ORCHID
"Women of the North-East"
COVER CONCEPT:
‘A PHENA THLUNKAWP: HMEICHHIA LEH HNA’ (‘BEHIND THE SCENE: WOMAN AND CHORE’)
DANIEL ZOKHUMSANGA
B.A (HONS) PHILOSOPHY - I
COVER PHOTO BY:
Gpeople about such issues that people in North East India face, along with the myriad of cultures and traditions of the people. As part of the Society’s attempt to do so, an annual journal is released every year by the Society. This edition of the journal, Women of the North-East, highlights the inspiring achievements of several women of the region who have broken through the “glass ceiling” to make significant feats in their respective fields, despite the compounding gender biases.
This edition is dedicated to all the women who continue in their endeavour to break barriers and contribute to society through their inspiring works.
I extend my heartfelt gratitude to all the contributors who have shared pieces of themselves through their works Above all, I am very grateful to the members of the Editorial and Design Team, especially to the Associate Editor, Julie Donngaihlun, who have shown great dedication towards making this edition a success
- IVANNA BAZELEY AGITOK SANGMA B SC (H) PHYSICS (III)
TEAM ORCHID
Julie Donngaihlun Associate Editor
EDITORIAL TEAM
Niangthianmuang S. Ngaihte, B.A. English (H) - II
Dimitri Mallik, B.A. English (H) - II
Josephine Zodimpui Tungdim, B.A. Programme - II
Keona Johny, B.A. Programme - II
Ishika Paul Poothokaren, B.A. English (H) - II
Charvi Sharma, B.A. Programme - I
Lamboikim Khongsai, B.A. History (H) - I
Catherine Lalmalsawmi, B.A. English (H) - I
DESIGN TEAM
Lucy Chingneihoih, B.A. History (H) - I
Jennifer George, B.A. Programme - I
The Northeast region of India is home to eight states, numerous tribes and communities, lush green forests, mountains and smooth valleys Its geographical expanse holds a bewildering mix of many languages, colourful people and cultures The region is very often misunderstood as a homogenous whole, while in reality, the eight states present different cultural elements. It is imperative to unlearn this idea of homogeneity and be reminded that a string of commonalities bind these different elements to form what we know today as India’ s Northeast.
Since the country’ s independence, armed conflicts and insurgencies have predominantly shaped the political space of the region, and have also largely defined the relationship between the people of the Northeast and the Indian state Amidst the political instability that looms large in the region, many have lived ‘normals’ that are different to the rest of the country The perpetual state of violence, militarization, human rights violation and corruption has created a space of political and social turmoil Sanjib Baruah, a political scientist from Assam, has proposed the term ‘Durable Disorder’ to describe a general situation of the Northeast wherein state functions relating to education and healthcare are sidelined, education suffers and long-term economic investments are largely absent And yet, overlapping authorities ranging from Indian security forces, tribal bodies to insurgent outfits govern different aspects of the region’ s social and political sphere. But where multiple sovereigns subsist on the same soil and tension is palpable, one can also find peace-loving peoples and cultures – a duality seems to exist It is no wonder then, that the rest of the country looks at the region in two extremes- an exotic haven or a war-torn conflict zone.
In many ways, there seems to be a tangible divide between the Northeast and the rest of the country - both
LONGJENTHI LONGKUMER
B.A. (H) HISTORY
culturally and politically - and a general phenomenon of ignorance has furthered the gap. While the rest of the world is engaged in dialogues about representation, the Northeast is still fighting for a seat at the table and misrepresentation of the region in the nation’ s larger discourses is a tale old as time
Therefore, the zeal to address the void of interactions pertaining to the Northeast region foreshadowed the birth of the St Stephen’ s North-East Society in 2016 Ever since, the Society has worked with the aim of bringing cultural and social integration, and to forge an awareness and a collective effort to bridge the gap between the Northeast and the rest of the country With this in mind, the society extends itself beyond the boundaries of any geographical restrictions and remains resolute on creating a space that is inclusive and all-encompassing, sans barriers
LONGJENTHILONGKUMER B.AHISTORYHONOURS
Over the years, the Society has flaunted an array of performances of songs and dances from the region, and has brought to the college an annual lunch that brings a platter of indigenous food from all the eight states With talks, panel discussions and Orchid, the Society has created platforms for students and scholars to engage in conversations about issues that plague the region
While there is much more to be done, I can proudly proclaim that the Society has made a difference in the college space; that we have been able to bring different narratives to the fore, and along the way, we have all learned a few dances and a few songs
THE USE OF TRADITIONAL CLOTHING IN CONTEMPORARY TIMES
Naga Textiles have attracted the attention and admiration of outsiders from the time of our first encounters with them Today our traditional costumes and jewellery play a pivotal role in creating the cultural spectacles tourists to Nagaland throng to see. At the same time, the number of mekhala shops catering to locals are decreasing. In the ones still standing, the number and variety of good quality mekhalas and shawls woven on the backstrap or loinloom are overwhelmed by a flood of handloom, roughly made alternatives that are cheaper and preferred as daily or rough wear. This is a matter of serious concern and poses a great threat to our culture as a whole. Weaving has traditionally been the exclusive domain of women in Naga society Through design and production, it was women who defined various markers of identity in their tribe - be it an individual's gender, status or achievements or collective feats, challenges faced or events commemorated by the community. The weaving of shawls and mekhalas was thus, a form of speechan exercise of agency and power in a social context where women did not have much space in the public sphere. In times when these were the only kinds of attire we had, necessity conferred special market value on our textiles and women who were expert weavers were prized in their homes and communities. Those who could weave more and weave well contributed significantly to household incomes, often playing active roles in elevating the standing of their families within the village. They enjoyed the status well educated, financially independent women of today enjoy in society.
With conversion and modernity, western clothes came to be preferred. In my opinion, less for 'comfort' and more for everything that they symbolised - a Christian, literate, civilized and modern identity. Today most us wear our traditional textiles during festivals or special occasions - and often with the same thrill of the exotic that one would expect from a Non-Naga wearer Even as we pleasure in appearing in traditional dress, most of us long to go back and change into the comfort of our 'everyday' clothes. What was once natural for us has become alien, something our bodies, or so we tell ourselves, reject as stuffy, uncomfortable and awkward. Lowering the utility value of our traditional cloths has drastically reduced the demand for them.
Photographs by: Dr Charu Monga
Women weaving on the backstrap at a village in Nagaland
by: Lucy Chingneihoih, B A History (H) - I
Most women opt not to weave if they have another source of income. It does not pay well to keep making something that no longer has the value it once enjoyed The ones who do, labour under the burden of being 'forced' to do so as no other option is unavailable to them and often behind closed doors. I have come across many youngsters who apologetically confess that their mothers weave to earn and support their education It is highly distressing to observe the demotion of what was once a prestige skill or art What can we do? Particularly, what can those of us who do not know how to weave do to conserve this art form and even raise it back to its former glory?
The first and obvious step is to create demand. We can do this by re-incorporating our textiles back into our daily wear Men can start wearing shawls, women can wear mekhalas and shawls. Before we blame the weather, global warming etc, we must acknowledge that there are now an infinite selection of yarns available to us. If we create demand, it is inevitable that our weavers will be given the opportunity experiment with different yarns and produce cloths suitable for warm weather as well as cold weather. Given that most men wear a jacket or blazer all year, the argument that a shawl cannot replace these does not hold. While the style of wearing waistcoats tailored out of traditionally woven fabrics is some consolation, there is nothing more grand than someone wearing a full shawl. It also allows us to conserve a traditional mode of dress in its pure form and thereby all the meanings and narratives contained in them.
The second is to rethink the status of our textiles. The few successful attempts to produce our textiles within contemporary manufacturing paradigms is well received and appreciated. However, I personally feel that weaving must remain predominantly within traditional modes of production, because most of a cloth's value derives from this old way of making. The nature of backstrap or loin loom weaving argues against mass production.
Weaving on backstrap is an intimate, embodied (because the body becomes part of the weaving instrument) and intense process. It is idiosyncratic because the tension of each cloth varies from weaver to weaver and even an individual weaver's current temperament or mood. Take a cloth back to its maker, as I have numerous times and what you will get is a flood of memories and stories - of how she wove this portion when her child was hhhhh
Illustration
sleeping, or how this part is loose becaus h lf h attention was on the curry cooking in the fi she found inspiration for this particular About some left over yarn from previous p find their way into current projects and t even subvert designs. The value of our tex from these stories - our cloths are the voic makers, telling stories of heir lives, de struggles. They chronicle the experi generations of women, recording all the ch challenges we have witnessed as a people
This is the stuff that separates mass produ from luxury ones in markets the world over. value that marks our textiles as luxury goods forward is to change our understanding of ou to realise and celebrate their value Not only for us Nagas to start paying premium price for artisanal pieces but to work together to build this narrative and brand for the global market. The wonderful thing about luxury goods is that quality and not quantity determines the profits. Through my instagram handle @mekhalamama, I try to document my daily attempts to reincorporate our textiles into my daily wear as well as to rally behind weavers and the dwindling number of mekhala wearing women. Working to conserve this intimate and idiosyncratic mode of production ensures that weaving survives and continues to be refined as an art form Above all, it ensures that women can continue telling our stories through their looms.
Theyiesinuo Keditsu (PhD) is a feminist poet, folklorist, writer, lyricist and educator. She is cofounder of Centre for Indigenous Knowledge & Alternative Learning (CIKAL) and advocates the revival of Indigenous Naga textiles and women's narratives lllllllllll
through her popular Instagram avatar @mekhalamama. She has published two books of poetry, Sopfünuo and Wake and contributed to a number of anthologies & journals. Her poem, "Whore" was translated into Gujarati by Sitanshu Yashaschandra She has a PhD in Cultural Studies from Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai Her research focuses in contemporary Naga culture, indigenous knowledge, indigenous feminisms, oral & written literatures of Nagaland. She is currently an assistant professor in Kohima College, Kohima.
