feeding through knowledge
„ AGROFEED PLUS” POULTRY FEEDING PROGRAM
Responsible publisher: István Szekeres Responsible editor: Dr. Péter Zoltán Editorial staff: Hungary 9022 Győr, Dunakapu tér 10. Printing preparation, typography: www.arttitude.hu Made in 2018 in Győr in Illés Press, 200 copies
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"AGROFEED PLUS" Poultry Feeding Progr am
Introduction
Introduction The concentration of livestock production over the last decade has created new requirements for intensive milk, meat and egg production and industrial compound feed production. This market pressure, requiring rapid development, has placed on both the professional and manufacturing technology of animal nutrition in recent years a new foundation which has been built in the activity of integrated livestock, premix and compound feed companies. We believe that sharing this new knowledge and re-reviewing existing professional expectations can be beneficial for our partners and can contribute to making our common work more effective, so we decided to gather and publish the knowledge within the framework of the “Agrofeed Plus” Poultry Feeding Program publication. The state of the art feed management is based on the adequate raw materials purchasing, checking before storing and proper handling and storage. Efficient feeding, compound feed production can only be done with the knowledge of the raw materials thoroughly and accurately, taking into account the production objectives of the poultry farm, the poultry farm characteristics, the management and animal health situation. Today, co-operation between of premix and mixed feed manufacturers is essential with producers, whether it is integration or individual companies, as the feeding concept for premix and mixed feed recipes, nutritional values and optimization of feed prices can only be made together to optimize the production level and production expectations. A summary of the elements of the „Agrofeed Plus” Poultry Feeding Program figure is a good illustration of the complexity and sophistication of this process, and it demonstrates why it is difficult to achieve outstanding results in practice over the long term.
June 2018
The world’s feed production has exceeded the one billion tons, which requires the efficient and economical use of the available raw materials, as competition is going on in the use of plant products for human, energetic and livestock production. In the world’s feed industry, the earlier widely available and a small number of protein and energy sources will be partly changed more widely used alternative raw materials and by-products, and more stringent regulatory regulations, better knowledge of poultry physiology and digestion, more accurate nutrition based on this, animal welfare and immune response capabilities will be characterized. To achieve this, maintaining the health of the intestine tract, requires a more thorough understanding of the interaction between each nutrient using a wide range of modern feed additives. Closer cooperation between poultry health and management with the feed industry is indispensable for stable and profitable production. Further concentrations of feed industry are expected, so the actual more than 30 000 feed mills number in the world will decrease and will promote the use of refunding high-quality and modern manufacturing technologies. In addition to the competition of products, the efficiency of supplying and professional service also influences the success of co-operation between premix and feed producers and poultry producers. This is why Agrofeed Kft. believes that to have a wide-ranging consultancy activity for its partners is a stressed mission, which can be supported by the publication of such professional articles. Finally, I would like to thank to all my colleagues for the work they have done for the writing and edition of this publication.
Dr. Zoltán Péter Export Business Director
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Modern poultry feeding
Modern poultry feeding The using of large number of feed raw materials and feed additives today is part of the modern poultry feeding. The results of the past decade have made it clear, that high production output and efficiency cannot be achieved without the proper application of these ingredients; the poultry health and animal welfare situation, the quality and safety of poultry products cannot be sustained and the environmental impact of the poultry industry cannot be reduced. Further tests and practical trials are needed to know the positive effects and proper application of feed additives, preventing their potential negative effect on inappropriate use or their interaction with other additives or feed ingredients. Feed additives have an increasing role to play in the maintenance of keeping up drug-free poultry health. In modern feed and feed evaluation systems, as we strive to develop and apply with the „Agrofeed Plus� Poultry Feeding Program, the feed quality is continuously monitored, which covering feed raw materials, additives and their effectiveness. Appropriate levels, ratios and value of the ingredients and supplements are needed to provide the required energy, protein (digestible amino acid), vitamin and mineral levels, with the appropriate compound feed production
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technology and methods. In order to ensure that the feed effectively secures production results, it is necessary to have knowledge, survey and evaluation of the quantity and quality of the ingredients, as well as the same control of the mixed feed. Of course, frequent and thorough examinations involving raw materials and feedstuffs require a lot of energy, time and money, which we often try to save unnecessarily. One of the key elements of the efficiency of the poultry industry is the proper feeding system. Optimal poultry feed cannot be manufactured without the knowledge of the local and global poultry industry, parts of successful poultry production and poultry feeding. The production of high-quality, safe and efficient compound feed is only possible with the accurate knowledge of components, production conditions and the expected performance, with the permanent control of the feed.
"AGROFEED PLUS" Poultry Feeding Progr am
"AGROFEED PLUS" Poultry Feeding Program
"Agrofeed Plus" POULTRY FEEDING PROGRAM Complex production and feeding activities, as outlined in the introduction, require a complex approach and a large number of factors directly affecting the production. This can only be accomplished by common and collaborating work in the process that is by cooperating with poultry farms, companies and feed production departments of them or independent feed mills. This requires professional, sometimes colle-
gial, cooperation between companies and professionals. Although the principle is clear for everyone, there is still a lot of not used option in daily practice. A more detailed overview of the elements of the feeding program can also contribute to more efficient and successful practice; this was our main driver in designing and implementing this publication.
ELEMENTS OF THE AGROFEED PLUS POULTRY FEEDING PROGRAM
Poultry farm status and performance assessment
Regular checks, maintenance feed recipes, tracking changes in raw materials
Customer
Agrofeed feed production consultant
Feed specification
Mixing formula
Feed raw materials, storage and price
Agrofeed sales representative, consultant
Farm adapted nutrition, feed lines
Price of compound feed line
Modern feed raw material management Feed test, nutrient content, toxin
Technology and management consultant
Agrofeed product manager
Agrofeed recipe optimization
Compilation of proper nutritional specification of feed line, meets life phases of poultry, appropriate developmental and production demand, definition of the feed phase timing and quantity
Feed mill technical possibilities
Partner training, meetings, publications, newspaper
Finding a balance between the objectives of production, the price of feed and feed conversion = lowest specific feed cost!
Species, hybrid
Poultry farm production targets
Agrofeed veterinary consultant
Farm equipment level Adapted feeding concept to production level and demand
Poultry farm operation position Reconciliation of nutritional concept
Management position
Poultry health situation
The development of a nutrition concept for the poultry industry and its implementation requires the joint work of the experts of the premix, compound feed company to develop and control the efficiency of the feeding program. As more and more big and/or integrated poultry companies have their own feed mill, professional co-ordination of the feeding program will increasingly become the premix supplier’s task. The co-operation between the poultry partner and the premix manufacturing company requires a coordinated work beside the premix sales manager with the filed specialist consultants who are involved in the technical, management and poultry veterinary service, with the recipe optimization prod-
Length of production cycle
Expected production parameters
Finding proper balance of farm situation and feeding intensity!
uct manager and with an expert who is familiar with the technology of the partner’s feed mill. Advanced premix and compound feed formulation, optimizing feeding costs cannot be solved without knowledge of the status of the poultry farm, technological possibilities and performance expectations, so you have to start compiling the program with these elements. It is also important to know the technical possibilities and condition of the feed mill since this determines the concentration of the premix, the homogeneous mixing opportunity of raw materials and ingredients, and the efficiency of the feeding.
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"AGROFEED PLUS" Poultry Feeding Program
Modern feed raw material management requires the planning of purchasing raw materials, knowledge of the quality and price opportunities of the sources. It also requires the preliminary quality control of the possible raw materials, which does not replace the control checking prior to purchasing and storing
These tests should also cover the essential nutritional ingredients (protein, energy, fiber, calcium and phosphorus) and beside that potential toxin content/ contamination too (DON, aflatoxin, etc.). For the production of cost effective feed line, it is essential to find the balance between the technological possibilities of the poultry farm, the production level and objectives and the intensity of feeding! In order to determine the production objectives of the poultry farm, it is necessary to have a detailed knowledge of the breed (hybrid), the length of the production cycle and the expected production parameters, including the state of the technology of the poultry farm, the management and poultry health conditions. Without the above basic knowledge, it is not advisable to set up a thorough nutrition concept. With these basic knowledge, you can tailor a customized feeding solution that fits the best to the known production conditions, standards and production concepts. Of course, we should not mistake the fact that we always offering different premix formulations for all producers, as this is often not justified by the same production conditions. At the same time the compound feed recommendation could be different, as it is mainly based on the customer’s available feed raw materials. Under large-scale production conditions (variety, technology, operational practice) only significant differences in the climatic, altitude or feed raw material base justify the widely differing nutrition concept! The feasible concept of nutrition has to incorporate the conditions of production, performance expectations 6
and the available raw materials, with their test results. Of course, agreed with our partner, the optimization of nutritional values and direct costs of premixes and compound feed formulations already can take place in it, according to the poultry’s life stages. In this concept, the proper nutrient content has to meet with the development and performance requirements of the poultry, and also has to determinate the feed phase’s number, quantity and feeding program. Optimization of the feed line adapted for the poultry farm, the determination of the nutritional value of the feed, the preparation of the mixing formulas for the feed mill, and of course, the calculation of feed line prices (in case if the partner requires) is the next step in the feeding program. The feeding program is not a self-serving professional performance, but rather finding the balance between production objectives, feed direct cost and feed conversion rate. It is the practical implementation of the lowest specific feed cost! Controlling partners’ feed and premix recipes, maintaining their formulas, tracking raw material changes on stock is a demand for almost every week at large company (on-line recipe management). However, it cannot be avoided at smaller companies even, either by higher changing feedstocks or production conditions, management practice. All these tasks are essentially related to the production and nutrition specialists, so it is important to involve and inform professionals, or other fields’ specialists, and organizing professional meetings, training courses, or giving publications and newspapers.
"AGROFEED PLUS" Poultry Feeding Progr am
Elements of modern feed management
Elements of modern feed management Practical steps in feed production Modern feeding includes beyond the knowledge of the producer, the poultry, the production conditions, the nutritional requirements and nutritional characteristics of the breed and the modern recipe optimization, with the manufacturing of proper composition and quality compound feed. To achieve this, we must work as follows:
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Knowledge of the growth rate of the breed (hybrid), its production characteristics, • Determining the nutritional demands that fit the particularities of the breed and the production target, • Conversion of the nutritional demands into feed nutritional content, • Determination of nutrient content and nutrient digestibility of raw materials available for feed production, • Determining the minimum and maximum level of mixing to compound feed of each raw materials, • Determination of the compound feed’s composition, providing the specifically lowest production cost, from the available feed components, • Production of compound feed based to suitable recipe. Economical poultry and egg production is only possible if we meet the demands of different life and performance phases of the animals at the optimum level corresponding to the sex. To achieve this, Agrofeed also offers its products and services, so we have named the feeding program „Agrofeed Plus”. We believe that the successful feeding program for practice requires both the joint effort of Agrofeed and our partners to better understand and explore the factors affecting their effectiveness, say the Plus effort that makes our common work successful. The Plus Demand, especially if the profits are known to every business. We want to achieve more than the current performance, higher yields, plus results, which is appropriate, since what we have achieved today may not be enough tomorrow.
If professionals aim to achieve a unified approach, the company’s operation and serving of poultry farms have a unified desire and concept. It is easier to set clear objectives, including feeding ideas, that is to improve performance, reduce production costs and overall make the business more effective. Only thorough knowledge of the elements of production processes can help in formulating a clear feeding concept in a successful activity. Obviously, the „Agrofeed Plus” Poultry Feeding Program includes elements that seem like repetitions, but without the knowledge of the parts, you cannot get to the whole, that is to reach the desired Plus result.
