference between closed loop and open loop system
sculpt buildings in order that the light can play off their
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different surfaces. If done well, space and light can evoke positive emotional responses in people. Client awareness of sustainability and the health-related benefits of naturally lit environments has allowed architects to explore this in many exciting ways. The idea that natural light is as important as internal useable square footage has led to exciting spaces with interconnecting vertical connections, rather than floor-upon-floor of roomupon-room. Technological advances in thermally efficient thin-framed glazing systems, together with advances in silicon sealants and UV bonded structural glass, are allowing architects to explore a greater variety of envelopes and apertures. The intrusion of solid framing elements has been reduced, allowing for purer more sculptural forms – both internally and externally. We primarily design private houses and apartments. We consciously try to play with natural light, carefully considering how it enters, illuminates and animates a building and the physiological effect it will have for the occupants of each space. We take inspiration from instances of natural light in nature and art, and keep returning to natural light in sacred architecture.
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Our strategies differ for each project. We generally start by exploring all the ways we can get natural light into a building and balancing these with functional and spatial requirements. This often leads to interesting spatial qualities such as double height spaces, internal light slots and light wells (unroofed external spaces that allow light to enter). We then consider the materials of each element and how the light will play across them, then how each might add to the visual understanding of the building. The end result is always animated by the changing quality of light throughout the day and different seasons. This is the magic of it for me. You create something then let it loose for the occupants and the light to inhabit. In the evening the building takes on yet another personality with an electric lighting design. Technological advances in solar control and heat retention of glass, such as heat mirror film and reflective coatings with the improved thermal performance of frame members, have all reduced concerns associated with thermal loading. However, not entirely. Solar glare, privacy and security are other concerns an architect has to deal with when letting in natural light. But that’s half the fun.
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Absolutely. We’re often remodeling and extending existing buildings. Each building is its own puzzle with the wall and floor elements being able to be modified to allow light to penetrate through the building. Light can penetrate quite narrow spaces, especially if the surfaces of an aperture are reflective so only a tiny amount of floor space is given over to letting the light in to lower floors or deep plan. In extreme cases, we’ve used mirror-polished stainless ducts to bounce natural light through a very small space to get light into an internal room. The view up into these mirrored spaces can be quite something. To get light to lower floors and deep plan often means a little bit of floor space has to be given up. But the trade-up can be a whole floor really well lit rather than one that needs electric lighting throughout the day. I love the resulting double height spaces or internal slot canyons. They add visual drama and interest. They also allow for nice visual connections between floors so the spaces feel more elaborate and larger than they actually are. Clients generally like Fig. 6. 3 : Natural sky lighting
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
it when we make their houses feel bigger!
6.3. BARRA SYSTEM The Barra system is a passive solar building technology developed by Horazio Barra in Italy. It uses a collector wall to capture solar radiation in the form of heat. It also uses the thermo siphon effect to Fig. 6. 4 : Sketch showing barra system working distribute the warmed air through channels incorporated into the reinforced concrete floors, warming the floors and hence the building. Alternatively, in hot weather, cool nighttime air can be drawn through the floors to chill them in a form of air conditioning. Barra's are said to have more uniform north-south temperature distributions than other passive solar houses[citation needed]. Many successful systems were built in Europe, but Barra seems fairly unknown elsewhere.
6.3.1. PASSIVE SOLAR COLLECTOR To convert the sun's light into heat indirectly, a separate insulated space is constructed on the sunny side of the
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house walls. Looking at the outside, and moving through a cross section there is an outside clear layer. This was traditionally built using glass, but with the advent of cheap, robust Polycarbonate glazing most designs use twin- or triple-wall polycarbonate greenhouse sheeting. Typically the glazing is designed to pass visible light, but block IR to reduce losses, and block UV to protect building materials. The next layer is an absorption space. This absorbs most of the light entering the collector. It usually consists of an air gap of around 10 cm thickness with one or more absorption meshes suspended vertically in the space. Often window fly screen mesh is used, or horticultural shade cloth. The mesh itself can hold very little heat and warms up rapidly in light. The heat is absorbed by air passing around and through the mesh, and so the mesh is suspended with an air gap on Fig. 6. 5 : Barra system as an element of passive solar heating both the system front and
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
back sides. Finally a layer of insulation sits between the absorption space and the house. Usually this is normal house insulation, using materials such as polyisocyanurate foam, rock wool, foil and polystyrene. This collector is very responsive - in the sun it heats up rapidly and the air inside starts to convert. If the collector were to be directly connected to the building using a hole near the floor and a hole near the ceiling an indirect solar gain system would be created. One problem with this that, like Trombe walls, the heat would radiate back out at night, and a convection current would chill the room during the night. Instead, the air movement can be stopped using automatic dampers, similar to those used for ventilating foundation spaces in cold climates, or plastic film dampers, which work by blocking air flow in one direction with a very lightweight flap of plastic. The addition of the damper makes the design an efficient isolated solar gain system.