Textiles available at a local market in Nagaland
p o e m s a b o u t
Photograph by: Ishika Paul Poothokaren taken at Nongstoin, Meghalaya
They say home is where life will be They say home is a beautiful place, but home is also a gilded cage a prison of thoughts.
A cage.
A personal hell filled with past memories. Home is four walls that closes in that smother words and thoughts
A place where the puppet pretends the strings are with them. A whore to it's thoughts.
Where the walls trap and bleed words
Clots them
Noises, voices - loud and soft, It keeps them.
Like a silent voyeur. Silent.
But it is nothing but silent
It traps it within the head
No where to go
The curtains pulled tight. Doors shut. The vents whir breathe
The mind whirs
But it is this place That comes to mind When far away. Weary from the day
Thoughts filter
The pleasantness of home. The light that comes through the cracks. The whirring of the vents
The tile cooling the feet
And maybe that is home
Maybe.
By Sharon Alex B.A. Program - II
St. Stephen's College
Photograph by: Ivanna Bazeley A. Sangma taken at Haflong, Assam
The Ghormuwa Egret
Once it was dusk, the distant horizon was clear of the afternoon smoke. The traversing brook was visible again.
It was time for the Egret for its ghormuwa pilgrimage
Far away, from a terrain called Gangmou, voice of a man echoed
Shri, Ashowari, Dhanashrithe Egret recognised
Then came a turbulence in the sky, and the Egret lost it’s path
The hills –that the white bird sae had hues of blue. Buried are the dead that made green grew.
The Egret understood, It was memories – done, undone. It was what it was, the fest of Chomankan.
The sky was now red, the wind sober Like an Arnai made of sunset, it was where the Egret was heading
The nest was there, atop a Jolfai tree The home of the Egret Nou, they said in Bodo
Far away, Where humans habitated, a human lady sang,
A sunset, Tulika Senapati, and a ghormuwa Egret.
Notes:
Ghormuwa is the Assamese word for ' on the way to one’s home ’ Gangmou is a region in the Sonitpur District of Assam where Srimanta Sankardeva took refuge after fleeing from Bardowa at around 1517 A.D.
Shri, Ashowari, Dhanashri are ragas of Borgeets.
Chomankan is a Karbi festival that revolves around remembering their dead and ancestors.
Arnai is a Bodo scarf.
Jolfai : Assamese for Indian olives.
Tukika Senapati is an Assamese singer who sang for the All India Radio during the 1960s and 1970s.
By Unmilan Kalita, President,
Northeast Cell Ramjas College, II Year, Political Science Department Ramjas College, University of Delhi
KIWIS,WINEANDBUSINESS
WITH TAGE RITA TAKHE
By Catherine Lalmalsawmi B A (H) English - I
In the Lower Subansiri district of Arunachal Pradesh, there is a valley called Ziro where the farmers practice organic kiwi cultivation as part of the Mission Organic Value Chain Development for North Eastern Region (MOVCD-NER) Although farming these exotic and organic kiwis gave a boost to the economy of the region, there were a few downfalls to it Hundreds of kiwi fruit were left to rot away as there were insufficient linkages to the markets and cold storage facilities
Seeing the plight of more than 300 farmers, the need to serve and give back to her community deeply moved Miss Tage Rita Takhe Driven by her love for the exotic fruit and by the art of wine-making, India’s first organic kiwi winery, Naara- Aaba, came into existence
Wine enthusiasts and connoisseurs of wine from all over the world have sought out this infamous kiwi wine Miss Tage Rita gives great importance to the aroma of the wine, the smoothness and the maturity, and even the colour of wine, which, without a doubt, is what displays Ziro Valley on the oenophile’s map She believes that the overall quality of the wine depends significantly on the geographical location it is situated in and that the agro-climatic conditions of the North-East is especially suitable for the farming of kiwis With the quality of fruit being influenced by the quality of the soil, the water and even the air, Naara-Aaba uses superior organic kiwis to make its wine According to Miss Tage Rita, they have spent three long years rigorously testing and improving the production
of their wine, strictly following organic standard processing methods As a result of this careful evaluation, their kiwi wine is now a certified organic wine It has made its debut globally by being a part of many international exhibitions organised through the Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA)
Of course, the journey for Naara-Aaba is not all sunshine and rainbows The machineries to be used for manufacturing are a problem even though India has many types of machinery that can be used to manufacture wine However, the real issue is to find the perfect machine out of all the different kinds available They did not want to settle for any mediocre
Miss Tage Rita's Orchard
ones, so searching for a certified food grade, authentic and genuine supplier was a tough challenge In addition to that, finding skilled workers who were already well-versed with the whole process of wine-making was also another problem they had to face Despite these setbacks, Miss Tage Rita pulled through, borrowing strength from sheer determination and coupled with passion for Naara-Aaba and its success She also values teamwork and emphasises the importance of each members having their distinct roles and responsibilities and never letting anyone work under confusion Whenever doubts or any differences in opinions crop up between her team members, she encourages them to talk about it and share their concerns with the group as they all have the same goal and core values and respect for each other’s work
The winery has benefitted many farmers because, prior to its establishment, the kiwi orchards were abandoned, and the kiwi fruit were left to rot This generated huge losses for the farmers, but now, as they supplied fresh kiwis directly to the winery, half of their worries were already taken care of The orchards look more vibrant than before, with more and more rural households taking up kiwi cultivation in the valley Naara-Aaba also provides employment opportunities with the locals benefitting most from it The winery employs elderly women in the village for manual work like cleaning, sorting, and grading kiwi fruits The actual processing inside the winery is done by local unemployed youths of the village, primarily by school and college dropouts A professional master of international repute is hired to train the local youths to the wine with utmost care and diligence
Further, training and internship facilities are provided to Agri-Hortic and Micro-Biology students from different colleges Researchers institutions like IIT Kharagpur and IIMs have also expressed their in to use this winery and business model as a case study for res purposes As the winery's core value is to provide livelihood oppor to rural households and sustainable regular employment to unemp youths of Arunachal Pradesh and adjoining states, Naara-Aab worked hard to achieve this front
With plans to expand production scope, experiments to include other organic wine from fruit like plums, pears, peaches, wild apples and even from the rhododendron plant are already underway Naara-Aaba will without a doubt, will bring changes to the wine landscape of the NorthEast Wine tourism is also being promoted gradually, but to build a real economy out of wine-making, the Government also has some roles to undertake They must adequately support farmers and entrepreneurs to benefit from wine tourism Maybe putting a halt on importing exotic fruit like kiwis from another country might be of some help Overall, Miss Tage Rita is genuinely passionate about wine and wine-making, enjoying that she is still learning new skills and ideas about the business and the prospect of entrepreneurship Although it may seem challenging at first, she extends her invitation to all aspiring entrepreneurs to occupy the empty spaces and contribute to society in their unique ways
Elderly women helping with the project
2018, Miss Tage Rita receiving the "Women Transforming India Awards", organized by the United Nations and NITI Aayog
BOOKCLUB IMPHAL, HEEDEN DA CHUMTHANG & ST. STEPHEN’S
in conversation with
Pooja Elangbam
It is an honour to have a personality who has been an inspiration for many. Besides work, you have established a book club in Imphal. According to sources, BookclubImphal was established in 2019. We were really curious about the inspiration that led to the establishment of it. Could you describe the journey that you undertook as its founder?
When you were planning for BookclubImphal, did you have any specific goals in mind?
→ You know, I did not plan very systematically It just started out of pure love, and I just wanted to engage with younger people because it’s very stimulating One of the things that people told me when I got through Civil Services was that people tend to forget where they come from because of the work that we do we are closeted in our office rooms, closeted in our ivory towers, and we forget to empathize or understand what people are going through So I feel that this is one of the ways I can stay grounded in which I can always keep in touch with how people feel, and the daily struggles and the daily joys.
LET’S GIVE A PLATFORM TO THE YOUNG PEOPLE WHO WANT TO WRITE, WHO WANT TO DRAW, WHO WANT TO SKETCH AND PAINT
Ms Pooja Elangbam, IAS
I studied History in Stephen’s, and I feel like a lot of times you are able to learn when you watch something, maybe a documentary related to the subject So with that idea, I have screened a few movies by now I want to expose people to different ways of living, different cultures, to show that the world is huge and there are different ways of living, and there is no right way or wrong way but we have to understand that there is so much diversity and there's so much joy in doing different things. What I found when I was growing up is that we didn’t know about people from the north-east who were doing ‘things’ And the things we heard from people from different parts of the country or different parts of the world, their struggles were slightly different from ours So to see a person who is familiar, to know they came from the same place as you or very similar circumstances, and to know that they went on to achieve something certain things is always very inspiring and makes you want to do more The north-east has always been in the periphery of the mainstream Indian narrative, so a lot of people get left out, you know, even when they deserve to be recognised So I think I wanted to contribute a little bit to that
You are getting all of these perspectives by interacting with people from all over the state. Do you get to interact with people from outside the state as well?
→Yes, so basically what I did during this lockdown, in my Instagram page I started a series called ‘Diverse Discourses’ with people from different walks of life. So I got Janice Pariat, she’s also a Stephanian, she’s a writer from Shillong who is based in Delhi but most of our stories are about Meghalaya Then I got Jahnavi Barua who is from Assam, she’s also a writer, and has been nominated for a Commonwealth prize I have talked to Eashan (Saikia), who is a PhD scholar working in Switzerland then I have talked to Mathanmi (Hungyo) who is running an NGO and started this initiative called ‘Teach for North-East’ in Manipur
So I am trying to find figures from the north-east so that people can relate to them and learn that there are different fields you can work on, and you can contribute to your society, your community, even to the world at large What I found when I was growing up is that we didn’t know about people from the north-east who were doing ‘things’ So to see a person who is familiar, to know they came from the same place as you or very similar circumstances, and to know that they went on to achieve certain things is always very inspiring and makes you want to do more. The north-east has always been in the periphery of the mainstream Indian narrative, so a lot of people get left out even when they deserve to be recognised. So I think I wanted to contribute a little bit to that.