Assessment of status and performance of poultry farms
Large-scale poultry farms have different technical, technological conditions and solutions. While earlier poultry farming was based on free-range or semi-intensive farming technology, like in other livestock sectors, today, in the large-scale production, in general climatic conditions, closed poultry houses are typical
Free or semi-intensive farming technology has the potential for bio, eco, organic, and free-range poultry production, as is the case in many developed countries, but it is still typical in many countries, as traditional poultry growing. These are characterized by a much lower density and smaller farm size. The picture will be enlarged if we consider that the „backyard” poultry keeping is existing to date, with its limited service demand. The demands for mass food are ensured by largescale, increasingly integrated poultry meat production. The production often referred to as ‚industrialized’ is occasionally accompanied by a pejorative sign, farm technology is not enough animal friendly, sometimes exaggerating, but legitimate in many respects (foot problems, breast blister, higher mortality, higher scaling).
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Elements of modern feed management
The large-scale poultry house technology can be deep-litter, manure pit, slate or cage system. The fundamental purpose of any technological development is to enforce animal performance, or, lately enforcement of animal welfare considerations. In addition to the spread of intensive poultry houses, a similar „industrialization” was also made in the farm sizes to reduce the specific investment costs, often ignoring the rules of biosecurity, disease control and the actual animal health hazards. In addition to largescale plant design, it is advisable to keep up to 6 houses on breeding poultry farms and up to 12 houses on broiler farms, which is economical, but still manageable.
Of course, smaller farm sizes can be economical, with proper activity and performance if they can integrate into the product line of poultry production. Large-scale poultry production without the rapid development of technological equipment (feeding, drinking, ventilating, cooling and heating, cage, computer control, etc.) would not be able to utilize the genetic advancement of poultry. Technological solutions that have emerged now support the objectives of poultry production and density according to age group, age, feeder and drinker surface and ventilation performance to achieve optimum production results. Large floor area poultry farms with a size over 15-20,000 m² are almost always subject to farm specific poultry health problems due to production cycle overlaps, breaking the „all in-all out” housing principle, shortening service period, and biological fatigue.
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"AGROFEED PLUS" Poultry Feeding Progr am
Elements of modern feed management In the field of cage system egg production, the most striking EU animal welfare „success” was achieved, which brought about the already exorbitant reduction of the stocking density of laying hens and the introduction of „comfort equipment”. Until now, production trends have not justified this change with higher returns, but the international competitiveness of the European egg industry has been severely limited by the increase in direct cost. This is further compounded by the demand for only „deep-litter” and free-range eggs, which is strong mainly in Western-European countries. When compiling the Agrofeed Plus nutrition program, we always pay attention to the poultry farm conditions, the specialty and standards of the technology, the rules, regulations and production requirements and the management practice dictated by the production method.
Technical possibilities in feed mill The quality of poultry feeding, the preparation of premix formulations and premix concentration, the composition of the compound feed, the possibilities of raw materials’ application, the physical properties of the feed and the hygienic safety of feeding are essentially determined by the technological possibilities of the feed mill. Modern feeding can only be achieved by suitable manufacturing technology.
Although concentration is typical in the poultry sector and some large-scale integration’s feed production is higher than or close to 100,000 tons per year (big ones million tons), still is typical the mid-size plant with a capacity of 20 to 60,000 tons per year. Larger sized poultry companies also strive for self-sufficiency to use their own and known raw material base, and to save the „profit” of the feed manufacturing companies. High technical standards mostly can be carried out only in larger feed mills, which is justified by the high specific investment cost and the relatively fast moral amortization (10-15 years), which can only be managed with higher volume production. The largest amount of mixed feed is produced by medium-sized plants, but these plants’ technological, technical conditions are not always satisfactory and their upgrading is necessary. This is all truer for small-scale feed production, where they typically produce the farm’s feed requirement in a „home” mixer operated at their own poultry farm. Since a typical poultry farm and a feed mixing plant belong to a company, which is partly a benefit, due to the smaller production volume, technological developments are deficient or shortage, which also adversely affects feed quality, homogeneity and farm production performance.
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Elements of modern feed management The production technology of modern and large volume feed producer plants includes all technological equipment for high-quality, safe and efficient compound feed production. Purchasing of feed raw materials, storage and inventory management, processing of these raw materials (grinding) are carried out by these plants. The preparation and actualization of feed formulation is typically done locally, mostly in cooperation with the premix supplier. The feed plants, beyond the weighing and mixing of the raw materials performs the energy enrichment (typically mixing or application the oils to the granules) and treats the feed (granulation, expansion) with different hydrothermal processes. Manufactured feeds are stored, laboratory quality control is carried out and delivered to the customer, to their own farm. Nowadays, a significant proportion of the feed companies also support their partners by providing professional advice. The precise and efficient working processes of feed mixing are only partially can be realized in smaller plants, since homogeneity of mixing is not always appropriate. In many cases, the plant is „maintained” for the use of grain and corn grown in the local or near vicinity, thus purchasing protein ingredients and feed additives (typically a complete premix) and blending the components in a simple mixer. Many mixing plants do not have granulation equipment. Agrofeed’s technical specialists helping to solve the technical and professional problems of feed plants, designing renovations, solving manufacturing technology problems as well as solving of mixing problems of different feed raw materials.
One of the priority tasks of the feed production is the proper carrying out of grinding, which aims to improve the surface and thus the digestibility. In order to achieve the required homogeneity, it is also necessary to reach the appropriate particle size, so that 96% of the particles in the poultry feed should have a diameter of 1.4 mm and 4% of 1.4-1.8 mm. Generally, feed mills use a hammer grinder for which the particle size can be adjusted using the sieves. During mixing, homogeneity must be achieved to a degree, that the daily feed dosage (50-150 grams) satisfies in all aspects the nutritional requirements and expectation of the poultry. Although mixed feed typically does not contain a large number of feed raw materials, in addition to large amounts of grain and soy are needed minerals, vitamins and other supplements and feed additives. 10
Choosing the right premix in a “package” for obtaining and increasing the feed homogeneity is an aid, which like a premixture contains in an appropriate proportion the required minerals, vitamins and other supplement and feed additives. After grinding and mixing, we get mash feed, which, as we know it today, is not suitable for the efficient performance of broilers. To achieve proper results, it is necessary to energize, granulate and crumble the feed, which can be managed efficiently and appropriately only with integrated technology lines in the feed mill. The energy enrichment is primarily made by adding oil to the mixer, which means ingestion of liquid material, which cannot be realized without additional equipment. „Fat powder” (oil + carrier) products are also known, which are, however, specifically more expensive. Mixing full fat oil seeds (soy, sunflower, rape) can provide a partial solution, but this is not just a simple technical task. To achieve the right energy level, the direct oil mixing opportunity is required. Feeding of granulated feed is a basic requirement in poultry farming. The state-of-the-art manufacturing technology also allows for the production of crushed and small granules (prestarter feeds). The essential advantage of crumbs and granules against the mashed feed is that the feed is not classified, the poultry cannot select. Another advantage is that there is a significantly lower feed rate due to feed scattering, less contamination of feed. An increasing requirement is to reduce the microbiological contamination of poultry feed and to eliminate the distribution of salmonella contaminated feed. The feed industry has to take on increased responsibility for the hygiene of production conditions, so the heat treatment technologies in the feed mill manufacturing industries have come to the fore. The heat treatment technologies have been expanded in the 80’s by introducing flocculation and extrusion in the field of working practice for full fat soybean and some grain seeds. From the mid-1990s, the reconstruction of the higher-performance feed plants and the new plants have already incorporated the most modern heat treatment technologies, expansion and hygienisation. Hygienisation is only intended to improve the microbiological condition of compound feed, while expansion has further results in improved nutrition and improved physical quality of the granulate.
"AGROFEED PLUS" Poultry Feeding Progr am
Elements of modern feed management Using heat treatments, the microbiological condition of the produced feed is improved, but digestion and absorption are improved as well, while damage of vitamins in the diet is insignificant. During the Plus program, the efficiency of heat treatment of poultry feed has paramount importance. Agrofeed specialists are happy to help with any manufacturing technology problems or improvements.
Compound feed production Appropriate nutrient supply of poultry can only be ensured if the appropriate composition and quality feed is consumed in sufficient quantity. Feed consumption may be influenced by a number of factors such as high ambient temperature, toxic and unpleasant substances that may affect feed intake, which may result in a lack of nutrients although fed with full value compound feed. Three important factors need to be considered during the production of feed. The first is the accurate knowledge of the chemical composition of the feed raw materials. Most plants already have a near-infrared spectroscopy-based device (NIR), which allows you to quickly estimate the water, protein, fat and fiber content of the components after preliminary calibration. In addition, the level of the various pollutants in feeds, the quantity of mycotoxins, poisonous weeds and other substances that influence the performance of the animals through their nutritional taste or their adverse effects should be determined (also known as anti-nutritive factors). The second important factor is to measure and mix the components exactly as the formulation. Many factors may affect its accuracy, such as over-filling mixers, obsolete technologies, inadequate mixing time, and classification due to over-mixing. The third important factor is to make the formulation in a form that is adapted to the needs of the given poultry species, breed and age group, and also meets the feeding technology of poultry farm. The physical form of the feed has a serious effect on feed consumption, feed loss, digestibility of feed and nutrient utilization. The granulated feed intake is larger, so the weight gains, which results in improved feed conversion (partly due to lower feed spillage).
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Elements of modern feed management Supplementation of feed, premix manufacturing The premix manufacturing company is an important link of professional relationship between the poultry production and the feed mill. It has to offer a pre-mix (panel, premix, concentrate) that the feed mill is able to fabricate properly and the feed is able to meet the nutritional needs of the poultry flock at a high level. The classic premix form is 0.5%, containing vitamins, minerals and antioxidants - its former name was „unified premix”. Other premix ingredients may also be included if they are “quantifiable”, i.e. no dilution of the premix is required. Important ingredients can be the coccidiostats (if not in the feed plant added), enzymes, pre- and probiotics, essential oils and organic acid products. Use of previously applied antibiotic growth promoters within the European Union is forbidden. Frequent the use of 1.0-1.5% premixes, when for economical and convenience reasons, essential premix ingredients are requested by the customer, that is, with amino acid addition, typically without lime, salt and MCP components.
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In the 0.5% premix, the role of carrier is also important in addition to the active ingredients, on the one hand because it is less likely if more aggressive substances (choline chloride, microelements) will meet with decomposable vitamin particles, and on the other hand homogeneous mixing of such a concentration can be solved in most plants (the authorization of the operation of the plants shall indicate the concentration of the applicable premix). In the state of the art plants, it is possible to use more concentrated premixtures, 0.1 to 0.3% panels (either separately for vitamin and microelement panels), if this is provided by the technological possibilities and licensing of the plant. In smaller feed plants, complete premixes of 2.0 to 4.0% are used, they contain, in addition to the aforementioned components, minerals, crystalline amino acids, etc. The use of „thinner” premixes (concentrates) in the production of poultry feed is nowadays rare.
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Advanced feed raw material management
Advanced feed raw material management Feed raw materials When assessing feed raw materials, it is essential that they are fit for human consumption, which is ensured by fears and stricter regulation following earlier food scandals. Feed raw materials and compound feeds are part of the food chain, so society has been demanding strict regulations, which are largely met by international (stricter European) and national regulations today. The EU has already issued a number of feed standards, which are already included in Part A of Regulation (EU) No 68/2013 on feed raw materials. Part B is a „Glossary of Procedures”, i.e. treatments that are acceptable for raw materials. This includes a total of 67 procedures from seed crushing to hydrolysis of fats. Part C contains the details of the authorized ingredients, so in Group 1 there are 12 types of cereal grains and all processing derivatives thereof, a total of 127 substances that can be regarded as feed. A total of 13 groups are listed in the Annex, listing and shortly identifying well over a thousand substances. Of course, the many raw materials listed in the provision are reduced to a dozen in the feeding of ordinary poultry, in a feed plant. The raw material base of previous decades has changed considerably over the past few years, meat meal use has been banned, and the possibility of mixing fish meal has also practically disappeared. The demand for corn for ethanol production is also increasing, and soya beans have become more expensive, so against the former „American type”, predominantly maize-soybean recipes, there are now a number of new recipes and mixed feed containing alternative raw materials and by-products too.