6.3.2. THERMAL STORE To store the thermal energy from the collector, the Barra system suspends a "spancrete" slab of concrete as a ceiling to store heat. This is fairly expensive and requires strong support. An alternative is to use water, which can store 5
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times as much heat for a given weight. A simple, cheap and effective way is to store the water in sealed 100 mm diameter PVC storm pipe with end caps. Whether water or concrete is used, the heat is transferred from the air in the collector into the storage material during the day, and released on demand using a ceiling fan into the room at night. Where "spancrete" slabs are used, the ceiling also heats the house by radiation. Some houses are fitted with louvers (similar to those used on satellites) to adjust the radiation transfer. Warm air travels through the slab tunnels from south to north, where it exits and travels back south through the bulk of the room to the air heater inlet near the floor.
6.3.3. INTERMEDIATE THERMAL STORE In most places a system designed for 5 successive days of no sun provides enough storage for all but a few days in a hundred years. Heat can be stored over a number of days using a large container of water. An 8-foot cube of water in the basement might store 15 kL of water, which is heated using a copper tube with fins in the collector. The performance of this can be further improved by putting the finned tube inside another layer of glazing at the back of the main collector, allowing the temperature to build up
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
more than the surrounding air stream. On cloudy days the heat is transferred back out of the store to heat the house.
6.4. BRISE SOLEIL Brise soleil, sometimes Brise-soleil (French pronunciation, plural, "Brise soleil" (invariable), or "bris-ole", from French, "sun breaker"), is an architectural feature of a building that reduces heat gain within that building by deflecting sunlight. Brise-soleil can comprise a variety of permanent sun-shading structures, ranging from the simple patterned concrete walls popularized by Le Corbusier in the Palace of Assembly to the elaborate wing-like mechanism devised by Santiago Calatrava for the Milwaukee Art Museum or the mechanical, patterncreating devices of the Institute of Monde Arabe by Jean Nouvel. In the typical form, a horizontal projection extends from the sun side facade of a building. This is most commonly used to prevent facades with a large amount of glass from overheating during the summer. Often louvers are incorporated into the shade to prevent the high-angle summer sun falling on the facade, but also to allow the low-angle winter sun to provide some passive solar heating. Brise soleil can be used to allow low-level sun to enter a building in the mornings, evenings and during winter when it can help heat and light the building, but to shade higher sun during the middle of the day and during the summer which tends to be ‘hotter’, brighter and less beneficial. Brise soleil
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sections on buildings to help reduce glare and prevent the building from overheating by reflecting direct, high-level light, but transmitting diffuse and low-level light. Louvers are often incorporated into Brise soleil that can be angled to optimize the shading provided depending on the local conditions and the design of the building. Brise Soleil can be fixed or motorized (automatic or manual), and can be part of a curtain walling system or independent structures. As they are designed to intercept the strong summer sun, they can also incorporate photovoltaic cells. The southern sides of buildings typically require horizontal, angled baffles to block the high summer sun. For the east and west facing sides of a building a motorized fin system can be used, to follow the sun and actively control the solar gain of the building. This allows optimum protection at the appropriate time of day and year. If we were given a penny each time somebody asks us what the difference between Solar Shading and Brise are external shading structures which can be fitted over the entire exterior of a building or solely over the windows. They can range from simple lattices or patterned concrete structures, to mechanical baffles, offering architects a practical solution for controlling year round solar radiation, reducing energy costs and helping to reduce glare. A typical Brise soleil extends horizontally from the exterior of glazed Fig. 6. 7 : Various types of brise soliel
Fig. 6. 6 : High court, Chandigarh
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Soleil was, well we’d have enough pennies to make a life-sized replica of the Eiffel Brise Soleil is a structure used to protect a building from the sun, usually consisting of horizontal or vertical strips of material. Now time for some translation: Brise in French translates as ‘to break’ and Soleil means ‘sun’, so Brise Soleil in English literally means ‘To Break Sun’.
6.4.1. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOLAR SHADING AND BRISE SOLEIL There is no difference between the two, both are physical structures that break up the sun’s rays, controlling heat and light. Yes, one will make you sound very cultured and posh if you get the pronunciation right, but both perform exactly the same function on your building. Although Brise Soleil & Solar Shading are essentially the same thing, it would be a mistake to think that all systems looked alike. They can come in many different materials: Timber, Aluminum, Steel, Fabric, Mesh and now our new Resin product that looks exactly like timber but doesn’t deteriorate or need maintenance like timber does. All of these materials also come in a vast array of colours from natural finishes through to red and yellow and green and blue, and well, any color of the rainbow you could wish for and more.