BookclubImphal has a multifaceted nature, like you said it celebrates music, photography and other art fields besides education and literature. Would you say that this thing is what sets it apart as a ‘book club’?
→ Initially, it started as a book club, but now it has different dimensions to it I wanted to remain spontaneous and fun and not become a drab with a lot of rules and structures then that defeats the whole purpose I want it be a free space, everyone should feel safe and comfortable to express themselves
So in Manipur we have a lot of problems of drugs, and mental health issues, so these are things we are also trying to tackle. One of your team members is a mental health specialist, I’ve had a conversation with her on Instagram as well and I thought that maybe I can get some people who are studying for it and bring about conversations regarding this. And one thing I read was that books actually help to overcome mental stress and mental agony We need to find ways to channel our restlessness, the energy of the youth, and we need to find productivity and creativity So if we can channel it that way, then I think it can hopefully, in little ways, contribute in whatever personalities they develop and whatever careers they develop so that they can look back and say that ‘I was part of something beautiful when I was growing up ’
Illustration by: Lucy Chingneihoih, B A History (H) - I
are very young, some of them are as young as in class 11 or 12 Of course we do select them, because we do get a lot of entries so I am not able to publish every entry we get But we do try to make it as inclusive as possible I have to set a minimum quality level but at the same time I want it to be accessible for everyone because with a lot of the publications which we know, it’s that you have to already have certain qualifications
We started only with 500 copies initially because I wasn’t sure how people would receive it We had this inauguration day for the launching of the magazine and surprisingly, it got over on the same day, so we had to re-publish. However, I still feel like we need to work on the quality. We started based on just contributions. We need to probably figure out a model of the sustainability. So far, we have had two editions. Last year we couldn't just bring out any because of Covid-19, so we are planning to bring it out again in March.
(NOTE: the third edition recently came out in April and is available for purchase
Earlier you mentioned a magazine launched by BookclubImphal every year - Heeden Da Chumthang. Could you tell us about it in detail?
Art and Photography Exhibition
A gathering of bookclubimphal
At the launch of Heeden Da Chumthang
At a seminar on Civil Services Examination
St. Stephen’s College’s North-East Society didn’t exist when you were doing your undergraduate studies. It was established only in 2016, while you graduated in 2014. During your time here, did you ever think about having a north-east society in the college?
→ No, we used to have a gathering of northeast people but we just meet up like dinnersort of thing And it’s great you have actually established it I wish we had it in our time
I’ll admit that I was los since I went to a board India, I wasn’t very con east identity And my no made aware in… subtle not like I was ashamed that, but it was thinking too much people will disc thing. But now I know that there was a society would have the solidar process it, and think abo terms
Moving on to another section of this interview. It will be about you and the link you have with St. Stephen’s College since you graduated from here. Would you like to shortly describe your experience in the college?
→ Yes! I was in a boarding school before I came to Stephen’s, so I led a very sheltered life so Stephen’s was my first exposure to the outside world At the same time, Stephen’s is not a complete big bad world itself, you know It’s also a cozy place where there are people who were nice I was in the Residence and in that way it was also very nurturing Stephen’s makes me feel so nostalgic and old even though it wasn’t that long ago that I passed out It gave me a lot of good friends, it gave me a lot of experiences, and I felt that it was very protective as well Obviously there were problems, not like it was completely smooth-sailing There were occasional hiccups here and there, but it was generally good
Do you have any words of advise for the society or for the journal, as an alumnus and a fellow northeasterner?
→ I am glad that it’s inclusive I mean it’s not just people from the north-east, but it’s for people from other parts of India so that they can learn more about and engage
Instagram: @pooja elangbam | @bookclubimphal
What I have seen, in my own case also, I tend to ignore parts of discrimination and racism which you face sometimes in Delhi I think we need to talk about the tough topics sometimes which will make us uncomfortable, and make our friends from other parts of the country probably uncomfortable as well. But we need to have these tough conversations and say that these things are not alright, that there are certain things you should not do or say And you know how the north-east is seen as this exotic people tend to exoticise it We need to demystify it and say ‘ we are also people We might come from a tribal society but that doesn’t mean that we are stupid or backward’ ‘We are as good as anyone ’
Interviewed by: Julie Donngaihlun
Transcirbed by: Julie Donngaihlun & Catherine Lalmalsawmi
The Bookclubimphal Core Team At the launch of Heeden Da Chumthang
Must Read Books
BY NIANGTHIANMUANG S NGAIHTE
BITTER WORMWOOD
b y E a s t e r i n e K i r e
Bitter Wormwood encapsulates three generations dealing with similar issues, loosely connecting in their own time. The novel begins with Mose’s birth, and his experiences in the ‘underground’ i.e. the firstever resistance wave from the Nagas. We are made to see the effects of the Anglo- Japanese war and the conflict between the Indian Army and the Naga militant groups. The striking point of this part is the realistically painted image of the aftermath of war on the civilians Kire touches on the theme of war, placing the said war and series of armed conflict on the larger framework of war in history. What Kire gives us is a glimpse of disruption of daily lives and human fear, untainted by official records. It gives the perspective of common people, the leaders of the militant groups, and the volunteers. It explains the first thought that birthed the idea of resistance; and may perhaps provide for a space of accommodating the several untold stories of hundreds, if not thousands, of survivors of the conflicts This also interestingly stands opposed to the subsequent militant movements that arose in the later decades. Mose, however, does not remain in the underground. He returns to his village and leads the life of a civilian and gets married to a former comrade in the underground. The novel briefly touches on the life of his daughter and then his grandson, Neitou. This small section of the novel paints a picture of postindependence India and its stand on the conflicting zone of Nagaland. The lingering disconcerting sense of having the Army monitor the common people, the rage and hatred that arises from feeling and being wronged, the resulting apathy of exhaustion by the messes created by conflicts, etc. are all finely written.
This is done skillfully by drawing attention to the subtle details that mark a society recovering from conflicts that are yet to be addressed. In the first half, we are presented with a sentiment that
rings in sharp favour of providing a platform for the conflicts from the point of view of the layman and the naga militant groups. However, in the second half, we are presented with a dynamic shift where we understand the perspective of an individual from the Indian Army as well. Neitou, on entering college, goes on to become a student at Delhi University and is befriended by Rakesh Rakesh’s grandfather, a general in the Indian Army, was coincidentally stationed in Nagaland during the same years Mose had been in the underground. Individualising the perspective is a wonderful choice made by Kire while putting up two conflicting experienc the readers of the pain ca regardless of the side experience and avoiding makes both sides of the provides a between- spa they are able to understa not encouraged to be com
THE BLACK HILL
b
y M a m a n g D a i
The Black Hill is a historical fiction set in the late 19th century and involves the story of Gimur, her friends and family and those who belong to other tribes in the hills of present-day Arunachal Pradesh and parts of the Tibetan valley Dai weaves this story into historical records of French priests, Father Krick and Father Bourry and their attempts at expeditions to Tibet via Arunachali hills While the story itself is fiction, Dai uses the documented records available, making up for the missing pieces. A
point of excellence is Dai draws out the inter-tribal conflicts She accurately depicts the mistrust between tribes, their livelihood and the customs and beliefs they hold. It is interesting to see this because a majority of these characteristics are true for most tribes in the northeast regions of India While it would be preposterous to claim that it is even a replica of all the tribes of the region, it is undeniable that it depicts a major part of them. So, Dai weaves a tapestry that enables readers to understand the tribes better It captures the tribal leaders' fear of the influx of foreign religion, which as history suggests was the right: fear that the English army would follow. We see the story of conversion, taboo and religion, the rightly placed fear of the English army and their conquest of spaces they have no right, moral or otherwise, over. Dai shows the first processes of conversion of religion and the attitudes of the common tribal villages to the novelties of anything foreign Through this, the point of view of a tribal murderer is given a place to be revealed llllllllllll
and humanises the ‘savage’ tribes to the contemporary readers. While it is no excuse for murder, it gives a valid cause for aggression; this story, therefore, offers more narratives to the same incidents recorded officially.
The second striking point of the novel is the advocacy of an almost feminist mode of thinking. The female characters are strong and resilient and are willing (and able) to fight for their dignity There is an acknowledgment of the sidelining of women in tribes lllllllll and races, casually muttered by Gimur in the first few chapters The casual treatment of a heavy subject deepens the heaviness and universalness of it. The novel celebrates women standing for themselves, or at least not bending to anyone else, whether it is in the central figure or her husband’s first wife, the women shamans, etc are all variants of the same spirit of freedom. It is refreshing to see such modern themes incorporated into a story that fits into the missing places of recorded history It is interesting to see the personalisation of each character in a book about communities where collective identity undoubtedly was given eminence. The book helps us understand the certain possibilities of the incident of the murder of the two priests, and encourages us to really see the people involved as people and not merely cogs in a system.
SEAHORSE
Seahorse is a modern rendition of Poseidon and Pelops The story follows Nem, working in London and seeking his old lover and mentor Dr. Nicholas. The story follows a non-linear timeline, running back and forth between the present and the past, enabling the readers to draw comparisons of nuances from the different timelines. The nonlinearity of the timelines may be a nod to the queer themes addressed by the book. One point of interest would be the topic Pariat doesn't write about: the northeast; in other words, the story is not centralised in the northeast albeit the protagonist being from there. It is true that most of the literature produced in the Northeast region of India is expected to be of tribal communities, insurgency or war and conflict, themes of resistance, etc and Pariat skips all of these, hardly locating her characters in the northeastern states. Her themes of love and loss, death and grief, obsession and desire- may seem to be nonserious when compared to other works expected from a writer from the same origins However, one can always enjoy Pariat’s novels for its relative lightness and humaneness. Through her work, Pariat is able to show the normal lives of Northeastern citizens ggggggg
reaching far beyond what an audience expects of it; perhaps it isn’t as large as expected, but it serves a certain kind of ordinariness and in essence, is more reflective of a contemporary reality. The book addresses queerness in all its normalcy, easing the readers into a dialogue of queer characters and their stories. What is interesting is that Pariat goes on to write about a community, marginalised in its own right. Pariat is commendable for writing a story with queer characters without making queerness the whole point of the story i.e. she does not indulge the readers by advertising a queer love story. Everything that happens in the story happens naturally, as it is supposed to be when reflecting reality Aside from sexualities, Pariat also gives a subtle insight into the various forms of romantic relationships. We have characters in polyamorous relationships, open relationships, etc. This validates the existence of ‘deviant’ relationships and eases the pejorative charges associated with these. While it would not be quite right to say she is advocating these, it would also be wrong to say that she isn’t because that clearly is not the case; rather, what she does is present to us the various ideas as they are and allows for a room where we decide for ourselves without external influences.