Nutrient content of feed raw materials The amount of nutrients of raw materials we have on stock or we purchase must be accurately recognized before making the recipe. For the nutritional content of the various ingredients, the different optimization software has its own database, which is regularly updated on the basis of practical data. Based on past experience and available resources, we can decide which ones to choose for optimization when preparing the feed.
The range of raw materials, of course, can vary by country and region, or even by company, while in many countries traditionally maize and soybean are prepared for poultry feeds (USA, South America, Hungary), while in Europe and Australia using grains, milling by-products, pulses, extracted meal and wide range of other industrial by-products is a usual way of feed production. The range and level of nutrients vary according to the available and selected feed raw materials, which should be taken into account when preparing the recipe. Of course, the database must also include the actual price of raw materials, as no feed recipe can be made today without cost optimization. Although there are hundreds of nutrients in the databases of optimization software used in practice, we consider significantly less in feed production. It also has its risks: if only a few amino acids are included, there may be a possibility that some of the essential amino acids that are not taken will limit the production of poultry.
Minimum and maximum limit values for nutrients and feed raw materials Prior to the production of the compound feed, it is important to define the minimum and maximum levels of each feed ingredient and nutrient in the recipe. For most nutrients we use a minimum limit, which applies to amino acids, minerals, vitamins. In most cases, microelements and vitamins are not taken into consideration when formulating the formula, but we provide premixes for their supplementation. We often include minimum and maximum limits for energy. There is a maximum limit on some nutrients, such as minerals, which may be toxic at higher doses or cause metabolic disturbances. There is also a maximum limit on fats and fibers that affect the digestibility of other nutrients. For nutrients that interact with each other, such as, calcium and phosphorus, amino acids or saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, it is also desirable to provide a minimum and maximum limit. For environmental considerations, the maximum limit for nitrogen and phosphorus content is also defined. Maximum limitations are included for some taste-responsive, toxicity-causing substances that affect the animal’s digestion, such as molds, mycotoxins, weeds, and various residues.
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Advanced feed raw material management A minimum limit of mixability can be used for some basic materials that enhance tastefulness or have a growth promoting effect. Maximum or minimum limits are also used for the raw materials that affect the structure, granulation of the finished product. Examples of such the inclusion of wheat in the feed to improve pellet quality.
Purchase of feed raw materials logistic Buying of raw materials can also be done with minimal storage capacity, with the less storage investment, but disadvantage of the feed producer being more vulnerable to purchasing opportunities, price and quality. Most feed mills strive to purchase and store a substantial part of the raw materials that conforms to the annual production program, which provides security both from purchasing and quality, but this is not always the most economical way due to hectic market price movements. Typically, large quantities of components (cereals, maize, soy) are purchased in advance, and the smaller components are ordered in several batches and distributed over time according to needs. The advantage of this is that it does not pose a risk, it can be a disadvantage that it is more cost-intensive, and cannot follow the interim price change of raw materials. Undoubtedly, it is difficult to decide whether the precautionary purchasing, stockpiling or continuous raw material buying is the most appropriate, since the supply of raw materials has in many respects become a stock market game, not only for domestic grain crops but also for import proteins. It is not enough for the storage space alone, well-thought-out decisions are needed, and just like any other, fortunately.
Purchase and checking before storage of raw materials There is a growing expectation, that feed plants will obtain a high quality raw material purchase and handling, requiring strict quality assurance and operating systems. We need to be aware of what kind of raw material we are getting, which should be checked not only at the level of „papers, declarations�, but also on the quality of them prior to the purchase (at least
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before depositing and storing). To do this, it is essential to ensure traceability both in purchasing, handling, storage and use When purchasing raw material, we also need to get an idea of the nutrient content of the feed raw material you buy, which is partly covered by the specifications required to present by the supplier, but if necessary, the laboratory testing of the raw material helps to know the nutrient content for proper use in feed formulas. In the specification or testing, not only the nutrient content is important but also other factors such as the microbiological state, the presence of toxins. For grain seeds, water content is a key issue due to their later storage and economic aspects
Raw material purchasing and quality assurance system for compound feed production One of the most important elements of the quality assurance system is to check the documentation and specifications of feed raw materials to be purchased. This is followed by a visual inspection of the raw material (wet, moldy, rubbish, dusty, weevil, etc.) and the necessary laboratory tests (collecting samples and submitting to a laboratory test), evaluating the results and determining the necessary steps. The feed plants must seek to obtain a quality assurance certificate, most commonly the introduction of ISO and HACCP. HACCP acronym, abbreviation for Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points. The goal of the HACCP system is to implement complex food safety. HACCP is a food safety risk management system based on good manufacturing, distribution and good hygiene practices in the broad sense, which can be applied alone or as part of a full quality assurance system and whose main purpose is prevention. In the system, product chain approach is important, not only the end product, but the whole food chain must be controlled. The key to the success of quality assurance in feed is the knowledge of the sources of microbial contamination, the method of propagation, the composition of feedstuffs and the factors of processing and storage of feed.
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Advanced feed raw material management The HACCP system covers the following areas:
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Procurement (raw material, additives, feed quality, status), • Work equipment, work area (cleanability, environmental management), • Labor (hand washing, toilets, personal hygiene, staff health), • Operations (technology, cleaning-disinfection), • Preservation (proper labeling, pests, contamination exclusion, storage, distribution). HACCP has seven main components:
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The identification of the hazards, their severity and the likely frequency of occurrence according to their ranking, risks, • Selection of critical control points (CCPs) where the suspected (identified) danger can be prevented, excluded or reduced, • The specification of criteria (limit values, tolerance limits) that separate the appropriate from the inadequate, • Selecting and applying suitable methods for monitoring critical points, • The definition of corrective measures, activities, • Checking and demonstrating that the preventive system works properly, • Documentation (HACCP system notes, records). An important part of the quality assurance system is the examination of feed raw materials, which is essential for assessing the actual nutritional value and potential hazards. Food safety, safe food production, is nowadays „from land to table”, i.e. a complex approach to soil, plant, animal and human relationships. This also justifies the fact that the quality assurance of feed production cannot be lower quality to the food industry. In each of the feed plants, the identification of the risks determining the quality of the product, the continuous monitoring of production processes, if necessary the intervention in processes and the application of systematic quality assurance systems such as HACCP, ISO, GMP + and FAMIQS, are fundamental.
Quality criteria for feedstuffs Significant changes have been made in the past decades concerning the quality of feedstuffs. Prior to quality of biological (nutritional content and value) and technical parameters (viscosity, density, particle size and distribution, pellet stability, color) the safety quality
(undesirable substances) and ethical quality (GMO exemption, animal feed, antibiotics, some coloring materials) have come to the fore. The increasingly stringent quality criteria and feedrelated scandals have made it necessary to establish a uniform provision on the traceability of feedstuffs throughout the vertical (raw material’s production, storage, manufacturing, distribution and feed use) and the rapid and effective removal of potentially dangerous feedstuffs from the European Union territory. To this end, they have created Directive 178/2002 / EC on traceability, the ban on nutrient antibiotics and the establishment of a single rapid alert system. Traceability means that each ingredient in the feed must be fully traceable back to the producer and the origin, and any batch of the compound feed must be traceable both from the producer and the origin to the end user. This was followed by mandatory labeling of feed containing genetically modified feedstocks (1830/2003 / EC) and the authorization of feed additives (1831/2003 / EC). Domestic regulations can include a uniform provision for the entire food chain (plant, feed, animal, food, consumer).
Criteria for safe feed In addition to the quality of feed, the safety of feed became increasingly important. According to generally accepted principles, safe feed must not contain:
•
•
• • • •
Undesirable substances - chemical substances (pesticides, herbicides, residues of antibiotics, mycotoxins), environmental contaminants (metals, PCBs, dioxins, disinfectants, etc.), hazardous biological agents such as pathogenic microorganisms (Salmonella, E. coli, Campylobacter), molds and toxic compounds of certain feed materials (e.g. cyanglycosides, alkaloids, etc.) and physical impurities (glass, plastic, metal and stone particles) Animal origin protein (with protein sources determined by the relevant regulation), Animal origin fat (the regulations are constantly amended), Nutritional antibiotics, Coccidiostats and histomonostats, in addition to the relevant rules, in feed for other animal species and age groups, Genetically modified vegetable raw materials (based on the marking rules in certain markets they can be used), Radioactive radiation sterilized raw materials (in certain markets their use is permitted),
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Advanced feed raw material management •
Unauthorized feed additives (the authorization system was amended and clarified by the European Union by Regulation (EC) No 429/2008). A fundamental requirement for authorization is that feed additives, in addition to being effective for that purpose, must also be safe for the feed-consuming animals, the animal product consumers and the environment.
The aspects of feed testing The quality and actual value of feed stocks should be thoroughly become acquainted with before starting to use. The nutritional value is determined by chemical and microbiological tests. Laboratory examinations include:
• • •
The nutritional value (crude protein, crude fat, crude fiber, ash), The mineral content, To determine the contamination of feed with microorganisms or other harmful. Determination of the quality of feedstuffs begins with the sampling. The sample is subjected to sensory examination when it arrives to the laboratory, tested to its appearance, color and odor. For most feed the crude protein content of the feed is determined, the amino acid content (lysine, methionine, threonine) is less frequent. The nutritional value is significantly affected by the minerals. In addition to the macro elements (calcium, phosphorus, sodium), some nutritionally important microelements (zinc, iron, copper, manganese, selenium, cobalt) are routinely determined in laboratories. Since vitamins are essential for the animal body, today, besides vitamin A, other fat-soluble vitamins (D, E and K) and most water-soluble vitamins can be identified. In feeds containing a higher amount of fat, and in some high-fat (cold-pressed) cakes, the rancidity is investigated by determining peroxide number and acid number. Among the fungal toxins in today’s laboratory practice, DON, F2, T2, and aflatoxin, ochratoxin can be determined. The larger plants with their own feed laboratory are obviously in a better position, but in small feed plants are sometimes required the control test using an external feed laboratory. Appropriate quality feed can only be produced from healthy and known quality raw materials. Therefore, it is necessary to periodically check the quality of raw materials arriving to the plant, sampling and storing samples from each inbound batch, and, if possible, all batches to be examined for the most important nutritional parameters (if the plant has NIR in place, if not with an external laboratory). This allows to ensure the guaranteed content of the finished product through the use of variable feed materials, with using and support of recipe optimization. Quality standards for raw materials are contained in standards, the Code of Feed and contracts concluded with suppliers. An essential element of the quality assurance system is to check the quality of the manufactured products. To this end, a sample of all batches should be taken - which must be stored at least until the end of the shelf life - and weekly quantities of randomly selected finished products 16
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Advanced feed raw material management must be sent to an external laboratory by checking different parameters to control guaranteed nutritional content. This is the necessary feedback on the accuracy of production of compound feed and the quality of the manufactured product. Agrofeed’s specialists provide regular assistance for the testing of feed materials and finished products, including sampling, test objectives and appropriate laboratory, evaluation of results, determination of the required tasks.