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
The customization doesn’t end there, you need to think about fixings, do you want your fixings to be visible and stand out or do you want your Brise soleil/solar shading system to appear like it’s floating in mid-air with secret hidden fixings? Then there’s the finish, straight, circular, curved, motorized if you can imagine it, we can create it. Your Brise soleil may be the same as your solar shading but the finished product definitely won’t be the same as anything else you’ve ever seen, each building . Why are more and more modern buildings including Brise soleil/solar shading in their construction? This isn’t a coincidence, the multiple benefits of Brise soleil/solar shading are starting to lead the way:
Reduced heating & cooling energy bills
Greener and more sustainable buildings due to reduced energy requirements
Natural light without the usual issues such as sun glare and overheating
Reduced heat gain without having to fit internal blinds or coverings, reducing the ‘greenhouse affect’ that highly glazed buildings can create
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Long lasting and cheap to maintain with annual services
To top it all off your Brise soleil/solar shading is going to look amazing. So you can be sure, whether you ask us for Brise Soleil or Solar Shading (we like both), you’re definitely going to get a unique, sustainable, functional piece of art, designed and manufactured specifically for your building.
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CHAPTER 7: SPACE 7.1. INTRODUCTION Space is one of the elements of design of architecture, as space is continuously studied for its usage. Architectural designs are created by carving space out of space, creating space out of space, and designing spaces by dividing this space using various tools, such as geometry, colors, and shapes. It is an undefined expanse of land given to an architect to define. Space ideas must be considered the characteristic quality of architecture, distinguishing it from the arts of the painter or sculptor. Our impression of architecture is more than the sensation created by the mere treatment of surface elevations, or even the modeling of mass, in terms of the outward form. The departure in architecture is the experience of enclosed space, through which we might pass with a multiple series of visual and physical impressions.
Space is considered an essential factor in any reflections on architecture. Connecting different functional and spatial unities into a logical organization is a part of the initial phase which every architectural building or complex passes through in its development. In architectural theory and practice there are four mostly represented approaches which interpret space within space concept: 1. 2. 3. 4.
Architectural building within open spaces. Open space within urban space Open space within architectural building Independent functional block within an open plan building
The first and most widely represented interpretation is that every architectural building is a part of a spatial context. According to this approach, the space within an architectural design is observed as a part of the surrounding physically determined urban, rural or natural space and depending on the level of the openness of a building to the surroundings, it is more or less connected to it.
Fig. 7. 1 : Theoretical interpretation of space within space concept
The second interpretation is antonymous to the first one and it is related to the first one and it is related to urban environment, where the term ‘inner’ space means open space Page | 95
such as squares, plazas etc. which is physically determined by facades of the surrounding buildings. According to third approach, the term ‘inner’ space mostly means an atrium, courtyard or skylight, whereas the surrounding area is a part of physical structure of a building within which they are located. The three a fore mentioned interpretations include traditional approaches according to which the relation between two different, spatial categories was observed until the emergence of a modern concept of open plan and first contemporary architectural examples where the boundaries of ‘inner’ space in the form of room clusters, in physical and functional terms, were clearly defined within a larger open space. The ways in which ‘inner’ spaces have been differentiated in practice may be different in size, form, material, color, texture, roughness, lighting level, etc. Although the concept in broader terms, may include a large number of traditional examples where the mentioned hierarchy of a smaller space within a larger one appears, this paper discussed only typical contemporary examples, where the concept has been applied in its pure form and which are related to the existence of a clearly defined functional block within an open plan architectural building. The techniques covered for element space are:
Courtyard
Free flow
7.2. COURTYARDS Openings play a major role in any building. Most of the buildings designed in modern day lack openings based on factors like ventilation, thermal comfort, wind flow etc. In openings, courtyard places a major role in the maintaining the comforts in the residence in terms of lighting, ventilation and thermal comfort. COURTYARD Houses in India The first courtyard houses, according to historical evidence, appeared to haveoriginated in India probably around 6500-6000 BC.Evidence of the earliest village is from Mehergarh (6500-6000BC). The settlement consisted of an irregular scatter of mudbrick houses and the material for house construction. The idea of settlement planning was well established at Harappa at avery early phase, Kot Diji (prior to 2600 BC). The basic over all layout of the settlements is distinguished by theorientation of the streets to cardinal points. Most private houses had rooms arranged around a central courtyard. Doors and windows opened out into side lanes. Stairs led up to the roof or the second storey. Windows had shutters and latticework. Page | 96
Sir John Marshall describes the courtyard houses as follows:“To the right of the porter’s lodge a short passage led to thecentral courtyard of the house, which was open to the sky and provided light and air to the rooms grouped about it on both the ground and upper floors. And here, let me say parenthetically, that the principle of the open court encompassed by chambers was just as fundamental to – Planning at Mohenjo-Daro as it was throughout the rest of prehistoric and historic Asia, and as it has continued to be in India until the present day.”