The story, lastly, reads like a coming of age story; it is perhaps the most bildun isn’t classified as one. It h would expect of a bildung amusement one can de witnesses to the growth the characters and the emerging as one who final find Nicholas.
ARUAKGRE, NORTH GARO HILLS, MEGHALAYA.
PHOTOGRAPHS TAKEN BY ALONG SANGMA
2. DOKAGRE, WEST GARO HILLS.
3. SELSELLA, WEST GARO HILLS, MEGHALAYA.
PHOTOGRAPH TAKEN BY DANIEL ZOKHUMSANGA AT BAWNGKAWN, AIZAWL, MIZORAM.
R E D E F I N I N G D I S A B I L I T Y
a conversation with Bertha Gyndykes Dkhar
Recently, the North East Society had the opportunity to sit down with Miss Bertha Gyndykes Dkhar, the Shillong based visually impaired educationalist and activist, and talk to her about her life’s work and passion- Education for people with Disabilities
Miss Bertha Dkhar herself started having difficulty with her vision right from childhood, as she was solely dependent on her right eye Her condition couldn’t be diagnosed till 1980, after Miss Bertha Dkhar had completed her under graduation She had Retinitis Pigmentosa, which is a genetic disease affecting the retina that caused increasingly deteriorating vision which would lead to eventual loss of eyesight By the time Miss Bertha Dkhar realized this, she had completed her masters in Social Work, a field she had always wanted to pursue She started working for the “Blind Control Mission'' and the Jyoti Sroat School – an institution specially designed for blind people and run by Bethany Society, Shillong She went on to become the Headmistress of the school and eventually got specialization training at The National Institute for the Empowerment of Persons with Visual Disabilities, Dehradun Today she is the Senior Coordinator of education programs and handles several other projects nationally, a recipient of the National award for Child Welfare and the Padma Shri, and the inventor of the Braille Code in Khasi
The very first thing we talked about was the often contentious use kkkkkkkkk
of terminology relating to people with disabilities by the non-disabled Miss Bertha Dkhar talked about how people with disabilities stand by no terminology except the one put out by the United Nations Conventions on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities in 2006, where “disability” was redefined Where earlier it was understood as a personal deficit in order to provide medical or charitable redressal, disability now has a more social implication, as it is understood as “the result of the interaction between a person having a long term impairment with the attitudinal and environmental barriers of society” It is these barriers that hinder them from fully participating in society on an equal basis with others This rightfully understands that
Talking about accessibility, Miss Bertha Dkhar says that physical accessibility is a huge barrier, as without proper infrastructure people with disabilities cannot travel safely on the roads or commute This comes down to the government and their actions, which is also a reflection of society, and the only thing that other people can do is to lobby for safer roads The only solution is the propagation of awareness and advocacy
On individual action to further awareness and advocacy, Miss Bertha Dkhar talked about how the articles that are published in newspapers usually come from people with disabilities or their organisations, and rarely through initiatives of members of society A cause of hope is the growing concern among the newer generations, so much more than it was in previous generations When these young people grow up to be leaders in different fields, they'll be more aware and work better
Society then has a big role in determining the degree of disability a person faces If it breaks down barriers, the degree is low For instance, if the barrier is reading print, braille or audio text would cause the barrier to be broken down, and to certain extent the disability is reduced Terms like ‘differently abled’ , or ‘divyaang’ , that are often used, are very patronizing
Regarding the institutional and societal roadblocks hindering the independence of people with disabilities, Miss Bertha Dkhar says it’s a constant struggle The first area of improvement needs to be schools As someone who has spent her life working on this, no one knows how integral schools are to society better than Miss Bertha Dkhar She presses for schools to be willing enough in terms of attitude, as that would lead all other parties to cooperate
Here, she also emphasises that ffffffffff
only those with very high-risk needs should go to special schools, with everyone else going to other conventional schools In every classroom in any school in the world, around five percent will have learning disabilities, and they will be the ones who eventually drop out later If schools could be more flexible, the dropout rates in schools would decrease Schooling is not just about knowledge, but also about social skills, and is a way to provide better learning and also have better emotional health
Regarding inclusive education, Miss Bertha Dkhar stresses its importance not only for people with learning disabilities, but also other disabilities Institutions often don't have facilities for inclusive education, making equal opportunity to education an unfinished dream
She points out the flaw of Indian schools and policies always thinking of inclusive education as the process of bringing children with disabilities into schools or colleges, which is integrated education Inclusive education actually means education for all children, of recognizing diversity in the classroom and working accordingly It’s not only children with disabilities who have problems learning For example, children coming from socially and economically backward families will also have certain kinds of barriers which need to be removed
Miss Bertha Dkhar is heading a project of great importance called the Regional Action for Inclusive Education (RAISE), in Northeast India Working in five states, through 14 organizations, RAISE promotes inclusive education in government and government supported
schools Specifically, Miss Bertha Dkhar and the team works with 72 schools under this project in the Northeast
There is a need to introduce fresh, globally accepted understandings For Miss Bertha Dkhar, the new education policy will bring positive change, as it emphasises on pedagogy and the teaching in the classroom from the ages of three to six, enabling all children to learn together
There is hope, provided that it is implemented in the right way, but if the conviction that inclusive education is just bringing children with disabilities into the mainstream classroom remains, it won't happen Most institutions recruit specific teachers for people with disabilities Instead, they should teach teachers how to teach these children, that would be fulfilling inclusive education The slow introduction of diversity in the classroom is done in so many ways, be it textbooks for children or teacher training programs, but there’s still a long way to go
Miss Bertha Dkhar believes that the next generation will take these initiatives forward, continuing the cycle When the young spend their time looking at how the processes of education and employment take place, it will help them bring the change
barriers in the teaching-learning and to meet the needs of all children She also talks about the use of the twin-track approach, which has also been adopted by Jyoti Sroat, which ensures children with all types of disabilities, have full access to relief operations and protection by removing barriers and facilitating access The aim of the RAISE is to also adopt the ‘Universal Design for Learning’ framework, across Scholastic and Non- Scholastics subjects This challenges conventions, be it in how content is represented, or the convention of sitting in the classroom while the teacher stands and teaches Instead, more group activities are promoted, as children are the best teachers The Universal Design is used for action and expression Expressing in a paragraph can be substituted for expressing in poetry, or drama, or speaking This is an important path for Jyoti Sroat to take, as they emphasise on psychosocial health
Miss Bertha Dkhar’s work has been transformative, not only for her students, but also those who engage with her various contributions, and us, who hear and read about her inspiring life Her effort towards understanding the emotional and social implications of disability and working towards a more equal future is an example to learn from and emulate
BTalking about Jyoti Sroat, she talks about how they too started with teachers with training in different areas, like visual impairment, hearing impairment, intellectual disability, where special approaches to teaching were required Eventually, however, they recruited more general teachers who would then learn from these special Educators on how to reduce barriers kkkk
Interviewed by: Ivanna Bazeley A Sangma
B Sc (H) Physics - III
Transcribed and compiled by: Keona Johny B A Programme - II
R E D E F I N I N G D I S A B I L I T Y
e r t h a G y n d y k e s D
THE MAKING OF MIZO IDENTITY: COLONIALISM, INSURGENCY AND PEACE
a
Talk by Dr. Joy LK Pachuau (5th November, 2020)
The topic of my talk is Mizo Identity with the three aspects of Colonialism, Insurgency and Peace that I’ll point out in the way I’ve dealt with it in my book called ‘Being Mizo: Identity and Belonging in North East India’ One of the main arguments that I’ve made in the book is what holds the Mizo society together. Especially under the context of heterogeneity coming into our societies, what does it mean to be a Mizo? How does the expression of Mizo come into play? In my last chapter, I talk about death and death rituals as a means through which people identify as Mizo or non-Mizo. That is basically the argument. And, the other chapters in the book lead on to the understanding of a particular territory as being yours. So, being Mizo and being buried in a particular locality’s graveyard is, I argue in the book, something that begins from colonial times and the finality comes within a desire to be buried in one’s locality. So, that is very important for Mizo.
Coming to the topic of Colonialism, the British entered the region in the late 19th century from the Chittagong hill tracts, Silchar and the Chin Hills side. As they advanced towards the hill tracts, they got in touch with the tribes from the Lushai hills. By 1890, colonial control is established in the region. Towards the south, in places like Lawngtlai and Saiha, similar to Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh during the period, there is a un-administered area which comes to be incorporated into the colonial government
government in the 1920s One of the things we have to remember is that colonial presence in the Northeast region is not uniform It is not as long as in the rest of the country and is sometimes attributed to be 50-60 years as in the case of Mizoram, similar to the Naga case. In Arunachal, it is even less whereas in Assam and Meghalaya, it is much longer because they came in the early 20th century. Lushai Hills comes to be conquered and is made to be part of Assam by the British. Two districts were created thus- North Lushai Hills (headquarters in Aizawl) and South Lushai Hills (headquarters in Lunglei).