Storage and handling of raw materials Feed materials are typically harvested once a year, but feed production is a continuous activity, thus we have to ensure providing the raw material supply with the least possible loss and proper preservation throughout the year. This is a costly and skillful task that starts with the cleaning and drying of grain (above 14% water content) because enzymatic degradation processes continue in the seeds. The most important risk is mold formation, which causes mycotoxin (ochratoxin) producing fungi to proliferate.
Storage can be bagged or bulk. Bulk storage can be carried out in bulk or in tower silos. Storage areas should be cleaned, disinfected and must be exempted from storage pest prior storing. The basic condition for successful storage is to monitor the temperature of the crop, ventilate the crop, use the ventilation duct in the storage rooms or move it. Ventilation is carried out with cold air in low humidity (60-65%) crops. For bulk storage, the „first in-first out” principle should be used, i.e. the use should be programmed according to the order of the storage. When sacks are stored, make sure that the bags do not come into contact with the storage wall. In a separate place, „critical materials” require a safe storage, which also includes premixes, not only due to their high value but also because some of their ingredients may break down under inappropriate conditions. Agrofeed staff are always happy to help
you with the purchase, storage of raw materials, the design and operation of quality assurance systems.
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Survey of the objectives of poultry production
Survey of the objectives of poultry production Growth and production parameters of poultry flock The production parameters and the production purpose of the poultry species, breed, type of utilization must be accurately recognized for the determination of nutritional demand. In the case of poultry species, methods are available to estimate the effect of different feeding factors on protein and energy incorporation and on feed intake. Information is also available to help estimate the amount of protein that is incorporated into the skin and the feathers in birds. This information can be used in combination with the incorporation of body protein and body fat to use different computer simulation models to estimate the growth rate of a given poultry species, group growth and nutrition utilization. Equally important for laying hens is the knowledge of egg production, the egg size and composition of eggs. The composition of the body tissues is greatly influenced by the intake of energy. Increasing the energy content will increase the protein incorporation up to a level, but the additional energy above it will only be incorporated into the body as fat. As a result, the amino acid requirements associated with the energy or dry matter content of the feed are reduced to energy levels exceeding the maximum protein intake. Therefore, it is necessary to accurately recognize the expected feed intake of the given animal group prior to the production of the feed. The poultry is fed limited by dosage or by appetite (ad libitum). In the latter case, it is important to know that the feed intake may be influenced by feed raw materials, environmental factors such as heat stress or various diseases. The growth and body composition of poultry are also significantly affected by the amino acid content of the nutrient. The amino acid deficiency results reduced protein synthesis compared to normal protein supplements, resulting lower growth and higher fat build up.
Taking into account the nutritional demands Determining the appropriate level of nutritional demands is one of the most difficult tasks in feed production, where many decisions on production 18
and management of poultry farms are to be taken. It is necessary to know the feed intake of that poultry breed, performance and nutritional demand is influenced by climatic factors, movement of animals, diseases or other factors. In the past, aspects of the particular group of animals and environmental factors were generally ignored. Computer simulation models are well suited to focusing on these. When specifying the unit of measurement of nutritional values, it is necessary to clarify, for example, for amino acids, that the needed values are actually expressed by digestibility, apparently digestible (results of the ileal or faeces measurements). Once this decision has been made, it is necessary to decide on the unit of measurement of the amino acid requirement (g / day, g / MJ DE or g / kg). It also needs a decision that all of the essential amino acids are expressed in the same dimension or in the percentage of lysine levels as this is a common practice. When the amino acids are compared to energy, it is necessary to decide which form of energy, digestible, metabolizable or net energy to be used. If all of this has come to an end, it is necessary to determine the live weight interval or physiological stage of these units. The most effective form of providing amino acid needs is when compared to the energy level of the feed. However, in this case, the amino acid content of the feed and the need for the animal must be the same unit of measurement. There is very little information available on the useful amino acid content of the feed, many of which are the published results of actual and apparent ileal digestibility. As the endogenous amino acid excretion is largely influenced by the feed intake, the protein, fiber and anti-nutritive material content in the feed, and the body weight of the animals. The best expression can be from a practical point of view relevant part per unit energy of the ileally digestible amino acid content. The most commonly used form of energy for poultry species is apparent metabolized energy (AME). The amino acid content of the feed can be given in the form of ileally digestible amino acid / MJ AME in poultry. Ideally, each of the essential amino acids should be included in the recipe as well as the combined amounts of methionine + cystine and phenylalanine + tyrosine.
"AGROFEED PLUS" Poultry Feeding Progr am
Survey of the objectives of poultry production Production and feeding recommendation of poultry hybrids The genetic work of poultry breeding is complicated and costly, and so has a high concentration in the past decades, and today only few owner’s hands are the poultry breeding companies. Although the owner is often a multinational enterprise, breeding companies have retained their own professional breeding activities for the time being. The following are the poultry species currently marketed on the world market: Poultry breeding company
Poultry species Broiler
Breed
Hybrids
EWG Group - Lohmann
Layer
Ross Arbor Acres Indian River Nicholas Turkey British United Turkey (BUT) Lohmann
EWG Group - Hy-Line
Layer
Hy-Line
Brown, LSL W-36, Brown, Silver Brown, Sonia, CV-22
Layer
H&N
Brown, White
Broiler
Cobb
Layer
Brown, White, Black
Turkey
Hybrid Turkeys
500, 700, Avian 48, Sasso Brown + White - ISA, Babcock, Hisex, Dekalb, Brown + White + Black - Bovans, Shaver, Converter, Diamond White Medium, Grade Marker, XL
Traditional chicken, turkey, guinea fowl
Caringa
Caringa chicken, turkey, guinea fowl
Layer
Tetra
SL, Harco, Super-Harco, Blanca, Amber, Tint, HB Color, H
Broiler
Hubbard
Classic, Flex, Yield, Color
Layer
Novogen
Novogen Brown, Brown light, White, White light
Grimaud Fréres
Roast duck, Mulard duck, Barbarie duck, meat goose, liver goose, pigeon, guinea fowl, turkey
Cherry Valley
PM 3
EWG Group - Aviagen Group
EWG Group – H&N International Cobb-Vantress
Hendrix Genetics
Bábolna Tetra Group Grimaud - Hubbard Group Grimaud - Novogen Group Grimaud Cherry Valley
Turkey
Waterfowl, pigeon, guinea fowl, turkey, rabbit Roast duck
308, 708, PM3 AA Plus IR Meat 300 6, 7, 9, 10, Premium
Poultry breeding companies provide their partners with a management recommendation (Management Guide or Manual) for keeping, production and feeding their hybrids placed on the market, which include recommendations from the poultry house design to the desirable composition of the compound feed. They also publish the hybrid’s available production indexes. Of course, besides the production levels given in the management technology, the practical and achievable results, the production cycle on which the poultry plans and feeding are based. In the introductory part of the management recommendations, it is usually a recurring phrase, „the hybrid is capable of producing its genetic ability, if the technological and nutrition conditions described are fully provided”. It is, of course, advisable to take these standards into consideration, but it must be keep in mind that some of their points contain too high requirements and expectations and sometimes have to compromise solutions in everyday life. Since achieving targeted results, including economic
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Survey of the objectives of poultry production performance, is usually a measure of moderation, you should work with external experts, technologists, veterinary and nutrition specialists in the given subject who help you find this. Agrofeed’s advisory staff will help develop a technology, poultry health and feeding practice, creating the right compromise to reach the desired production targets but it does not cost unnecessarily the production!
Broiler fattening The most important sector of poultry farming is broiler fattening, which provides a significant proportion of poultry meat production. As a result of genetic development, the fattening period is getting shorter, and fattening period is now 29-45 days, differently to markets. The production data reported in the manuals (genetic potential, also shown in the following table) do not calculate the 3-5% mortality rate of the practice, so they are also idealistic. However, it has been proven that the average weight of 2.2 kg required by the dominant markets is within 40 days. Some processing plants requiring a higher bodyweight (2,8-3,2 kg) for higher meat yield (breast and thigh fillet) and this trend is growing in the more developed countries (higher rates of further processed and cooked products). At the same time, in many markets the small weight (1.42.0 kg) of broilers is preferred. The feather of broilers is predominantly white, which feature is a prerequisite for good quality mechanical plucking. The best-known broiler hybrids that are marketed are Ross, Cobb and Hubbard. As hatched broilers required technological bodyweight and feed conversion expectation Ross 308 Cobb 500 Life days Bodyweight Feed conver- Bodyweight Feed convergram sion kg/kg gram sion kg/kg 32 1.863 1,488 1.895 1,478 35 2.144 1,548 2.191 1,530 38
2.429
1,604
2.482
1,589
42
2.809 3.091
1,687 1,747
2.857 3.136
1,675 1,739
45
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There are already feather-sex broiler combinations available today, and in some places, there is sex-separated broiler fattening, whereby the males are fatted for longer time to achieve higher breast meat yield. In the last decade, have been developed broiler hybrid combinations that have a growth potential less than intensive broilers, with an average live weight of about 2.0 to 2.2 kg only for 7 weeks. Typical representatives of „color broiler” are for example Aviagen-Rowan Range, Hendrix-Sasso, Hubbard-ISA. Their meat patterns are good, the processing yield is also favorable, and a certain, not too large segment of buyers turns to them. Part of this process is the free-range poultry system created by the French Label Rouge program, where the adjusted slowgrowth birds are grown up to 81 days old, reaching the weighing weights of about 1.8 kg. The fattening poultry sector is thus „colored” in every sense. As there is a need for large numbers of broilers (billions) in the market, so the broiler breeder (parent stock) production is considered a separate sector, because not all poultry producers integrate the entire production line (vertically integrated poultry production). The broiler breeder management and feeding are not an easy task, since birds with high development strength must be able to achieve high egg production and proper reproduction with skillfully applied feed retention programs (feed dosage, feed content, light restrictions, management methods). For this, it is not enough to comply with the technological recommendation in a numerical way, it is also necessary to have specific feed formulation and nutritional composition. Typical production parameters for broiler breeders Production parameters Ross 308 Cobb 500 Start of egg production From 23rd Iife week From 24th Iife week Production period 40 weeks 42 weeks Age at the end of egg 62. life week 65. life week production Total egg number per hen 183,8 181,3 housed (HH) Total hatching egg number per 175,8 176,3 hen housed Number of day old chicks (23rd 146,1 150,9 week housing) Hatchability % 86,3 85,6 Livability % 92 92,3
Commercial layer egg production Although the first egg hybrids originated from the white Leghorn variety, later Rhode-Island type hybrids producing brown-shelled eggs became very common. The popularity of brown and white shelled eggs varies from market to market, while brown is more popular in Europe. White shell eggs in the USA are dominant (although brown egg ratio started to grow), as in many Middle Eastern coun-
"AGROFEED PLUS" Poultry Feeding Progr am
Survey of the objectives of poultry production tries. At present, around 40 differently specified laying hybrids are marketed in the world, but six layer-breeder companies dominating the whole market (Hendrix Genetics, H&N International, Hy-Line, Lohmann, Group Grimaud-Novogen and Bábolna Tetra). Commercial layer typical production parameters Production parameters
Lohmann Lohmann Hy-Line Hy-Line Tetra-SL TetraBrown LSL Classic Classic Brown W-36 Long Life Blanca
Feather color brown white brown white Egg shell color brown white brown white Age at 50% egg produc140-150 140-150 140-150 140-150 tion - days Egg production – hen housed (HH) Up to 80 weeks of age 355-360 360-365 360-365 359-368 Up to 90 weeks of age 400-410 407-412 405-415 … Egg weight 62,9 63,1 63-64 63,4 gram Daily feed intake - gram 110-120 105-115 105-110 95-100
brown brown
white white
143-145 143-145
360.365 355-360 405-415 400-405 64,5
Turkey growing As a result of the genetic selection in the meat production of hybrid turkeys astonishing development has been shown over the last decades. Today, the turkey fattening sector is not only popular in the Anglo-Saxon countries USA, Great Britain, Canada) but in Brazil, Russia, Germany, Italy, Poland and Hungary as well. Three poultry breeding companies bidding each other year after year with new weight records. Turkey feeding is not simple, appropriate phase-feeding is needed, and must be taken into account, especially during the brooding period the risk factors (risk of digestive and respiratory diseases), which allow to follow the „promised” records of the breeding companies. Commercial turkey technological bodyweight and feed conversion expectations Species
Sex
62,8
108-117 100-105
The majority of egg hybrids begin egg laying on the 19th week of life, reaching 50% in the 21st week of life and has high peak production, which means over 95% of flock. Over the past period, the breeding goal has been getting longer, up to 16 months of economical production, good persistence, while providing excellent egg quality data (egg weight, egg shell color, egg shell strength, protein quality). An interesting market participant is the dual-purpose hybrid. Hybrid males showing good meat patterns in „backyard” conditions, and at the end of 7 to 11 weeks of growing end up with 1.2-2.1 kg of live weight, and the hens are able to produce 230-250 eggs. To produce one kg of egg mass, feed from 2.95 to 3.15 kg (cheaper quality) is required.