Fig. 7. 3 : Courtyard house in 18th century
Fig. 7. 2 : Courtyard house in Indus Valley Civilization
“Architecturally a courtyard is better. It draws in cool air, which is useful in the hot and humid climate. Another necessary factor attributed in the courtyard area in the house plan is to have a vedika (sacrificial altav). It is a place for sacrificial pooja and family marriage.” The courtyard is climatically ideal for the tropics as it draws in cool air, which is circulated within the interior, replacing foul air. In non-
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the interior zone of the house, with perhaps another or more near the entranc Fig. 7. 5 : Sri Chakra is the Yantra of the Cosmos. It is believed that the Angan(courtyard) represents the four corners of the Universe
tropical countries, the courtyardmay have differentutility and type, which could be treated by different size of opening depending upon the location. This form of architecture met with the requirements of the traditional joint family system as well as the climate. The courtyard functioned as a convective thermostat and gave protection from extremes of weather. A dust storm could pass overhead with little effects on the inmates. The courtyard moderated the extreme effects of the hot summers and freezing winters of the Indian sub continent, and averaged out the large diurnal temperature differences. It varied from being a narrow opening to a large peristyle one in
e and Fig. 7. 4 : Chettinad central courtyard house the rear section. The total number of courtyards in one residence could sometimes be five to six. The courtyard house in India was not based on blind conformity and there was tremendous innovation over the intervening centuries. Thus, courtyards have been playing a major built component, since the past in creating better lighting, ventilation and thermal comfort. It also plays a major role in creating a social space within homes or group of homes. It also acts as a space to gather and space to interact and space with lot of activities, whether in groups or personnel or occupational. The modern day homes, lack the ideology of creating a better living and creating nature as part of design, to create sustainable solutions. Courtyards could also be part of our modern home. Page | 98
Creating better living solutions with adapting and learning lesson from past, to create sustainable solutions is the need of the hour.
7.2.1. HISTORIC USE Courtyards—private open spaces surrounded by walls or buildings—have been in use in residential architecture for almost as long as people have lived in constructed dwellings. The courtyard house makes its first appearance ca. 6400–6000 BC (calibrated), in the Neolithic Yarmukian site at Sha'ar HaGolan, in the central Jordan Valley, on the northern bank of the Yarmouk River, giving the site a special significance in architectural history.[1] Courtyards have historically been used for many purposes including cooking, sleeping, working, playing, gardening, and even places to keep animals. Before courtyards, open fires were kept burning in a central place within a home, with only a small hole in the ceiling overhead to allow smoke to escape. Over time, these small openings were enlarged and eventually led to the development of the centralized open courtyard we know today. Courtyard homes have been designed and built throughout the world with many variations. Courtyard homes are more prevalent in temperate climates, as an open central court can be an important aid to cooling house in warm weather. However, courtyard
houses have been found in harsher climates as well for centuries. The comforts offered by a courtyard—air, light, privacy, security, and Fig. 7. 6 : Courtyard in a cloister tranquility—are properties nearly universally desired in human housing. yard and courtyard has differences, and courtyard is an Iranian architecture elements and according to the history books, the appearance of court yards is in Iranian architecture and brought to the other countries which an obvious sample of it , is the Spanish buildings which is built in the Islamic period that Arabian Khalifas brought it from Iran(6th century)and the other architecture elements like Ogival arc, stalactites and "Azulejos" (Colored tiles) and etc.
7.2.2. COMPARISON THROUGHOUT THE WORLD In, 2000 BC — two-storey houses constructed around an open square were built of fired brick. Kitchen, working, and public spaces were located on the ground floor, with private rooms located upstairs. Page | 99
The central uncovered area in a Roman domes was referred to as an atrium. Today, we generally use the term courtyard to refer to such an area, reserving the word atrium to describe a glasscovered courtyard. Fig. 7. 7 : Entrance to the main courtyard of Roman atrium houses Uriarte Talavera, in Puebla were built side by side along the street. They were one-storey homes without windows that took in light from the entrance and from the central atrium. The hearth, which used to inhabit the centre of the home, was relocated, and the Roman atrium most often contained a central pool used to collect rainwater, called an impluvium. These homes frequently incorporated a second open-air area, the garden, which would be surrounded by Greek-style colonnades, forming a peristyle. This created a colonnaded walkway around the perimeter of the courtyard, which influenced monastic structures centuries later.