The British continued with the Chieftainship and in fact, created more chiefs. They used what is known as ‘circle interpreters’ (‘dobashis’) who are middlemen officials between the chiefs and the colonial government. So, circles were created and different chiefs were kept under one circle in which the circle interpreter would take censuses and report any kind of issues. They introduced the office of circle interpreter in order to control the chiefs. Moreover, the British curtailed the movement of chiefs. Mizoram which follows mainly Sweden cultivation, the chiefs and the whole village would migrate to an area to establish jhum every few years. Once the soil had depleted, they would move to another area. One of the important things the British did vis-à-vis these chiefs were to create boundaries for them; they could move only within the boundary. In the fff
book, I argue that one of the main effects of colonialism is what is known today as the territorialisation of identity Boundaries were created, movement was prevented and the people were bound to a territory This banning of movement is very significant for Mizo identity because Mizo identity, if there can be such a thing as mizo identity in the first place, was actually made in movement. In most writings of traditional historians or political scientists on the Northeast, there is an assumption that there is something called a Mizo identity from time immemorial. The Mizos have an idea of ‘chinlung’which is a cave or a hole in the ground from where people came and hence the Mizo identity was born. Historically, this desire for a cultural core is very difficult to prove. And you realise that even in Mizoram, at the time of the arrival of the British, groups were moving from east to west. So identity in the pre-colonial period was made in movement also because there were no permanent villages and people identified themselves with the chief (a chief’s village could move from place to place). When the British came, a very important thing that is done, therefore, is pinning people to territories. So they establish the Lushai hills and call the people in it as Lushai despite the fact that there are many tribal groups that come into existence in the region. Thus, colonialism gave geographical identity to the people.
Besides this, many people from Nicholas Dirks, Bernard Cohn and others talk kkkk
about the cultural implications of colonial rule- the usual thing of the creation of senses, ethnographic works and identification which become important tools of colonial governance and at the same time, play a very important role in creating a people There is an enumeration of the tribes, of people and categorization of different groups that come into play from this time One of the interesting ways in which the British government tried to lure the chiefs was by taking them to an important city to impress them about their grandeur The other way they lured them was by giving guns which become an important part of the colonial attempt at creating allies They also brought in literacy or education Many people were attracted to the schools they established When the missionaries came along, school education came to be in their hands Another aspect that is not stressed much is the establishment of markets In the historiography of the NE, this is one thing which is not focused much on- the nature of the economic relations between the hill tribes and the plains When we dig deeper, we realise that the hills and the plains constantly interacted with one another in terms of trade The British sought to benefit from the raw materials in the hills and plains and see the kind of economic activity they could garner They established ‘marts’at various places Also, they wanted these places to be selffunding entities; they did not want to insert capital into this area They tried to do that by taxing people (house tax) and also through encouragement of trade So that is another aspect of colonial rule that we find Christianity also comes in the wake of colonialism The cultural implications of colonialism were because of the creation of the entire paraphernalia of governance We begin to get a people who are bound to a particular territory and who imbibe in modern ways of governmentality Education and religion are all means through which these modern forms of governmentality come to be imbibed in the people One of the most important things about creating identity is recognition of an ‘other’ In the pre-colonial understanding, the village was the one that gave identity and the non-villager was the ‘other’ But when a larger territory is created, you realise that the other becomes a much broader ‘other’which goes beyond the village and territorial understanding of the ‘other’
Jumping to 1966 which was when the Mizo National Front (MNF) released a memorandum In this declaration of independence, the MNF recognized the idea of a greater Mizoram by saying that the division came as a result of the colonial government They gave the fact that they were Christians and so could not be part of the larger Hindu nation Two important things that we have to bear in mind are: a) were they really united in their pre-colonial phase? And b) Did they really know themselves as Mizo? So, basically, what I’m suggesting is that the colonial presence made it possible for them by the 1960s to issue such kind of a declaration Because of everything that was happening during the colonial period and gggh
the territorialisation of identity, they were able to make that declaration The grouping of villages essentially is, as the name suggests, grouping six or seven villages together into one settlement Many people’s houses were burned, belongings were left behind and they were grouped together in a village They tried to bring all the villages together along one arterial road that went through Mizoram Every village that was in the mountains was asked to come and establish themselves along a main road So, social structure was completely changed as a result of the rooting of villages According to Nunthara, about 80% of Mizo population was dislocated as a result In fact, there was another round of famine that emerged as a result because people could not cultivate their crops
The insurgency lasted until 1986 and the ‘Mizoram Accord, 1986: Memorandum and Settlement’was signed And in 1987, Statehood was granted to Mizoram More than 30 years has elapsed now since the signing of the accord and two or three things I want to point out related to what people call memory studies and why certain people remember while others keep their silences and ambiguities In mizo, the people refer to it as ‘Ram buai’or ‘the period of troubles’ Despite the fact that it has been so tragic and it has changed mizo society forever, there is a lot of ambiguity with how this period of insurgency is regarded, how it is memorialized and how one reconciles with that kind of a past For instance, though Laldenga (leader of the Mizo National Front) had died, the memorial of Mahatma Gandhi occupies a much better and bigger space in Aizawl today than his This suggests that there is some problem with the way people regard the insurgence Zoramthanga who is the Chief Minister now, in his previous term in office (some 10-15 years ago) often said ‘Peace pays’ which suggests that there is more premium on peace than the period of ‘the troubles’ Also, a lot of people do not want to talk about this period In fact, it’s only recently that we are beginning to get narratives of what happened and how it happened and the kind of troubles that people underwent When I was doing research, nobody wanted to talk about it So, there is a great silence and ambiguity with how this period is regarded There are people who were hard-core MNF who valorised this period, especially men who went underground with the spirit of heroism, adventure, and martyrdom But there is also another aspect called the ‘pointers’which is mizo men and women who reported to Indian Government about certain things There is that aspect to it as well If people were to bring out everything about this particular period, it’s going to bring in much more heartburn At the moment people feel it is much better to be silent about this particular period
Transcribed by: Josephine Zodimpui Tungdim
Traditional Religions of the North East
Meghalaya
Behdeiñkhlam Festival of Meghalaya
Chad Sukra Festival
Nagaland
The traditional Naga religion is often called animism Animism is the belief in the existence of spiritual beings inhabiting the natural world Traditional Naga religion is however somewhat different from other forms of religion called animism in that they also believe in gods All Naga groups know of three types of gods and spirits: a high, creator God (sometimes there are several), the spirits living in the sky, and the earth spirits. But gods and spirits usually interfere only indirectly in human affairs, through influencing positively or negatively the natural cyclical flow of fertility. Sacrifices to gods or spirits are therefore done to ask for their positive intervention in order to maximise fertility: good harvests, many and healthy children.
The Nagad believe in U-kepenuopfü, the Supreme One who is creator of everything Interestingly, the word U kepenuopfü has a female connotation It roughly means the “female one who gave birth to us’ or ‘the one responsible for our creation ’ U-kepenuopfü as the creator spirit incorporates both male and female aspects Men and women have their different set of rituals, like it is only the women who conduct rituals and observe fasting to appease the house spirits The priest, usually the eldest of the community, announces the rules for the day at the dawn and anyone who did what has been prohibited is punished Traditionally, both feasting and fasting play significant roles in the life of the Nagas
An important aspect of the old religion is that it is not considered a sin if a mistake is committed unknowingly. But it becomes a grave sin if the mistake is committed knowingly and genna is not obeyed.
According to A. Nshoga, a Naga research scholar, “the traditional Naga religion or tribal belief is a multifaceted religion with the combination of theism, animism, supernaturalism, superstition, shamanism and lycanthropism ” Today, 90% of the Nagas are Christian, most of them Baptists But although the missionaries were deliberately trying to replace key institutions and beliefs which they thought to be incompatible with Christianity, many elements of the traditional religion and worldview are found also among the Christian Nagas They have merged with the new belief to create something new Therefore, there is no clear-cut division between them and the so-called animists And the important traditional festivals, especially those connected to the agricultural cycle, are celebrated by both Christian and animist Nagas Even though the spiritual meaning may be different, as a social event they are of the same importance to both
Arunachal Pradesh
The Apa Taniis believe in the existence of Gods, who created the three worlds namely Siichang-Miido, Nilli Myokoh and Talii/ Liibung Myokoh. The first world, also known as Siichang Miido, is the world in which both inanimate and animate living beings currently live; Nilli Myokoh is the second world which exists below the earth for human beings who die due to natural causes; and lastly, the third world according to the world view of Apa Taniis is Talii/Liibung Myokoh This world exists in the sky above the earth and has been created for human beings, who die an unnatural death Thus, the believers of Tanii Popih or Tanism believe in the existence of Gods and Goddesses who not only created the universe, but also gave human beings a spiritual belief regarding the existence of their soul even after death Natural areas known as Khalo are owned by them and for this reason, altars are erected near the abodes of the Gods and Goddesses during offerings
Coming to the philosophical basis of the religion, there are many groups of Gods and Goddesses. The creators PiniiSio and Yarnii-Gonii, are believed to have created all the living creatures of this world, including the universe. While the God and Goddess Yarnii-Gonii help creatures acquire the qualities and capabilities necessary for their survival and further propagation for continuity of species.
"Hence, all living creatures are believed to have been created by Pinii-Sio, and the qualities and skills possessed by these creatures are instilled by the God and Goddess Yarnii-Gonii
Apart from living creatures, inanimate objects such as machines are also believed to have been created by a group of Gods and Goddesses known as Lomas A person endowed with skills to fashion various machines and instruments are supposed to have been influenced by Lomas and Yarnii-Gonii The other set of Gods and Goddesses within the pantheon of Tanism is Myorii-Sii, also known as the protector Apart from providing protection to living creatures, these set of Gods and Goddesses are also responsible for enforcing punishment on human beings for over-exploitation of natural resources and can be in the form of storms, floods or sudden death of a person. The limits of exploitation of natural resources and the do’s and don’ts related to it are transmitted orally from one generation to another as told to Abo Tani, the ancestor of Apa Taniis, by God himself. The Gods and Goddesses of this pantheon are the ones to escort the souls to their respective places as per their death. Thus, different Gods and Goddesses are revered in Tanism for different purposes.