British United Turkey B.U.T. 6
British United Turkey B.U.T. 9
Hybrid Turkeys Converter
Hens
Toms
Hens
Toms
Hens
Toms
Feed conversion kg/kg
Life week
Bodyweight kg
Higher energy level
Lower energy level
14
9,09
2,26
2,51
16
10,74
2,45
2,73
18
12,22
2,65
2,97
18
17,90
2,32
2,57
20
20,39
2,49
2,78
22
22,80
2,69
3,01
14
8,68
2,26
2,50
16
10,25
2,45
2,73
18
11,16
2,64
2,96
18
17,08
2,32
2,57
20
19,45
2,49
2,77
22
21,75
2,70
3,01
14
9,45
2,06
2,24
16
10,82
2,26
2,50
18
11,91
2,49
2,78
18
18,70
2,22
2,48
20
21,09
2,44
2,73
22
23,24
2,67
2,99
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Survey of the objectives of poultry production The turkey feeding is basically determined by the length of fattening time, say the weight required by the market and the slaughterhouse, as well as the percentage of breasts yield that correlate with it.
Duck and goose fattening There are three different types of animals behind the word „duck”, which differ by species from each other. In addition to traditional duck or Pekin duck (Anas platyrhynchos), Muscovy duck (Cairina moschata) has a number of names, most often called Barbarie duck in the wake of its origin. The hybrid of the two species (Barbarie x Pekin) is the Mulard duck, which is mainly used in liver production today. Grimaud duck hybrids bodyweight, feed conversion and fatted liver production expectations Feed Fatted FatBodyconver- liver av. Species Ivar tening weight sion kg/ weight days kg kg gram 42 3,20 2,10 Pekin duck As hatched 49 3,60 2,35 56 3,95 2,60 Drake, white 84 4,50-4,70 2,55-2,65 feather Hen, white feather 70 2,50-2,60 2,55-2,65 Barbarie duck Drake, white 88 4,80-5,00 2,70-2,80 550 feather Hen, white feather 70 2,50-2,60 2,55-2,65 As hatched, white 84 4,15-4,25 3,70-3,80 570-610 feather Mulard duck As hatched, color 91 4,45-4,65 4,00 600-630 feather
The young age growth potential of the Pekin ducks is high, their resistance is excellent and utilizing well the cheaper feed. Their disadvantage is the fat deposition, though it also contributes to their taste. In the case of Barbarie (Muscovy) we get high-quality, low-fat meat, but the big sex dimorphism (the drake is almost twice as big as the hen) is the problem here. French cuisine likes the small, great-tasting Barbarie hen, but many
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other countries’ producer contempt due to its poor liver production ability. Perfection in this respect is Mulard duck, in which the disadvantages of the two „relatives” have been eliminated. Duck liver - the fatted liver of Barbarie and Mulard duck - is a popular ingredient of liver pâté, as it is easier to produce and cheaper than goose liver. The Mulard duck’s ability to grow liver hardly leaves the goose and, in terms of economy, it outweighs it. The range of duck liver producers is narrowed to some countries, dominated by France. We keep the goose for meat, feathers and fatted liver, since basically every product in the world market is very favorable, even though sometimes the price waves and „animal welfare” dig it. Goose requires protein rich feed only in younger ages and in the period of egg production. Due to their physiological characteristics, the geese use the fibrous plant feed more efficiently than other poultry species. Therefore, their primary feed can be based to plants that can be produced in bulk and inexpensive. As a result of force-feeding (compulsive feeding), the liver of the genetically susceptible goose is enlarged and the liver cells become fattened. With the force-feeding it is ingested well-utilized corn carbohydrates, the liver produces neutral fat, but during fattening, not only fat, but also protein incorporated, creating goose liver, the most valuable poultry product. Liver production capacity is an important measure of value. It is a complicated and complex quality with a wide range of influences, but feeding is of paramount importance. Many species of duck and goose hybrids, including domestic breeds, are kept in production, but it is worth looking at the production indicators somehow on a „common ground”, so we gave the production expectations of the French Grimaud waterfowl breeding company. The production expectations of the poultry species and hybrids, described above, show well that the intensity of production is very wide and the farming
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Survey of the objectives of poultry production
technology extends from the extensive conditions to the most modern closed and automated large-scale farms. Accordingly, technology incorporates the breeding company’s feed recommendations, which give the most important parameters numerically, often between two values. Each breeding company seeks to provide nutrition recommendations tailored to idealized production performance (under optimum production and management conditions), which are often of the idealized nutritional value, which is not always followed by economic considerations and lower production yields than standard. Grimaud goose hybrids bodyweight, feed conversion and fatted liver production expectations FatBody Feed Liver averSpetening weight conversion age weight cies days kg kg/kg gram Roast and meat goose
Liver goose
Intensive
63
5,10
3,30
Extensive
115
6,30
4,40
9
4,60
3,05
11
5,20
3,25
16-19
7,00
Brooding, intensive Brooding extensive Force feeding time, intensive Force feeding time, extensive
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In the Agrofeed poultry business branch, we have developed a number of special premixes and compound feed recommendations for different poultry species and hybrids:
• •
700 7,50
The very high cost ratio (60-70%) of compound feed within the production expenses, however, justifies the special attention of the preparation of most cost-effective compound feed formulations and feed stages, which best suits to species, production objectives and farm management conditions. This is done by Agrofeed’s sales and service staff, including maintenance due to raw material and/or price changes.
800
Of course, all poultry breeding and commercial producer companies rely on the experience of their managers and specialists, which in practice make use of a very wide range of premix and compound feed formulations. Almost everyone insists on their own „well-proven” recipe, which in principle could be justified by a wide range of ingredients, but the technological differences, management conditions and the technical possibilities of feed mills (mixers) do not justify too many premix formulations. It is not justified that the premix and compound feed need of poultry hybrids largely deviate in two adjacent place or counties.
• • • • •
Broiler breeder and commercial broiler premixes, compound feeds and feed additives (specially designed for Cobb, Ross and Hubbard hybrids), Commercial layer breeder and layer premixes, compound feeds and feed additives according to the needs of different hybrids (Tetra, Hysex, Hy-Line, Lohmann, etc.) Turkey breeder and commercial premixes, compound feeds and feed additives (BUT, Hybrid, Nicholas), Meat and liver duck premixes, compound feeds and feed additives, Meat and liver goose premixes, compound feeds and feed additives, Special poultry (free-range, organic, LabelRouge) premixes and compound feeds (broiler, layer, guinea fowl, quail, ostrich), Rabbit premixes, compound feeds and feed additives.
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The poultry farm management situation
The poultry farm management situation The technological capacity and standard of poultry farm
feed. Ignoring them poses a risk that could jeopardize the overall efficiency of poultry production.
Modern poultry production takes place mainly in closed poultry houses and farms. For the successful operation it is essential to have the correct and reasonable design of farms, houses, the use of state-of-the-art technology, thoughtful operation and management. The change of poultry flocks should be done according to a well-planned rotation, so the farm could be properly prepared to receive the new day old (rearing) flock.
Companies marketing poultry and hybrids provide accurate and detailed management technologies and nutrition recommendations to their partners. These appear less frequently in printed form, but the on-line access to the current technology data is rather accessible. Typically, they will be renewed every 3-5 years, so do not routinely rely on the feed standard values set out in the previous recommendation.
Although the poultry company’s experts usually have proper experience, it is worth thinking about what to do related to the particular poultry breed, hybrid, age group and utilization direction. It is advisable to coordinate the biological (breeding, management, feeding, veterinary), technological, technical, financial, work organization and management factors for efficient and economical production. The operation of poultry farms is determined by the production target and the utilization direction. On this basis, breeding and commercial farms are distinguished. Poultry houses may be buildings used for other purposes that have been adapted to their intended purpose, or are modern buildings designed only for poultry farming. Regardless of what technology we are talking about, there are workflows that are always consistent, and their exact and prescribed performance is indispensable. It is important to emphasize that there are technological specifications that must be kept very seriously in keeping with any number of poultry flock and technology. These are the standards and rules for poultry health and for the quality composition of compound
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Broiler breeder management The keeping of broiler breeder flocks requires more specialized knowledge, the main aspects of which are to be highlighted.
•
Poultry breeder flock keeping requires special knowledge of management and operating knowledge, • Animal health requirements are stricter, because of the great value as well, • The reproduction work is carried out only with the permission and advice of the „parent” company, • Most of the poultry technology solutions are deep-litter (scraping area) and slat-system. • The modern poultry houses are equipped with an automatic nest system, which provides hygienic collection of eggs with less labor demand. The investment is high but can be maintained higher flock density than in deep-litter houses and the hygienic benefits are also significant. Broiler breeder flock management is typically two-phase system, females rearing takes place till 1820 weeks old and then flock moved to the production farm where finishing rearing and preparation for egg
"AGROFEED PLUS" Poultry Feeding Progr am
The poultry farm management situation production and typically 38 to 40 weeks of egg production take place. This is the best solution for both hygiene and space, special technology utilization. Poultry flock density depends on one or two stages being raised, but the modernity of technology is a key determinant. Care must be taken to comply with the stocking density recommendations. Do not make the mistake of overcrowding the flock for better use of space, which is harmful to animal health, the quality of the litter is worse, and the breeding egg is more contaminated. It is a fundamental question of how the ventilation of the building, the feeding and drinking system, and how is solved the egg collection. The optimum temperature for breeding animals is 18 to 20 °C, although the production is still smooth between 5 and 25 °C. The recommended sex ratio is usually 1 cock: 10 hens, but here also account for the potentially different recommendations of the breeding company. Lighting program is a very important technology item, all kinds of poultry have an accurate lighting technology description, and deviation from this may result in reduced production. Heating is essential at the brooding and partly in the growing stage, its level depending on the season. The temperature requirement of day old chick is 32 °C, which can be provided by room heating or some local heaters (electric or gas brooders, infrared lamps). The most advanced feeding equipment is fully automated. The feed restriction of broiler breeders, limitation of body weight, the precise execution of restricted feeding is a complicated task that requires great care. Automated solutions are
already available to implement this, but care should be taken to ensure that the application of less feed than breeder’s age-related demand is reducing production, while the higher rate than demand can cause obesity, which may lead to a reduction in production beyond the extra cost of luxury feed consumption. In addition to the feeding system and dosing of feed, feed quality is the determining factor. The demands of the hybrids may differ, the instruction of the breeding company should be studied and followed for feeding, as this is the only way to expect the animals to produce the described and expected production performance. The detailed specifications for the feed nutritional values are contained in the appendices to the breeding technology recommendations. These considerations are taken into account by Agrofeed’s specialists in premix and compound feed recipes and recommendations, along with the partner’s production conditions and objectives, raw material potential, inventory and nutrition concepts
Broiler management technology Precise cleaning and disinfection between poultry flocks (service period) has utmost importance for all species and varieties, but the recurrent changes of broiler flocks (meat duck flocks) make this even more necessary. The day-old chicks always have to be housed in thoroughly cleaned and carefully disinfected (only a clean surface can be effectively applied), littered and heated poultry house, in which also disinfected feeders and drinkers are uploaded with fresh feed and drinking water.