Courtyard houses in the Middle East reflec t the nomadic influences of the region. Instead of officially designatin g rooms for cooking, sleeping, etc., these activities Fig. 7. 8 : The Court of the Lions, Alhambra, Granada, Andalusia were relocated throughout the year as appropriate to accommodate the changes in temperature and the position of the sun. Often the flat rooftops of these structures were used for sleeping in warm weather. In some Islamic cultures, private courtyards provided the only outdoor space for women to relax unobserved.
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The traditional Chinese courtyard house, e.g., siheyuan, is an arrangement of several individual houses around a square. Each house belongs to a different family member, and additional houses are created behind this Fig. 7. 10 : A Chinese courtyard in Beijing arrangement to accommodate additional family members as needed. The Chinese courtyard is a place of privacy and tranquility, almost always incorporating a garden and water feature. In some Fig. 7. 9 : Hooper House cases, houses are constructed with multiple courtyards that increase in privacy as they recede from the street. Strangers would be received in the outermost courtyard, with the innermost ones being reserved for close friends and family members.
In a more contemporary version of the Chinese model, a courtyard can also can be used to separate a home into wings; for example, one wing of the house may be for entertaining/dining, and the other wing may be for sleeping/family/privacy. This is exemplified by the Hooper House in Baltimore, Maryland. The medieval European farmhouse embodies what we think of today as one of the most archetypal examples of a courtyard house—four buildings arranged around a square courtyard with a steep roof covered by thatch. The central courtyard was used for working, gathering, and sometimes keeping small livestock. An elevated walkway frequently ran around two or three sides of the courtyards in the houses. Such structures afforded protection, and could even be made defensible. In the first half of the 20th century, a trend developed in the sunbelt regions of the United Statesaround Courtyard houses, especially in California and Florida. Designers such as the Davis family and the Zwebell family developed houses that used Mediterranean architecture, using very carefully planned courtyards, they managed to create both a sense of community, safety and scale. Using various levels of private/public gradations these courtyard houses were so successful that they have been copied throughout sunbelt of the United States.
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7.2.3. RELEVANCE TODAY More and more, architects are investigating ways that courtyards can play a role in the development of today's homes and cities. In densely populated areas, a courtyard in a home can provide privacy for a family, a break from the frantic pace of everyday life, and a safe place for Fig. 7. 11 : Fort Hall replica, the courtyard, children to play. With Pocatello space at a premium, architects are experimenting with courtyards as a way to provide outdoor space for small communities of people at a time. A courtyard surrounded by 12 houses, for example, would provide a shared park-like space for those families, who could take pride in ownership of the space. Though this might sound like a modern-day solution to an inner city problem, the grouping of houses around a shared courtyard was common practice among the Incas as far back as the 13th century. In San Francisco, the floor plans of "marina style" houses often include a central patio, a miniature version of an open courtyard, sometimes covered with glass or a translucent material. Central patios provide natural light to
common areas and space for potted outdoor plants. In Gilgit/Baltistan, Pakistan, courtyards were traditionally used for public gatherings where village related issues were discussed. These were different from jirgahs, which are a tradition of the tribal regions of Pakistan.
7.3. FLOW OF SPACE Although architecture’s image of fluidity presents itself as fully manifest, its forms and logics seemingly apparent, the question of what fludity designates remains unprobed. As a material and spatial practice, however, architecture is able to manifest fludity in ways not readily allotted other fields. Although architecture’s image of fluidity presents itself as fully manifest, its form and logics seemingly apparent, the question of what fluidity designates remains unprobed. As a material and spatial practice, however, architecture is able to manifest fluidity in ways not readily allotted other fields. What most distinguishes the architectural question of flow, then, is not architecture’s ability to form flows, but its capacity to question its own spatial image of fludity. One might ask, then, What is it that flows? Is it architecture’s material manifestation or its stream of inhabitants, information or building systems? Is it to be found in the structuring of space or in the space itself, or the inhabitant’s experience of the space? Underlying these questions is an implied split over whether Page | 102
architecture’s materiality forms flows, or forms channels in which something else flows.2 Fluidity, however, elicits a set of complex relations in and through architecture that rejects any such divisive split; asking of architecture, not what flows or how to form flows, but “How does fluidity form relations between spatial, social, material and experiential forms?” This reformation moves beyond explaining how architecture forms flows to offer clues to why fluidity appears as a defining image at the onset of the twenty first century. The construct of fluidity conveys properties associated with fluids. Traditionally, fluids such as liquids or gases have been defined as amorphous substances that yield easily to external pressure to assume the shape of their containers. Recently, distinctions between states of matter have moved away from a basis in the state’s observable properties towards being defined by differences in intermolecular relationships. Accordingly, in fluids, intermolecular attraction skeep molecules in proximity, rather than fixed relationships to one another. Fluid thus designates a mobile state, its shape determined by its movement relative to its container.