Assam
The religions practised in Assam is as diverse as its culture is. Almost all the major religions of the world are practiced in Assam Thus, it is indeed a difficult topic to discuss all of them together Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism, Christianity, Jainism, Sikhism are the major religions of Assam Among them, the number of Hindus is maximum followed by Muslims Originally, the Assamese were practicing the rituals of Tantricism, before the advent of the Neo-Vaishnavite culture founded by Srimanta Shankardeva (1449-1568) The latter form of worship emerged in the state during the 15th century AD and comprises of a major portion of the religious beliefs of the Assamese people at present. The state, in general, has always been an open-minded society, in terms of liberalism. Generally, there are large number of religious practices associated with Hinduism which appears in many vernacular forms in Assam The following point is very important to understand the Hindu population -- The Assamese Hindu society is one which has assimilated into itself various erstwhile tribal groups Again many tribal groups have moved towards the Assamese Hindu fold through integration accepting the customs and traditions of non tribals As a result, tribal features have made pppppp
inroads into the Broader Assamese Hindu Society
Major section of the Assamese Hindus observe and worship all the pan Indian Gods and Goddesses. Thus, those religions also have great impact in their faiths. Most section of the Hindus also came under influence of the NeoVaishnavism religion preached by Sankardeva, great saint scholar of Assam from 15th century. Many tribal people came under its influence. Also, the sanskritisation and the Hinduisation of the tribal people started from early
date here. Neo- Vaishnavism religion preached by Shankardeva is one of the most popular religious traditions of Assam The tribal groups of Assam have their own traditional religion and practices But some of them have left its traditional religion and became the follower of neo- Vaishnavism Some Muslims of Assam have their own customs and traditions In Assam, beliefs in local deities or celestial beings, spirits and ghosts existed with distinct characteristics For example: Sat or sath, aii sabah, apeshari sabah, kanipan diya, barkhelia, subhachani puja, barsabah, frog marriage etc. The Vrata type rites and ceremonies of the Assamese Hindus. There also exists Saktism : Worshipping of the goddesses or supreme female deity like Kamakhya yielder of desires, a young bride of Shiva. Islam is the second most prominent religion in Assam. In 1630, a Muslim saint from Baghdad popularly known as Azan Faqir settled in Sivasagar He preached to the local population about Islam and as a result, many converted and became his disciples Assam has some indigenous Muslims like the Gauria, Maria and Deshi, though they are very few as compared to the large-scale Bengaloriginating immigrants The Assamese Muslims are often divided into four subgroups; Deshi, Maria, Gauria and Syeds Some of these people are descendants of defeated Mughal soldiers, captured in Ahom–Mughal conflicts, who eventually married native Assamese women and adopted Assamese language and culture.The Powa Mecca in Hajoan is important pilgrimage centre for the Muslims and is visited by thousands of devotees and followers all round the year. Besides this, there are numerous mosques located in the state and many Muslim festivals are celebrated by the people with traditional flavor
Rath Yatra
Doul Utsav
Ambubachi Festival
Dehing Patkai Festival
Raas Utsav at Majuli
Manipur Mizoram
Paupai Renet was the only form of religion known to and practiced by the Zeliangrongs, till the advent of Christianity (1897) and the subsequent formation of Heraka, its successor with a variant of influences from other religions. There are certain general characteristics that these three strands of religions share- belief in a superior being (Raguang) or the concept of life after death i.e. heaven (tingkie). While Paupai Renet is heavily imbibed with taboos and rituals, Heraka is relatively relaxed; it is perhaps due to the heavy influx of Christian missionaries in the late 19th century and the presence of several Hindu temples in Tripura and plains of Manipur that the founder, Haipou Jadonang incorporated aspects of both into his new teaching which we know today as Heraka The said religion itself is in a decline presently, but there was a large percent of the Zeliangrong demographic that practiced it in the last century It was highly popular and is practiced in pockets of Manipur and Nagaland by the Zeme and Liangmai groups within the community Jadonang was succeeded by Rani Gaidinliu and it was under her leadership that the aspects of Heraka that borrowed from Christianity came to be recognised For instance, she observed Christmas celebrations and saying evening prayers to which, her followers would interestingly respond ‘auo’ Although she discontinued these in the later years, Heraka as a religion had been shaped to accommodate certain models of Christian rituals. Heraka took a quasi-military form, having their own combatant force which was more or less anti-British in nature. This led to the execution of Jadonang by the British (1931) and subsequently the arrests and monitoring of Gaidinliu.
What is interesting about the formation and spread of Heraka is not just the amalgamation of neighbouring cultures but also the gradual movement from it being an organised religion to a sociopolitical movement that would be considered a threat by the then British government Here we see a paradigm shift from viewing Heraka as only an all- incorporating movement i e a space where binaries are not absolute and there is relative tolerance, to Heraka as a space where politics and religion come under the same leader/ group of leaders This sense of leadership was passed on from Gaidinliu to others and so on However, owing to the popular acceptance and spread of Christianity, indigenous religions, in their truest essence, have come to a major decline This has moved yet again, to incorporate both tribal and Christian identity for several generations of the Zeliangrongs It is imperative to note that the cultural aspects of the Zeliangrongs run closely with their religion (both Paupai Renet and Heraka) This means that despite the Christianisation of the majority of the Zeliangrong demographic, certain aspects of the indigenous religions continue to hold a cultural significance. It can therefore be said of Heraka that it encompasses a particular perception of history and society; and is truly a demonstration of cultures and religious concepts evolving through time.
With the arrival of Christianity in the late 1890s, the notion of traditional religion in Mizoram more or less ceased to exist. However, before this mass conversion to Christianity happened, the Mizo society had a common belief in superstitions and an irrational fear and blind faith in things that seemed out of the ordinary This religion in the Mizo language is called ‘Sakhua’ Although the people had different beliefs, our ancestors still acknowledged the idea of a supreme being or god which they called ‘Pathian’ They believed that Pathian was the creator of the earth and all the creatures that live in it At the same time, Pathian had a female counterpart who is also known as ‘Khuanu’ In this sense, ‘khua’ means protector or one who bestows blessings and ‘nu’, in literal sense, means mother and is used to refer to the female gender On that note, our ancestors believed in Khuanu and regarded her as one who makes her presence known through miracles She was also perceived as mother earth. The early Mizo society believed in Pathian and Khuanu, both with the abilities to provide good fortune and healing. Khuanu was related to the people living on earth while Pathian was associated with the afterlife. The term Pathian was later adopted by the Mizo Christians to refer to their god.
Rih Dil Lake believed to be the gateway to the after-world by the Mizos
Flower
Lepcha Man Bhutia Woman Nepali Woman Limbu Woman
Music and Art Manipur
Introducted during the reign of Rajarshi Bhagyachandra (1763-1798
A D), Nata Sankirtana style of singing is a form of collective prayer, a Mahayajna , which lasts around 5 hours at a stretch The Nata Sankirtana is performed in the form of Purbaranga, which is then followed by Rasleela It is worthy to note that this form of music has been transmitted from one generation to the other through traditional school of guru-sishyaparampara and has now been institutionalised
It is a very important aspect in the lives of Manipuri Vaishnavites and also considered to be a form of worship because when our end is near, people listen to Hari-naam to relieve us from all the wrong doings that we have done before, so that we die peacefully. In the shraddha ceremony, the Nat Sankirtana will starts with a raga. After offering the Pindadan, the owner of the ceremony will have a bath and wear washed clothes. He will then come and offer his respects towards the end of the Sankirtan when Raga Bijay is being performed. The Shraddha ceremony comes to an end with the guardian of the Mandap sending the departed soul to beikuntha dham In case of any death in a house, Naam Sankirtana plays an important role In the ten days of mourning or Dashahan, the ritual will start with Naam Sankirtana and other rituals like reading Shrimad Bhagavat Gita will follow It was introduced by devotees and priests to the state of Manipur, with the main purpose being worship for the Lord Krishna
There are two forms of Manipuri Sankirtana since the period of Maharaj Garibniwas, namely Ariba Sankirtana and Nata Sankirtana, which became popular during the reigns of King Garibniwas and King Chandrakirti of Manipur respectively Since the period of Maharaj Garibniwas, there have been two forms of Manipuri Sankirtana: It has been suggested that sankirtana singing took place in Manipur in 15th century, during the reign of king Kiyamba of Manipur. However, during the reign of a great Manipuri King Garibniwas(1709-1748 A.D.) who adopted Ramanandi cult, an old school of kirtana singing under the style of Bangadesh or Ariba Pala became popular and is still preserved and practiced at the royal palace and some other centres of Manipur. The other form is Nata Sankirtana, a new style of kirtana singing was introduced by Rajarshi Bhagyachandra. the Manipuri musician singing kirtana as called Nata- a classical term in Sanskrit. Nata Sankirtana is the only highest karma for the Meitei society and has been recognised by the UNESCO in 2013
Arunachal Pradesh
Music forms an integral part in the lives of the various tribes of Arunachal Pradesh and hence is an integral part of the societal fabric Songs are sung to engage with, remember, and preserve the folk history, popular mythology and events from the tribe's past The songs also often have fables that have anthropomorphic and animistic elements, and seek to serve moral teachings as well Different occasions have different folk songs and they create a sense of nostalgia in the listener as the glories of their shared past is narrated through them
A few popular song traditions include the Ja Jin Ja, Baryi and Nyioga. Ja- Jin-Ja songs are sung by men and women either individually or during social gatherings, weddings and feasts. They are therefore sung to celebrate an event that is memorable, and is observed by the community as a whole. Baryi is a form of music where the religious history and mythology of the glorious past are narrated and it takes hours for the entire event to commence. Since it takes a long time to complete the song, it is generally sung in parts and also during festivals as well as religious and social gatherings
Nata Sankirtana of Manipur
Nyioga is another form of music usually sung after a marriage ceremony has been completed and as the bride reaches her new home for the bridal party It has joyful themes as it is an indicator of a new, happy life for the married couple The song itself consists of advice to the new bride to go about her future married life Unlike Nyioga, both Ja-Jin-Ja and Baryi deal with themes of shared history and nostalgia for the past, as they talk about the glory of the ancestors of the tribespeople and act as a way to invoke pride in the community
Apart from the above mentioned music forms of Arunachal Pradesh there also exist various dances which require songs to be sung and beats to be kept so that the dancers can perform. The songs that accompany dancers are often sung in chorus, and beats are provided by percussion instruments like various drums, and cymbals. These dances include Lamu, Roppi, Buiya, Hurkani, Popir, Pasi Kongki, Chalo, Ponung, Rekham Pada, Lion and Peacock dance.