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The poultry farm management situation The new flock should be protected from the previous flock’s and the outside world’s pathogens, so cleaning should cover the environment of the building and other facilities on the site as well. Compliance with the biosecurity control regulations is also justified for commercial farms. The poultry farm must be enclosed by a fence with a lockable gate at the entrance of the fence, and at the entrance of the biosecurity building and the poultry houses hand and foot disinfection devices have to be placed. Rodents and wild birds should not be allowed into the buildings. Poultry pests (rodents, litter beetles, flies, poultry mites in breeder and commercial layer flocks) should be extinguished or kept away by modern methods. Housing in „all in-all out” system, with a one-age flocks (maximum 5-7 days age different, also on large farms) is indispensable to avoid the infection chain. The most effective biosecurity measure is to allow the least possible number of visitors to the farm (proper biosecurity design is required), even after showering and close changing. Pay special attention to the handling of dead bird. Keep in mind that one of the most effective tools to prevent poultry farm problems is the autopsy (postmortem examination). This gives you a comprehensive picture of the poultry health status of the farm. A „lesion-scoring” method for controlling the efficiency of coccidiosis prevention program, subclinical coccidiosis and necrotic enteritis is also a frequently used diagnostic tool. The litter and its management are important for the health of broilers, for the prevention of leg problems and for the prevention of breast blister. The demand for litter is to be dry, flexible, absorbent, mold-free, but of course its cheapness is a consideration too. It is frequent
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litter material the chaffed wheat straw (recently pellets) and softwood shaving. The effective heating of broiler house is important to satisfy the chicken heat requirement to maintain a good microclimate. This goal can be achieved by airand brooder heating, or a combination of both, depending on local conditions. The harmony between heating and ventilation is important; ventilation must be started continuously, but with little air change to avoid heat loss. Energy saving is mandatory, but beyond the boundaries it has an adverse effect on growing, so it is necessary to ventilate and heat up to meet the biological needs. Ventilation is important to comply with oxygen demand of fast growing broilers, without that there is no proper body weight gain. The ventilation is rarely natural, with gravitational method air exchange, more typical of artificial one (top ventilation, pressure cross ventilation, tunnel ventilation). In the course of artificial ventilation with the regulation of fans and air inlets providing the proper air changing and air speed. Light, lighting stimulates biological processes, the good light program improves, and bad one decreases production results. Chicken requires light in the yellow-red range, this requirement can be met more by conventional bulbs than with old fluorescent lights. In addition to the color, the brightness and the duration of lighting also influence production. Feeding high-growth broilers, providing the right nutrition for their age is one of the most critical points of management technology. It is no coincidence that the feeding of meat hybrids is one of the key areas of nutrition research and development, which, of course, is also justified by the industry’s leading role. In the first
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The poultry farm management situation week of growing, transport chick boxes, feeding trays or feeder strips can be used to feed chickens, but use the feeders at the end of the first week of life, and then use only the feeders at the end of the second week of life to ensure the proper feeding surface.
weight the four-phase feed line (2.4-2.8 kg / broiler) is recommended. In the case of higher body weight fattening, it is advisable to use the five-phase feed line to better serve the specific needs of the chicks and to provide stronger growth at the beginning of fattening.
Always raise the feeders to the level of the chicken back height, so that the chicken does not go in, the the feeding is more hygienic and there is less feed spillage. In broiler feed, with the exception of finishing feed, there are medicinal products for preventive purposes, typically coccidiostats, but they are only excreted from the chicken’s body after a certain period of time. This time is the waiting time, which is mandatory. The chicken sold to slaughter within the waiting period is confiscated because of the detectable drug residue, and the grower suffering a great loss.
Naturally, the nutrient content, composition and quality of the raw materials used in the feed line influence the use of feed phases, therefore, in the context of the specific fattening program, it is necessary to decide on the composition and application of the feed line in consultation with the nutritionist.
The required feed should be ordered in time for the flock, which the expected feed consumption knowledge is needed. The feed consumption of broilers is influenced over and above by the weight and fattening days, the breed, the weather, the health status of the flock and the nutrient content and quality of the feed. The table below will help you calculate the expected feed consumption, but of course, every farm needs to clarify this on a daily basis. Based on the length of broiler fattening, the body weight to be achieved and the technological characteristics of feed mill we can designate how many phases of broiler feed we wish to use. In daily practice, the use of three-phase and four-phase feed lines is common. For a smaller fattening weight (2.0-2.4 kg / broiler), the three-phase feed can be used as well, with a higher body
Feed line
Three-phase
Use day gram day gram
Four-phase
day gram day gram
Five-phase
day gram day gram
In many countries, common practice is the feeding of broilers with grain cereals, most of all wheat (or with scrambled corn). In the starting phase it is not used, besides the growing feed, its proportion is continuously increased to 10% and the finishing feed is 15%. It can be fed even higher in the principle (20-30%), but in this case it is absolutely necessary to increase the concentration of the compound feed. The water need of broilers depends on many factors, so the temperature, the composition of the feed, the salt content, so just only the average water consumption data can be calculated. Modern broiler breeds water consumption is higher than that of previous hybrids. It is advisable, depending on the drinking system to drink day-old chicks from special chick drinkers, but from the second week of life let’s get used to the drinking system and the removal of chick’s drinkers should be done continuously. In large scale broiler farms, where nipple drinking system has been installed, the use of day old chick drinkers is unnecessary.
Prospective feed consumption from different broiler feed lines Prestarter Starter Grower I. Grower II. Finisher 38 days fattening time, 2,30 kg body weight, 1,69 kg/kg feed conversion (FCR) 0-10 11-24 25-38 300 1250 2300 40 days fattening time, 2,50 kg body weight, 1,70 kg/kg feed conversion (FCR) 0-10 11-24 27-40 300 1250 2700 40 days fattening time, 2,60 kg body weight, 1,71 kg/kg feed conversion (FCR) 0-10 11-24 25-35 36-40 300 1250 1800 1100 42 days fattening time, 2,70 kg body weight, 1,75 kg/kg feed conversion (FCR) 0-10 11-24 25-35 36-42 300 1250 1800 1400 42 days fattening time, 2,80 kg body weight, 1,77 kg/kg feed conversion (FCR) 0-6 7-14 15-23 24-32 33-42 130 400 900 1350 2200 44 days fattening time, 2,95 kg body weight, 1,82 kg/kg feed conversion (FCR) 0-6 7-14 15-23 24-32 33-44 130 400 900 1350 2600
Total 38 3850 40 4250 40 4450 42 4750 42 4980 44 5380
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The poultry farm management situation Typical water consumption of Ross 308 broilers at 21 °C, liter / 1,000 birds per day Life age days 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56
Nipple drinkers without cups Male Female As hatched 62 58 61 112 101 106 181 162 171 251 224 237 309 278 293 350 320 336 376 349 363 386 365 374
Nipple drinkers with cups Male Female As hatched 66 61 65 119 107 112 192 172 182 267 238 252 328 296 311 372 340 357 400 371 386 410 388 398
Pay attention to the cleaning and disinfection of the drinkers. The broilers get drinking water, so if the water is not suitable for human consumption, so for poultry is not appropriate. In this case water cleaner system must be used on the broiler farm. Practical Water Consumption calculation At 21 °C (70 °F), birds consume enough water if the ratio between the water (liter) and the weight of the feed consumed (kg) is as follows.
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1,8:1 for bells, 1,7:1 nipple drinking system with cups, 1,6:1 nipple drinking system without cups. Find the balance of production objectives, farm conditions and current situation, and feeding intensity for the most economical poultry meat production! Agrofeed’s sales and consultant staff is available to prepare the most effective feeding solution together with our customers.
Production manual for commercial layers Egg production is nowadays with high-yielding brown or white egg layer hybrids worldwide, typically using cage technology. Farmers can also count on the hybrid breeding company’s in technology, management, nutrition and veterinary recommendations. The chosen technology is determined by the production volume, the financial sources, the production objective, and of course, utilization of the existing capacities. The regulation of the commercial layer cage system has been changed in the European Union significantly, thanks to the pressure of the animal protectors and the „greens”. In addition to reducing the flock density, the cage design has also changed and the alternative systems (free-range, manure pit, volier, deep-litter) have also come to the fore. 28
Male 70 126 203 283 347 394 423 434
Bell-type drinkers Female As hatched 65 68 113 119 182 193 252 266 313 329 360 378 392 409 410 421
Among the commercial layer hybrids, the middle-sized (brown-egg-producing) and smaller (white egg-producing) hen hybrids can be distinguished. The different regions and markets usually stick to one egg shell color, according to the traditions, customer’s demand, although on many markets has started keeping both egg shell color layers. The weight of hybrids producing brown-eggs, as a result of selection, nowadays having lower bodyweight (1.90-2.10 kg), feed consumption for high quality feed is 110-115 g / hen. White egg hybrids are smaller in bodyweight (1.60-1.80 kg) and daily feed consumption is 102-105 grams. The laying hybrid’s management technology can be divided into two phases, the growing phase is generally 15-16 weeks, then started pullets are moved to laying farm (or houses, if growing is separated). It is important that the pullets have a proper body weight to start egg production in time (19th week). The „usual” egg production period was 52 weeks, but the 70-80 production weeks is also common today, and many producers use the moulting and the second egg production cycle (24-30 second phase production weeks). Egg collection can be fully automated with a conveyor belt for cage system. It is very important the compliance of lighting programs. Only with the right lighting program we can achieve peak production. Usually, during the growing phase, it is necessary heating the houses. The demand for day-old chicks at housing is 32 °C, which gradually can be decreased to 18-20 °C. Even in the production period, this is the optimal temperature, although the production is still smooth between 5 and 25 °C. In the winter the extremely cold, in the summer the heatwaves can cause problems. We can defend it against the cold by
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The poultry farm management situation “winterization” of the building. Locking and isolation of sealing chimneys, windows, air inlets is required. Care should be taken to ensure that the water pipes do not freeze in cold weather. It is even more difficult to protect against heat, even at normal temperature, depending on the closeness of the building, while the bird number of housing can be determined by the ventilation capacity. For closed stables, artificial ventilation should be provided between 5-7 cubic meter of air changes per kilogram body weight per hour. Significant technological changes have been made in the past on the laying hen husbandry systems. Cage system laying hens have been subject to strict regulations in accordance with the EU’s new guidelines, based on the „EU norm”, Decree 32/1999. (III.31.) FVM Decree. In cage, a hen of at least 750 cm² should be provided, 600 cm² of which can be used, and the height of the cage above the usable area is at least 20 cm at each point. The total area of the cage must be at least 2,000 cm². Each cage has to be a nest, a scratching space and a litter picking, and a minimum 15 cm long perch per hen. For each hen has to be provided 12 cm long feed trough, and each cage, according to the size of the group, must have at least 2 nipples or cups for each hen. There must be at least 90 cm wide corridor between the tier of cages, with a minimum space of 35 cm between the floor and the bottom cage. Cages should also be fitted with appropriate claw-shortening devices. The proper design of the battery technology should ensure that all tier of cages and individual cages are monitored and the birds can be removed faultless. In buildings, adequate lighting should be provided for all hens and the luminous intensity of the lighting system must be adjustable. Cages must be equipped with a suitable escape prevention system. The cage door should be so wide that removing an adult laying hen does not cause unnecessary suffering or permanent damage. The insulation and ventilation of the poultry house provides a suitable climate condition, in particular with regard to the degree and concentration of airflow, temperature, relative humidity, carbon dioxide, ammonia and other gases. In the poultry house, workers have to walk around at least once a day, remove the dead birds and check whether feeding and drinking systems ensure continuous and adequate feeding and drinking water. In
the event of a ventilation malfunction, the air inlets are automatically opened by help of installed accumulators in the winching system. A backup power source must be provided in case of power failure. An alarm system is installed in the buildings, which in case of power failure, high or low temperature transmits a beep, or sends a message in a more modern way. As an intermediate solution to the deep litter and the cage system, we also know the buildings built with a variety of manure pit system. In this case, most of the manure is placed into the pit, thus closing the animal away from most of its waste, thereby increasing the density of the building can be increased. In Europe, the volier system (shelf-like in the bird’s space) is gradually spread, whereby the most important thing is that birds are free to move around in the four activity zones (feeding / drinking, rest, laying, scratching). For zones to be found and properly used by the birds, it is necessary that growing of birds be carried out in a similar system. During the first 4-5 weeks of life, the pullets are raised on the basic level of volier, raising the second and third levels by increasing the space requirement, by means of supporting movement between the floors with special tools (podium, ladder, etc.). Animals are accustomed location of feeding, resting and scratching levels, and later they need to learn only the use of nests. There are several versions of volier systems. The traditional, closed house system can be supplemented with “winter-garden” (an additional area with a roof and grate) and a free-range movement space can be formed, where birds can go outdoors under suitable conditions. In addition to the closed housing system of commercial layers, only with satisfaction of the hen’s nutrient demand can only produce on the expected level. If we do not adequately supply the nutrient needs, it reduces the flock production. For hybrids producing brown egg, the tendency to gain weight also makes the situation even more difficult, so we must take care to avoid unnecessary feeding. Therefore, always feed on the requirements of the breeding company, based on the exact nutrition requirements of the animals.