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HOUSE OF FIVE ELEMENTS
DESIGN APPROACH
Eligible for IGBC Platinum Rating. (The residence is a part of a residence cum office project and hence has shared services. The rating is on hold as it is planned to be carried out for the entire site which is a housing layout).
CONCEPT The presence of the five elements of nature: water, air, earth, fire and space in a building results in the development and balance of all the three faculties of man, i.e. the psychological, physical and spiritual. This was the defining principle of the design. The house is an improvised example of the traditional Kannada home “Thotti Mane”, with an internal courtyard.
Architects: Manasaram Architects Location: Venkateshpura, 1st Stage, HBR Layout, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India Architect in Charge: Neelam Manjunath Type of building: Residence Area: 1190.0 sqm Climate zone: Moderate Consultants: A.R.Shivkumar, IISc, CDD Society, DEWATs, Dr.Yogananda, Mrinmayee
BUILDING DETAILS
Number of floors: B+2 Gross floor area: 929 sq m Net floor area: 725 sq m Non Air- conditioned Area: 725 sq m
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
SITE INTEGRATION The house has an E-W orientation due to site dimensions and spaces are arranged according to the day lighting and ventilation required. The existing slope was transformed into a landscaped waterfall directing the rainwater into the lotus pond. BUILDING DESIGN The house is spread along the east-west direction, facing north. A two-level open to sky courtyard with a water body - Thotti, open kitchen and dining with a double height enlivens the environment of the house. The interior spaces seamlessly merge into each other producing a calm relaxing ambiance. The house has high ceilings and ventilators throughout the house to ensure enough draft for thermal comfort continuously.
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NATURAL LIGHTING (Panch Maha Bhoot connected is fire) Large windows, increased floor heights and use of skylights ensure optimum daylight. WATER EFFICIENCY A Rainwater Harvesting sump of 75,000 liters DEWATS system has been used for water treatment and 500 liter/day of recycled water is used for gardening and flushing after treatment. Water bodies within and outside the buildings are fed by Rainwater. Water saving fixtures for taps.
water. Treatment of waste water Solar PV for power Solar water heater for hot water Day lighting Natural ventilation OTHER FEATURES A large 3500 sqft double curve shell roof on all bamboo support is a novelty in the building. It lends the interiors a very pleasant and cool ambiance.
PASSIVE HEATING/COOLING Ventilators on each window and door ensure cross ventilation of spaces. Use of terracotta, filler slabs, mud blocks and stone in the building keeps the interiors cool. The presence of an internal courtyard with a water body maintains humidity and enhances the comfort levels. COST EFFECTIVE FEATURES Local, recyclable natural materials like bamboo, stone, mud blocks, terracotta and local labor are used for construction, making it extremely cost effective. ECO-FRIENDLY FEATURES Mud blocks made from excavated soil are also used for filler slabs, reducing the amount of concrete required. Use of locally available variety of Bamboo and stone for construction. Collection of rain
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CHAPTER 8: CASE STUDY For my case study, I visited Bangalore to study the projects of Manasaram Architects where it is believed that to create a Space for human Existence transcending Time, it is desirable that an architect should design to cater to all the three faculties of Man - Physical, Psychological and Spiritual; possible by using these Panch Tattvas. They have close to 30 years of experience in the field of Sustainable Development. Ar. Neelam Manjunath, the Principal architect Of Manasaram Architect believes that “An architect is a catalyst of change in society, setting the stage for all human activities on earth.”
CLIMATE ANALYSIS Bangalore has a tropical savanna climate with distinct wet and dry seasons. Due to its high elevation, Bangalore usually enjoys a more moderate climate throughout the year, although occasional heat waves can make summer somewhat uncomfortable. The coolest month is December with an average low temperature of 15.4 °C (59.7 °F) and the hottest month is April with an average high temperature of 36 °C (97 °F). Winter temperatures rarely drop below 12 °C (54 °F), and summer temperatures seldom exceed 37 °C (99 °F). Bangalore receives rainfall from both the northeast and the southwest monsoons and the wettest months are September, October and August, in that order. The summer heat is moderated by fairly frequent thunderstorms.
I studied two projects of the Architect. The first is "BAMBOO SYMPHONY" an office place designed with the main motive to re-establish Bamboo as a material of choice. The other one is "HOUSE OF FIVE ELEMENTS" a residence including the mechanism of all the five elements striving to become a zero energy home.