Mizoram
The spectrum of music produced in Mizoram encompasses almost all music genres From rock music to bedroom pop, every genre has an artist backing it up The older generations were a huge fan of Smokie, Queen, Scorpions, and many more As a matter of fact, these bands and artists influenced the music in Mizoram a whole lot Normally, the most common and most-played songs would have to be gospel songs considering the population of Christians in Mizoram is more than 98%. As such, gospel songs constantly dominate people’s homes by being played all year round. However, Mizos are also known to produce songs which evoke a certain feeling of nostalgia and longingness for its listeners. Artists are loved by the people for their touching music and how they express themselves through their lyrical stories.
At the other end of the spectrum, we have songs which make people want to start rocking and moving about, whether it be at concerts or inside the warmth of their houses Such songs include ‘Tleitir Lungmawi’ by Thantluangi and Vanlalhlana, ‘Rock Thul’ by Lalnunsanga and Zaithanmawia and many more Moving on, we also have many Soul blues artists and RnB singers These songs reach for your soul and are armed with powerful and soulful voices, it makes it almost impossible to hate this style of music This genre includes the band ‘The Breeze’ with Sangtei Khuptong as their lead singer, Jerry Lalrinawma and many other vocally powerful singers Then, we also have pop singers and this particular genre is currently very popular among the Mizos We have singers like Jaui gaining popularity recently while Feli Fanai, Rachel Lalnunkimi and Hlimhlimi remain loved by the people. Mizoram also hosts a bunch of beat contests.
In the recent years, we have also seen an increase in retro-pop and indie music These genres are a huge hit especially among the teens
Considering that these new artists are also pretty young in age, it is truly inspiring to see them write their own songs and produce their own songs Such artists include Samuel ApaZozo, Pangpari (Flowerpot), Canvas, The Cassettes and Jenny & The Cinematics Apart from the growing influence of indie music, the Mizo youths are now uncovering the beauty of Mizo classic songs These classic songs are currently being streamed again, getting acquainted with the past As such, we can see how much music influences the lives of people Music has a song to fit every mood and Mizoram is also one of the many places on earth which truly appreciates its versatility and embraces all its different shades.
Samuel Apazozo, an artist from Mizoram
Meghalaya
Meghalaya, a state brimming with culture, is equally endowed with gifts of music The various types of melodies and tunes present in the state are simultaneously, different but connected through the common thread of regionality and heritage The Garo, Khasi and Jaintia hills, equal in natural beauty and vibrant customs, are enriched with a rich history in the art of music.
In the West Garo hills, the heart of the Garo tribes, the arrival of the Wangala festival, a tribute of thanksgiving to the Sun God, is marked by the Festival of a hundred drums The drums are accompanied by dances that depict things ranging from ‘rejoicing in harvest of citrus fruits to ‘sowing of rice plants and scaring the bad spirits away’ The air swells with the thumping of the drums accompanied by wooden flutes and horned trumpets The prominent instruments of the region can be broadly categorised into four – self sounding instruments made of resonant materials that include instruments such as the kkkk
kakwa, guridomik, various kinds of gongs, etc, stringed instruments such as the sarensa, dotrong, etc , wind instruments such as the adil and Sanai, membranous instruments such as the atong dama, ruga, etc Traditional folk group songs are also prominently sung , especially during festivals. The pop music scene in the Garo hills is also rapidly evolving , with a Garo song titled “ Walnam Ka sara Pring – An Ode to Life” by the artist Nokpante being nominated in the Best pop song category for the VIMA Music Awards in 2018.
In the capital city of Shillong, well known as the Rock Capital of India for its best rock bands that are rich in various styles of rock music, from soft rock and roll and rock pop, to hard rock and metal The Northeast of India has a glorious musical reputation that's sadly not been realised to the level it should In many of the indigenous and modern pop rock bands, the instruments are hand- crafted by the band members themselves
The Meghalaya music industry is also known for its presence in the blues music industry, a genre which is rare in India Soulmate band, a popular blues band in Meghalaya, created history by being the first and only blues band ever to represent India in the world They bring a new dimension to blues music by incorporating traditional Khasi beats and styles of music The music of Meghalaya is mainly influenced by the natural beauty of the state and that definitely does shine through its mellifluous tunes
Sikkim
A thangka, variously spelt as thangka or tangka, is a Tibetan Buddhist painting on cotton, silk appliqué, usually depicting a Buddhist deity, scene, or mandala They are also known as scroll painting Initially, designs are drawn on a gelatin paper using pen The cloth is tied to an iron or wooden frame using cotton threads. To avoid pores on the cloth, a mixture of distemper and gum boiled with water is applied on the cloth before painting and dried. Based on technique and material, tangkas can be grouped by types. Generally, they are divided into two broad categories: those that are painted bris-tan and those made of silk, either by appliqué or embroidery. Seen in monasteries and also homes, they are not merely decorative in function but are highly revered objects with religious significance
The art form originated in Nepal in the 7th century, developing into several schools of painting Thangka paintings are also worshipped as part of religious festivals
Commissioning a thangka is considered a means of generating spiritual merit In Sikkim – a significant centre of Buddhism in north eastern India – birth and especially death, are occasions when a special thangka is commissioned The early history of the form is more easily traced through these murals, which survive in greater numbers than the portable paintings which certainly once existed. Most thangka were commissioned by individuals, who were believed to acquire merit by doing so. They might then be given to a monastery or another individual, or retained for use by the commissioner. Some thangka have inscriptions on their back recording that they were the personal meditation image (thugs dam) of a notable monk Most artists were probably monks, although lay artists seem to have existed, as they did for metalwork sculpture
The word “thangka” means “thing that one unrolls” in Classical Tibetan
In Sikkim, thangkas are normally depict life sketches of gods and goddesses in different forms The central figure in a thangka is always a Buddha or any other deity or bodhisattva of Mahayana Buddhism
Traditonal Instruments of Meghalaya
Tripura
The indigenous tribes of Tripura constitute only 30% of the State’s total population This consists of the Tripuri tribe (16 99%) and others like the Chakma, Munda, Halam, Garo, Hajong, Kuki and so on These tribes have diverse ethnic traditions and practices amongst themselves that they preserve and showcase in the form of music, dances, artworks, etc Tripura is the smallest state in the NER and is highly rich in bamboo 31% of the area of the state is covered with bamboo boasting of over 50% bamboo species. Bamboo craft has thus been very popular in the State, seen in the intricacies of its surroundings, daily life and traditions. Many indigenous tribes in Tripura engage in this craft to create beautiful weavings and products such as baskets, furniture, bags, mats and many others. Bamboo is considered to be sacred as it is invaluable for many tasks in their daily lives.
Owing to the wide availability of bamboo in the region, the craftwork is a reliable and sustainable source of income and way of life. Weaving of bamboo is a tradition passed on from one generation to the other wherein the children learn the craft from an early age in order to help their parents Bamboos are firstly cut into different shapes and sizes in order to make different materials Indigenous knives called dao and takal are used for various cutting purposes The intricacies of the bamboo craft then depends on the craftsmen’s techniques and cutting processes
When it comes to the varieties of bamboo raw materials, artisans consider the dolu baansh (schizostachyum) variety to be the lightest and handiest while the muli baans (melocanna baccifera) variety is considered the most prolific Other varieties of bamboos are the yellow bamboo (bambusa vulgaris, striata) or the tiger bamboo, the Chinese bamboo and Buddha belly bamboo Basketry of different designs, shapes and colours are common in the region with incomplete baskets also having the charm of a contemporary design. One of the finest Tripura bamboo weaves is a flower-like lacy pattern made of fine strips of bamboo. These are used either for paneling or hung as blinds instead of curtains. Twising is a bamboo fish trap used by locals. With the calls of the time, innovators and artisans have also introduced bamboo straws that could well replace plastic drinking straws. Bamboo crafts are visible in the architecture of the region with common sightings of narrow bamboo bridges.
Moreover, due to its versatility, bamboo is used for construction of houses on the outskirts and forested areas From the walls, fences and doors of the house to cooking equipment and furniture, bamboo occupies an integral part of the people’s life Bamboo craft of the State of Tripura is thus an aesthetic wonder and a contemporary art form which has proven sustainable for the everyday life of the indigenous groups in the region
Bamboo craft from Tirpura
Assam
In the land of tea gardens and the one-horned Rhinoceros breathes through people art in its most vulnerable but extravagant form oblivious to the ever-changing world that has come to be, connected deep to the roots of their origin, fearless and playful To find it is a luxury, a blessed convergence of paths and to not is to forget but forgive, will you, once you know what you passed by without sparing a glance? To say that the beautiful state of Assam is an abode of traditional art would be an understatement, for it is so much more than what is visible to the roaming naked eye
The ancient art form of woodcraft and carpentry and the exquisite wood carvings on doors, walls, ceilings and in temples are witness to the glorious history of the state, proudly persevering it to this date The painted woodwork of Golaghat that has caught the attention of many is known to signify the folk art of Assam in all its grandeur. While the abundance of wood facilitates for this practice to continue, bamboo and cane used in furniture, production of musical tools or as raw material for construction are an instrumental support to the economy in the form of exports as well as the lifestyle of the Assamese people. On the other hand, goods of daily and ritual usage such as sarai (a shallow bowl with a dome-like cover on a stand) and kalah (water pitcher) made out of brass and ball metal acquire great importance owing to their distinctiveness and pottery in its rawest and opulent form The power of a brush lies in drawing on a canvas of history the colours of life, and is apt in the case of the local traditional paintings that have gained popularity since times immemorial The agile hands of Assam have to their credit some of the finest gold jewellery all over the world with their attractive designs not only promoting their culture but spreading their influence to wider audiences
Handloom weaving is a way of life and almost every household has the prized possession of a loom The gamosa, a handloom wonder with its distinctive red borders and intricate floral motifs, muga silk which is golden yellow or brown in colour, eri silk, and the makhel chadders formed out of them as well as the Laichangphi quilts have high esteem among the people and have gone forth to attain global recognition. Interestingly, Bhari Gan is a theatrical artform which makes use of wooden masks and relies on songs and hymns to present stories associated with legends hinting to a heavy musical influence on theatre in the region.