The aspects of the preparation of compound feed and premix formulations In addition to the above-described production objectives and circumstances, the knowledge of feeding recommendation for the breed, the raw material base of the customer, the production possibilities of the proper feed mixing, are also required for the feeding concept adapted to the production level and expectations.
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The poultry farm management situation Recipe optimization (nutrient content and price), the compilation and negotiation of the feed line for the production of poultry with the customer is the next important step, in determining the feed adapted to the company, farm (content, mixing formula and feed price), recommended feeding times and feed dosages.
The compilation of the poultry compound feed formulas takes into account the most important physiological and nutritional parameters of poultry species and utilization
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In preparing the recipe, we observe the physiological characteristics of poultry.
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In the case of poultry species, ad libitum feeding is widely used, which plays a decisive role in the actual feed intake of various poultry species, hybrids, age groups and types of utilization and the various factors influencing it. Changes in feed intake, of course, justifying the modification of the nutrition composition, as it is otherwise common in practice, for example in the period of heat stress, • The digestive tract of bird species is short, the feed passage time is fast, therefore poultry species require concentrated, well-digestible feed. The utilization of different industrial by-products is less, and the exact knowledge of the anti-nutritive content in feed and the effect of digestive supportive feed additives is greater than in case of other monogastric species, • In recent years, a large number of research findings have emerged on the role of microflora in the gut of bird species, which has a decisive influence on the production results of poultry flocks but its role has to be taken into account also in the energy and protein evaluation of feeds. The ban on antibiotic growth promoters in the European Union has even more appreciated the importance of these research, For poultry species, nutrients leaving the urine and faeces together are excreted into the cloaca. In addition to the digestive tests based on fecal samples, in recent years the ileal digestive coefficients for poultry species have also been increasingly used.
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The performance of different varieties and hybrids changes very rapidly. Clarification of needs is a continuous task for professionals, Due to the relatively low profitability ratio of the poultry industry, the reduction of feed direct cost, which is a significant part of the expenses, is of decisive importance. Therefore, the creation of extensive and continuously updated databases of raw materials, the use of rapid testing methods such as NIR and the introduction of quality assurance systems have been evaluated.
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Digestibility of feed - a serious digestive disorder can occur if partially digested nutrients pass through the intestine to the lower intestinal tract. The accumulation of protein in the back intestinal tracts is an excellent medium for poultry disease pathogens. Minimizing undigested nutrients improves the intestinal microflora balance. Feed additives (fermentation products) can help the poultry nutrient digestion, thereby reducing the undigested nutrient in the lower intestinal tract, Fertility and hatchability – adequate supplying the mineral of breeding poultry flocks helps to promote fertility, hatchability and quality of the day-old-chick. In particular, the appropriate selenium supply is critical, which is a component of the antioxidant selenium proteins, which plays a critical role in the reproduction period. Males, especially during the second half of the production period, are of paramount importance for the protection of reproductive organs and the quality of sperm. Eggs ensure the protection and nutrition of the embryo during its development, so that the supply of minerals to the hens has a positive effect on egg formation and increases the chance of hatching viable chicks, Egg quality - this in principle means to the consumer (safe, healthy and affordable), the trader (an attractive or added value product) and the producer (producing quality eggs profitable), which is influenced by regulations (egg management, egg washing ban). Egg shell strength is also an important aspect, since broken eggs cannot be sold, Meat quality - the basic purpose of poultry meat production is the production of quality and healthy meat and meat products. In meat products, the consumer, the trader and the meat producer, processor has different viewpoints and primary interest. In meat products, there is a serious problem with dripping loss (product weight loss and enjoyment depletion) and product oxidation (loss of storage time, product appearance), Intestinal tract integrity - poultry is only able to protect against diseases by healthy intestinal tract and digestion. Infection of the intestinal tract leads to the proliferation of pathogenic bacteria which can damage the surface of intestinal tract and this leads to a decrease in nutrient absorption and it leads to decreasing of resistance,
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The poultry farm management situation •
Cost and efficiency of feeding - efficient digestion and nutrient uptake ensures that poultry is „getting the most out of the feed”. This is especially important if we use inferior quality raw materials or by-products to make cheaper feed (pay attention to cost-benefit balance). It is important to improve the digestibility of the feed and thereby reduce the energy and phosphorus level, which will help to better growth and increase efficiency.
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Agrofeed’s poultry feeding specialists con-
tribute to the optimal and efficient production of our poultry farms by providing innovative poultry feed and premix recipes, whether it’s a panel, a premix, a complete premix, a concentrate or a prestarter feed. The nutritional requirements of poultry are determined by a large number of factors, as generally referred to in previous chapters.
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Genetics - different poultry species, breeds and hybrids have different average body weight and growth, production ability, and are able to absorb and utilize feed nutrients to varying degrees. Accordingly, they require different feed with different levels of nutrients. Since the genetic development of the poultry is unbroken, feed must follow this path continuously. This is why it is often renewed by the breeding companies their technology and nutrition recommendations, Age - the nutrient demand changes with weight and maturity parallel, Sex - the need for male and female poultry nutrition only differs slightly before maternity, so in practice it is fed with a „compromise” fever in mixed as hatched to achieve the desired body mass. After puberty, the demand for the females’ and males’ nutrients is significantly different, so it is advisable to feed them with different feeds, Reproductive status - the egg production level of hens, the sexual activity of males affects the nutrition requirement, Temperature of the environment - in cold weather, poultry need a higher energy supply to maintain proper body temperature, on the contrary, it requires a lower energy level in hot weather. The digestion of feeds involves heat production, the rate of which depends on the composition of the feed (also called thermal growth of the feed). This is taken into account and in colder weather the higher heat increases, while in hot weather they choose lower components,
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The design and technology of poultry house - the construction of the house is influencing to the activity of birds and thus their energy demand, The health status of the flock - may be beneficial to some components of the feed, especially the raising of the vitamin level, in the event of an illness or immunosuppressive effect, The production target - the optimal nutrient level of the feed and its composition varies according to the production target, such as body weight growth or composition of the processed body, egg production or egg mass. Breeding poultry flocks have to limit energy levels to limit body weight, prevent obesity, Feed Consumption - the nutrient intake of poultry depends on the nutrient level of the feed and the amount of feed consumed. Of course, feed intake can be influenced by a large number of nutrition, management and health factors.
Aspects of the cheapest compound feed compilation The feed industry uses a wide range of cost optimization software based on linear programming. During optimization, we provide the nutritional needs of animals to be based on the best possible use of the cheapest raw materials available. Optimization requires that the needs of the animal and the nutrient content of the feed are given in the same unit of measurement. A basic condition for linear programming is that do not be interaction between the various raw materials for the utilization of nutrients. When preparing the recipe, we assume that nutrients in the feed are summed up. This is mostly the case, but in some special cases, such as high fat, fiber or anti-nutritive materials, this is not always true. When preparing a recipe, it is an important goal to minimize the unit cost of compound feed. From this point of view, it is a factor of uncertainty that the price of nutrients in feeds can also vary considerably.
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Compilation of nutritional requirements for poultry feeds
Compilation of nutritional requirements for poultry feeds Basically, the compilation of poultry feed must provide the following basic nutrients.
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Carbohydrate - the most important source of energy for poultry feed, which is basically provided by grain seeds, Fat – required for the supply of energy and essential fatty acids (body structure), Protein - is needed to build up body tissues (especially muscle), physiological function (enzymes and hormones), feather and egg production. The protein is to a lesser extent an energy source, Vitamins - organic chemicals (carbons) in the control of the body’s processes and in small amounts to maintain normal health and growth, Minerals - inorganic chemicals that play a role in controlling body processes and maintaining normal health and growth, Water - water is a vital nutrient for life. Water consumption may be restricted by its higher temperature or foreign mineral content. Consumption of water and feed is interlinked and reduced water consumption automatically reduces feed intake. At higher ambient temperatures, water consumption increases (at 32 °C with 30-50% compared to the optimum 21 °C). Water intake is influenced by the type of drinker too. Human and animal health aspects are the most important factors affecting water quality: arsenic, bacterial contamination, nitrate, nitrite, chlorination byproducts, boron, lead, pesticides. Populations and livestock are frequently affected by the higher levels of arsenic and iron content than allowed by water.
Energy supply of poultry feed Energy and protein supply is the primary aspect of every nutrition program, which basically determines its success. The feed materials that feed’s energy producing are predominantly of plant origin, and their molecules cover their needs of sustainment and production of various products. In the dry matter of feed, carbohydrates are dominant, but their amount is minimal in the animal body, and the majority of the carbohydrates are used for energy production.
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The transformation of nutrients in feed is an energy-intensive process. Increasing the feed energy level will improve the weight gain and feed conversion results. Hens eat less from higher energy feed, so the economy of egg production can be improved. Energy enrichment is mostly done by adding oil. There are technical constraints on this, since the possibility of oil delivery, and there are financial constrains as well, as vegetable oils are expensive. High technical level feed mixing plants are preferred, where there are two ways to add the oil to the feed (mixing or spraying the finished granule).