The details are as follows:
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BAMBOO SYMPHONY / MANASARAM ARCHITECTS Eligible for IGBC Platinum Rating. (The office is a part of a residence cum office project and hence has shared services. The rating is on hold as it is planned to be carried out for the entire site which is a housing layout).
Architects: Manasaram Architects Location: Venkateshpura, 1st Stage, HBR Layout, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India Architect in Charge: Neelam Manjunath Type of building: Office Area: 210.0 sqm Climate zone: Moderate Consultants: A.R.Shivkumar, IISc, CDD Society, DEWATs, Dr.Yogananda, Mrinmayee
Bamboo Symphony is the office of Manasaram Architects. Hence the basic requirement of the Project was to embody all their Design and other Philosophies in the building along with other requirements of Space and Services. The office was built adjacent to the principal architect’s newlyconstructed residence on a very tight budget. All the waste wood, bamboo, stone boulders and debris from house construction and
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
mud were used with Bamboo as the main construction material in the most innovative manner. The office is a Zero Energy Development, with closed loop systems for Building materials, Processes and Technologies. 1. Sustainability is embedded in the definition of Architecture itself. 2. Buildings designed with the Five Elements of Nature: Air, Earth, Water, Fire and Space—the PANCHMAHABHUTAS caters to the needs of all the three faculties of Man—Physical, Psychological and Spiritual. 3. Take the Highly evolved science of Materials and processes in Nature and Traditional systems developed by locals, who seem to unknowingly follow ingenious engineering solutions as traditions, to the next level with Design and Technology interventions. 4. Bamboo, which plays a key role in the lives of 1/5th of the world population even today, has been replaced by other materials, labeling it the ‘Poor Man’s Material’. Bamboo Symphony is an effort to re-establish Bamboo as a material of choice.
BAMBOO – THE FUTURE BUILDING MATERIAL (Panch Maha Bhoot connected is earth)
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The engineering qualities of Bamboo and its intrinsic structure anticipate the principles of many high-tech materials, making it economically efficient, with its attractive appearance an added bonus. Since temerity and synergetic structures require light and highly tensile basic elements, Bamboo was used as the main material in this building. Bamboo Reinforced Concrete, with bamboo fibers, (BFRC) – bamboo splits as reinforcement, and bamboo fibers added to concrete to reduce weight, improve bonding (thus preventing shrinkage cracks) and thermal insulation. Apart from Bamboo, Stabilized Earth Blocks, Stabilized mud plaster, Stone, Stone dust, Waste and Recycled materials were used in the construction. The interplay of these natural materials along with the water bodies resulted in a harmonious structure that connects to the natural elements, i.e. the Panchmahabhutas.
WATER EFFICIENCY (Panch Maha Bhoot connected is water) Special water conserving installation: water conserving fixtures, recycling and treatment treated water for flushing, washing, gardening etc. Rainwater Harvesting System: Extensive with 50,000 liters capacity RW harvesting pond landscaped with a rich variety of locally available water plants and lilies. The overflow goes to the recharge well of the Bore well. All water bodies and features created from collected rain water or Recycled water.
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
SUSTAINABLE FEATURES (Panch Maha Bhoot connected is air) Building orientation and roof form allow for strong North-East and South-West winds to blow over the structure, without any strong drafts inside the building despite it being FULLY open on the South side. Thus the building interiors remain comfortable at all times during the year. Natural Ventilation: 100% Night Time Ventilation Natural Thermal transmission of building envelope
High Utilization of building mass as thermal storage as part of heat strategy achieved via passive cooling Solar energy System Envisaged for 100% energy requirement with grid connectivity as stand by eventually.
DAY LIGHTING (Panch Maha Bhoot connected is fire) All areas are naturally lit during normal office hours all through the year. They have introduced light pipes made from 6"PVC plumbing pipes in the slab for areas deeper than 3m for natural Light. All light Fixtures are made from waste Bamboo sticks, splits, butter sheets and polycarbonate pieces. Garden lights Bollards are made of waste pet bottles and Bamboos with LEDs .
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STRUCTURE The structure of Bamboo Symphony with its roof is its most unique feature. It is based on the model of our traditional fishing platforms which have been in use for centuries in our country. A close examination revealed them to be truly ingenious synergetic structures. They designed the building as a synergetic web structure of simple bamboo columns and beams. The columns in Bamboo Symphony though look haphazardly placed, have definite size ,position and inclinations i.e. they are 100% structurally relevant, just like the highly evolved technological logic we find in nature. They allowed the roof to define its own shape as per the flow of the forces naturally, like a stretched fabric over the supports. This resulted in a highly efficient structure with minimal energy & material usage because these types of structures are being made across the world with modern materials with high Energy balance. Bamboo is the only Natural building material with lowest energy balance that can be used for these types of structures.