Assam has a lot to offer to the connoisseur of culture and tourism, to the world of art and beauty. In its raw and authentic essence, it is astounding to devour the immense diversity a state among many others in a nation among many others has kept sacred and preserved through the passage of time
Nagaland
Woodwork and craft is an inseparable part of most, if not all, Naga tribes in Nagaland It is a skill passed down through several generations and is exclusively practiced by male members of the community Woodcraft has lately been concentrated only on men who take it up professionally, i e more members of various tribes are moving into more clerical professions Woodcraft, however, remains an imperative part of the culture It is imminent in architecture; as well as in the kitchen, and in gates (entrances to a village, etc )
Wooden utensils are a major part of the kitchen in a naga household They include a wide array: from ladles to beer mugs and containers What is interesting about the utensils is that they are carved out of the solid soft trunks and usually, a single tree The woodwork present in the gates of the settlements and houses are perhaps one of the largest and impressive in the culture and even beyond. There are several motifs represented through this art, all images having different meanings. For instance, astral elements represent natural spirits; or a dao can represent the prowess of a man. The motif of the Mithun (bison) is one of the most popular carvings we can find in any settlement.
While these motifs may be conferred on any household, there are certain elements that are usually used for locating important houses A hornbill usually represents the abode of a chief of a village; it may also be found in important architecture such as the morungs which forms the best woodwork in various naga territories
In recent years, a lot of groups have tried to revive the spirit of the woodwork in naga culture What we have now is a repositioning of an artform readjusting into an unfamiliar context It is a symbol of the past and is constantly under redefining by new hands The woodwork in houses, or even simply utensils used in a modern home will remain an amulet of the past, as mute evidence of a world before this one
Contributors:
Niangthianmuang S. Ngaihte, B.A. English (H) - II
Dimitri Mallik, B.A. English (H) - II
Josephine Zodimpui Tungdim, B A Programme - II
Keona Johny, B A Programme - II
Ishika Paul Poothokaren, B A English (H) - II
Charvi Sharma, B A Programme - I
Lamboikim Khongsai, B A History (H) - I
Catherine Lalmalsawmi, B A English (H) - I
A NARRATIVE ON CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER AND PATRIARCHY IN ASSAM Witch Hunting:
By Dr. Sikha Das
BACKGROUND
My research interest towards the discourse of Witch hunting has begun with an engaged analysis of Assamese regional newspapers In most of the newspaper report, various cases of witch hunting were reported without taking a critical understanding of the phenomenon. It has been published as a barbaric activity practiced by illiterate, underdeveloped and superstitious tribes from remote areas of the region The news articles have always represented the perspective of an outsider, where community perspective was not taken into consideration. Through these news articles, the communities have been categorised as “others” and differences have been developed among different groups of people in the region However, the discourse of “othering” is further visible among the communities those are named as “practitioner of witch hunting”. It can be understand with theoretical framework of “inter and intra group conflict” to exert different forms of power based on intersection of gender and existing power of patriarchal social system
Further, the article intends to address few questions regarding the discourse of witch hunting. Firstly, what is a witch and who is a witch? Second, what is kkkkk
witch hunting? And third, who are the victims and perpetrators of witch hunting and what are the factors associated with it? The term “witch” has been associated with the malevolent power that can cause harm with their evil gaze. In the village, the villagers consider the daini (witch) as a woman or man who possesses magical and evil powers to harm others For some of them, daini means “beya botah” (bad wind) If the bad wind touches someone, the person sometimes becomes ill, or there could be an economic loss in their family. A witch can be a man or woman. In my fieldsite, the witch hunt victims are primarily women. Why women? Why the practice of witch hunting has been enforced against a particular gender? Bina Agarwal (1994:17) has discussed about witch hunting and its connection to the existence of hegemonic nature of men in patriarchal social practices. “Witch-killing thus becomes a means of controlling the mysterious powers of women and preserving male supremacy” (ibid). Arya and Roy (2006:30) analysed witchhunting as a form of violence that has been increasing “to dispossess women from their land” and became a significant reason for “pushing women hhhhhh
to take recourse to migration as a survival strategy”. Nandini Sundar (2012:248) cited Ajitha Susan George to discuss the gendered norms practiced in a distress social structural situation: “anger against displacement, unemployment and high morality are often diverted into blaming women, resulting in growing incidence of the killing of women as alleged witches”. Meena Kandaswamy (2008) has critically mentioned witch hunting as an “explicit tie-up between patriarchal oppression and casteist subjugation” Further, she explained that in the practice of witch hunting: “women are left to live, they are considered inauspicious and malevolent, socially ostracised and forced to forego their livelihood. Where they don’t end up losing their life, they are made to lose their mental balance” (ibid). The paper intends to understand the intersection of gender and patriarchy in the practice of witch hunting among Rabha community of Assam. This study reflects on the ethnographic work carried out in a border village of Assam, located in the district of Goalpara. The village comes under the Rabha Hasong Autonomous Council All the residents belong to the Rabha community in this particular village In the next section, I have discussed the practice of witch hunting among the Rabhas through one of the narrative collected during my fieldwork.
CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER AND PATRIARCHY
Rajni was in her thirties when I met her, and ran a small tea shop with the help of her family. My first interaction with Rajni took place in the village marketplace with a group of women who were branded as tikkar[1] in the village. On the day of the meeting, this group of women were going for an awareness meeting on Daini hatya[2], along with some members of "Mission Birubala"[3] In the awareness meeting, these women were introduced as people helped by the NGO. This organization claims that their involvement with the issue of daini hatya has reduced the number of daini hatya in the region of Goalpara district in Assam The workers of Mission Birubala engaged in rescuing the branded women from punishments such as beating and killing. However, the accused women will have to carry the stigma and traumatic experiences of witch hunting for their entire life. Among the group of women, Rajni was the talkative one and was younger than all of them She was branded as tikkar because she refused to give her consent for a second marriage after the death of her husband. She was accused as a practitioner of evil power by the man who was trying to marry her forcefully and was falsely branded as a tikkar.
[1]Tikkar: Witch in Rabha vocabulary. [2]Assamsese vocabulary for Witch Hunting. [3]Mission Birubala: The Mission Birubala organization, which is spreading awareness and active against witch hunting in Assam.
Conversations with the community members and witnessing their day to day life struggles have depicted a different understanding of life in this study In the very first meeting with Rajni, she shared her tale of being branded a tikkar, its horrific aftermath and the hardships she had to face in their society. She was a strong and llllllll
i t c h H u n t i n g : A N a
independent woman, who worked hard to feed and educate her child and re-establish her position in their society Rajni’s narrative was one of the more pertinent ones which highlighted the social structure of the community. I talked to her for more than one hour, where she narrated her life story. Her narrative discussed the various norms those were attached to different categories in their social structure. Being a single woman in that young age, the social structure defined her position in their society Again, when she tried to break with those assigned norms, she was seen as a threat to the prevalent patriarchal norms. The conversation with Rajni opened up different aspects associated with the phenomena of witch and witch hunting It not only discussed the social status of the village but also highlighted some vital questions which I was trying to understand during my fieldwork Rajni raised her voice against the norms set by the patrilineal social structure Her resistance to a second marriage by saying “no” converted her status into a tikkar in the community Rajni lost her husband in the early years of her marriage At the time of her husband’s death, she was helpless, along with her newly born daughter, and completely broke. However, she did not choose to give up her hope to head an independent life with her daughter After her husband's death, she stayed with her mother-in-law. Further, to sustain her life and support her family, she started to sell tea in the local market with the help of meagre savings Rajni had broken the patriarchal norms by setting up a tea stall in a public space. In this regard, she did not fit into the stereotype of an Indian widow. She said, “my husband was undergoing severe pain, but our economic condition did not allow us to provide him better treatment. The condition of our village government hospital was pathetic”. Single women are considered a “threat” to the entire community When these single women are considered dangerous to the society, men
from the society take the responsibility to control these threats in the social structure. Witch hunting is a form of violence that is created to maintain the power relationship between different categories Since a “young beautiful widow” engaged in work outside her house is not acceptable by the patriarchal norms of their society, her morality is always under surveillance. The practice of surveillance retains the idea of control in a patrilineal society. Rajni’s story gives us a broad picture of the construction of gender norms in a patrilineal society
CONCLUSION
The practice of witch hunting has difference of patterns in various parts of the globe. The narrative of Rajni portrays different aspects of the practice of witch hunting in a patriarchal social system. Her gender identity has become a struggle for survival and further accusation of witch can be understood as a way to asset fear of patriarchal norms among the marginalised section of the society to maintain the hegemonic power structure. Accused women encounters layers of marginalisation based on intersection of identities such as gender and patriarchal norms.
Sikha Das working as an Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology, Mahapurusha Srimanta Sankaradeva Vishwavidyalaya, Nagaon, Assam Her interest area lies in the area of gender, development, intersectionality, feminist research methodology.
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NIANGTHIANMUANG S NGAIHTE
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CHARVI SHARMA
KEONA JOHNY
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ISHIKA PAUL POOTHOKAREN CATHERINE LALMALSAWMI
JENNIFER GEORGE LAMBOIKIM KHONGSAI
IVANNA BAZELEY A SANGMA JULIE DONNGAIHLUN