CONSTRUCTION:
Construction was carried out by unskilled workers, with labor training given during construction. Use of locally available materials for construction: Bamboo from local bamboo market, Mud excavated from the site, locally available stone for masonry walls and recycled materials namely Fly ash, recycled wood, scraps metal,
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
stone, debris, plastic bottles, PVC pipes has proved quite cost effective. Recycled doors were used from the old office building. The Windows are made from Mild steel sections. Flooring: o Combination of Yellow oxide and terrazzo with bamboo rings and waste marble pieces has been used in most of the places. o Conference hall has Bamboo flooring. Finishes: o Lime wash for Mud block walls o Touchwood coating for Bamboos o Silicon Waterproof coating for Stone masonry and interior of bathroom and pantry walls
Bamboo, the Future Building Material has been used for the structure of the building. The engineering qualities of Bamboo and its intrinsic structure anticipate the principles of many high-tech materials, making it economically efficient, with its attractive appearance an added bonus. Since tensegrity and synergetic structures require light and highly tensile basic elements, Bamboo was used as the main material in this building.
Three types of Walling systems used: o Stone masonry o Compressed Stabilized earth block masonry
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Bamboo-Crete walls (Bamboo poles for main supports at 1.2 m c/c. Bamboo mat and chicken mesh as reinforcement, plastered on both sides). Apart from Bamboo; Stabilized Earth Blocks, Stabilized mud plaster, Stone, Stone dust, Waste and Recycled materials were used in the construction. The interplay of these natural materials along with the water bodies resulted in a harmonious structure that connects to the natural elements. Recycled and reuse of salvaged materials: o Materials like stone, bamboo, debris, scrap metal, PVC pipes, plastic and glass bottles have been used in most innovative ways structurally as well as in interiors to produce remarkable aesthetic and design solutions. o All light Fixtures are made from waste Bamboo sticks, splits, butter sheets and polycarbonate pieces. o Garden lights Bollards are made of waste pet bottles and Bamboos with LEDs. o
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Architects always consider each project as a research project and put their technologies of sustainable construction to the test. The office was also built this way, exploring innovative methods to use natural materials like Bamboo+9.
The building redefines the designing of an office space by creating an atmosphere that is in constant dialogue with nature. The open plan of the building brings in natural light from all directions throughout the day. The environment thus created enables the architects to stay energetic and creative, reducing stress and fatigue. Manasaram INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
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CHAPTER 9: CONCLUSION Born from the womb of nature and destined to return back to nature, we human beings are indeed weaved by the same five threads that intertwines and compose the rest of the universe. Though we contain all five in every atom, every cell, every particle of our being that makes us up, yet often a single element truly rules our show and dictates the genetic script of our being and dictates the terms of our personality, its weaknesses and strengths, as well as what will balance us and what will imbalance us. When we make a conscious effort to understand the Great Five Elements, we see in that ancient wisdom a reflection of our own being. We begin to know, at an intuitive level, how the elements play inside us and their behaviour in the macrocosm is a mirror to how they will behave inside us, in the microcosm. In ancient times people tried to grasp the complicated universe in simplified terms of the five elements. Back then people knew they are part of nature and must relate to it in a way. But theories without practice are not reliable. Only when we test our theory we can rely on it more. On the other hand practice without theory is problematic as well and might suffer from disorientation and the lack of judging what is more suitable in the design so even if we build only according to the green regulations or the four modern elements or changing seasons is not enough!
INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
This research analyses the various local conditions (wind direction, orientation of the sun etc.) and explains the environmental elements that were derived from these conditions. . The parameters are classified according to the ancient elements. The work has shown the details, strategies and the dilemmas of the design and different solutions and conclusions for these important mile stones in the sustainable architecture legacy in the overall effort to bring green vision into reality. Thus it can be seen that the elements in creation form the fundamental unit to the secret of the entire Universe and a deep understanding of the elements, its significance and its subtle effects is the key to leading an Ideal Life of Peace, Prosperity and Eternal Happiness. It is the science that guides the design and construction of buildings in harmony with the laws of nature and the universe. Both design concepts deal with the use of life force or “life energyâ€&#x; and the use of the five elements of nature. It can be concluded that a design like mentioned in the study helps us to “learn better, work more comfortably, and recuperate more successfully in buildings that echo the environment in which the human species evolved. Thus seeks to minimize the negative environmental impact of buildings by efficiency and moderation in the use of materials, energy, and development space and the ecosystem at large.
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INCULATING NATURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDING DESIGN
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