Energy evaluation of poultry feed Energy evaluation is a difficult task in poultry feeding. In the case of poultry species, the energy unit used worldwide is the metabolizable energy (ME) due to the combined emptying of faeces and urine. During the digestion of bird, the gas formation is minimal and the effect of different poultry feed on the heat production of birds is equally stable. Therefore, the metabolizable energy can be considered to be a plausible and sufficiently precise unit. For estimating ME content of poultry feed and raw materials, we generally use chemical analytical parameters and combinations thereof. From this point of view, the estimation of the energy content of feed and feed raw materials is separate. For feeds, the digestibility of nutrients varies between relatively narrow limits, and the accuracy of the estimation equations is significantly higher. However, the digestibility values may vary considerably in the raw materials. The determination of the energy content is complicated, direct measurement is practically impossible, however, good equations are available for estimating them. In the case of feeds in the European Union countries, the „EEC” equation (Fischer and McNab, 1987) was adopted based on the fat, protein, starch and sugar content of the nutrients.
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Compilation of nutritional requirements for poultry feeds AMEn (MJ/kg) = 0,3431x crude fat% + 0,1551 x crude protein% + 0,1669 x starch% + 0.1301 x total sugar% This is a „compromise” equation for compound feeds. To calculate the energy content of each raw materials, formulas have been developed for individual or base raw material groups, which are summarized in a previously published table (European Table of Energy Values for Poultry Feedstuffs, 1989). The basis of the calculations is that for a given feed, standard nutrient composition has been determined by a large number of tests, to determine the digestibility factors of each nutrient. If the fat or fiber content in our available feed is different, then the formula results in a higher or lower value. Some raw materials also have regression equations that calculate results directly from the raw test results. These equations are already built into modern computer optimization programs for feed mills.
Improve energy utilization with enzyme supplements In order to improve the utilization of the energy content of feed, the feed industry uses a variety of feed additives. They also have a beneficial effect, primarily resulting in a better supply of starch energy by various hydrothermal processes. Enzymes given to the feed, particularly carbohydrate decomposers, play an important role in poultry feeding. Their use in wheatand barley-based diets is more or less common with broilers and turkeys, as improving the energy content of wheat or barley can also improve the digestibility of amino acids. Enzyme manufacturers are now additionally incorporating such a „matrix” for their products. Enzymes developed for maize-soy-based diets are also an important segment. The effects of enzymes used as feed additives should be taken into account in the feed evaluation. Among these, improving the digestibility of amino acids and energy supply raw materials is the most significant. Wheat-based diets can be improved the digestibility of fat using intestinal viscosity-reducing NSP-degrading enzymes. Enzyme preparations are likely to have a beneficial effect on the intestinal microflora. The positive effects of enzymes in the practice of feed manufacture are taken into account in several ways. All parameters remain unchanged, only reducing the power limit for the minimum energy. Alternatively, the energy level of ingredients can be increased in the context of enzyme supplements. The second of these two methods seem to be more accurate because it is possible to take into account the different effects of the enzymes on the raw materials.
Protein and amino acid supply of poultry feeds The amino acids available for the synthesis of poultry protein particles are partially derived from feed and are partially metabolic. This latter group includes amino acids derived from the continuous degradation of body proteins and synthesized in animal organisms. The use of feed proteins is conditioned by the degradation, absorption and secretion of amino acids in the intestinal tract to reach the protein synthesis site. Part of the amino acids are not utilized after absorption (after dezamination the amino group is converted to uric acid by excretion in the urine and the amino acid carbon chain is used as an energy source). The limit of utilization may be, for example, the lack of energy required for protein synthesis or the disproportion of the amino acid composition. Proteins are the most common organic compounds in the body, which account for nearly 74% of the body’s dry matter content. The basic function of feed proteins is to meet the protein and amino acid needs of animals. Due to the great growth potential of chicks, not only their energy but also their protein needs are significant. In the first weeks of their life, many proteins are incorporated into their body, unlike their energy demand, their protein needs are decreasing with age. If there is not enough protein in the animal feed, their production is reduced, their feed efficiency is worsening. Increased protein shortage may also reduce the animal’s resistance to disease, resulting in an increase in mortality. The amino acid and nitrogen supply of poultry species can be much more accurately assured than the energy needs of birds. In order to clarify the protein evaluation of feeds, consideration should be given to the following aspects.
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For the particular raw material or feed, the heat treatment procedures performed. This is important because of the inactivation of the various heat-labile anti-nutritive substances and the possible damage to the amino acid due to excessive heat treatment,
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The actual amino acid content of which at least five to seven amino acids should be included when formulating the recipe. In conventional optimization based on lysine and sulfur-containing amino acid levels, other amino acids may also limit the utilization of feed’s protein. At present, four amino acids
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Compilation of nutritional requirements for poultry feeds are available in crystalline form, such as methionine, lysine, threonine and tryptophan. Using these amino acids, the amino acid composition of the nutrients can be completed and the protein level of the feed can be reduced. However, the reduction is only possible to a certain level since the provision of non-essential amino acids is also essential. The use of crystalline amino acids makes feeds cheaper, but today it is increasingly important, from an environmental point of view, to reduce the nitrogen content of faeces,
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If adequate test data are not available, the amino acid content can be estimated from the protein content, this is a more accurate solution to the use of table amino acid values,
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The use of animal experimentally defined amino acid digestibility values for the widest possible range of feeds. During the practical feed manufacturing process, digestive amino acid levels are also taken into consideration when formulating according to bird’s demand,
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For these factors, it is inaccurate that the method of amino acid analysis is not uniform, and the results obtained are not comparable in all respects. The amino acid digestion coefficients may also vary with the same raw material, which differences can hardly be estimated. In the future, the poultry would also have a more accurate result if instead of faeces samples intestinal samples from the end of the ileum were used to calculate amino acid digestibility. Proteins are giant molecules that are made up of amino acids. The growth of the living organism presupposes the protein synthesis, in which the amino acids are linked by a genetically determined sequence. Some amino acids can be synthesized by the body, others are not, the latter being called „essential” or limiting amino acids. Essential amino acids can include the amino acids that the bird’s organism cannot produce from intermediate metabolites at all because it does not have the enzymes (transaminases) required. Examples include lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, tryptophan and threonine. Another group called semi-essential amino acids from their intermediate metabolic products can be produced by birds, but the degree of synthesis does not cover the need, so this should be „extracted” from the amount from the feed. This group includes, for example, arginine, histidine, leucine, valine, isoleucine, glycine and proline.
struction of the protein chain, which is not present in the „amino acid kit”, protein synthesis temporarily stops. If this is due to the absence of an essential amino acid, this amino acid should be intake with the feed because the missing amino acid limits the protein synthesis. This is the reason why limiting amino acids should be present in the feed in an appropriate amount. The semi-essential amino acids can be formed from an essential amino acid of similar structure. Cysteine can be produced from methionine, tyrosine from phenylalanine by the bird’s organization. The formation of cysteine is also possible from non-essential serine. Non-essential amino acids can be produced by the birds from their intermediate metabolites (alanine, serine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid) or other amino acids (glutamine, asparagine). The absence of major limiting amino acids can be replaced because they are produced by industrial scale, chemically synthesized or fermented. Methionine, lysine and threonine supplementation of poultry feeds have now become routine. In poultry feed, methionine is the primary limiting amino acid. Poultry meat and eggs are rich in methionine, but also needed in the development of feather. 80% of poultry feather is protein, 5% of this protein is cystine. Proteins of conventional feed contain only 1-2% cystine, but poultry can synthesize cystine from methionine in the body. Nowadays we know that the protein content itself is not sufficient because its amino acid composition is crucial and it is therefore necessary to optimize the feed to amino acid levels. However, in daily practice, the protein content is the number one indicator that is tested because it can be controlled in simpler laboratories. Amino acid tests are time consuming and cost-intensive. Larger feed mills rely on reliable spreadsheet data. For example, the European Amino Acid Table published in 1992 by WPSA published the average of the amino acid values measured in various European laboratories. Other tables are available and there is no significant difference between data for that group of materials. The method of considering the relative amino acid composition (amino acid / protein%) of the protein content for each group of substances is calculated by computing the amino acid content of the current protein containing substance (which is included in the optimization software, of course).
If protein amino acids are needed during the con-
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Compilation of nutritional requirements for poultry feeds Digestibility of amino acids For the determination of amino acid digestibility, the methods described above are used. The published values are basically based on amino acid testing of excreta samples. Depending on the correction with endogenous amino acid depletion, amino acid digestibility may also be seen as apparent or actual digestion coefficients. The European Table of Energy Potential for Poultry Feed (WPSA, 1989) contains protein digestibility values. Allegedly, Degussa AG’s tables are the most complete in terms of digestibility of amino acids. This table also includes estimation equations for the amino acid composition to be calculated from the protein content of the feed. The table shows actual fecal digestion coefficients. Also, useful tables were published by several other companies (Eurolysine, ADM, Rhone Poulenc Nutrition).
Minerals Calcium is the largest quantity of minerals in the body of birds. In the growing phase due to bone development, in the laying phase due to egg shell formation require more calcium the layer flocks in their compound feed. In addition, calcium plays an important role in many physiological processes. Its absorption from duodenum and jejunum is influenced by a number of factors. The higher the calcium content of the feed, the less absorption and vice versa, the lower concentration in feed increases the absorbing fraction. In young, fast growing birds, Ca’s utilization averages 60%, and then advances age to about 50%, which also accounts for the calcium utilization of laying hens. Lime supplementation of feed for laying hens is essential. Low or too high levels of Ca are both disadvantageous. It should also be taken into account that when the egg shell is formed, during the late afternoon and evening hours, the need for calcium of layers is greatest, when there is no feed consumption. That is why it is necessary that the addition of Ca be made with partially soluble coarse-grained limestone. Phosphorus has an important role in bone structure (16 to 17% of bone ash content) and in many physiological processes. Most of the phosphorus is also absorbed from the jejunum intestine by help of vitamin D3, such as in case of Calcium. The phosphorus content
of the feed is partly derived from feed raw materials. The addition is made with inorganic phosphates, which utilize good (80-100%), especially the monocalcium phosphate most commonly used. Content indicators considered for optimization Metabolizable energy MJ/kg Crude protein % Crude fat % Crude fiber % Lysine % -Digestible lysine % Methionine % -Digestible methionine % Methionine + cystine % -Digestible methionine + cystine % Threonine % -Digestible threonine % Tryptophan % -Digestible tryptophan % Calcium % Phosphorus - total % Phosphorus - available % Sodium %
However, the phytin bonds in vegetable origin raw materials the birds are not able to break, but the utilization is only 10-40%. Therefore, requirements need to be „double-accounted”, that is to say, in addition to all phosphorus content, available phosphorus content should also be defined, with reliable chart values being also available. Today, phytase enzyme supplementation has become commonplace, which improves not only phosphorus, but also the absorption of calcium and some microelements, and even slightly the digestibility of amino acids. It also has the advantage of reducing the emptying of large amounts of undigested, environmentally-charged phosphorus, which is also a strong environmental interest as well. The sodium content of plasma plays an important role in water balance, maintaining the osmotic balance. Poultry feed contains a small amount of sodium, so nutrition supplement is routine. Incomplete or surplus additions may have problems. Potassium is contained in sufficient quantities of poultry feed. Chlorine supplementation usually occurs in conjunction with sodium, in the form of a feed salt.
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Optimizing poultry feed recipes
Optimizing poultry feed recipes From the foregoing, it is understandable that the nutritional optimization of poultry feed (and, of course, premixes) for what reason is necessary and possible. The feed industry uses a wide range of cost optimization software based on linear programming. Most of them are sold by professional IT companies, their original denominations are „least cost formulation”, which offers the cheapest assembly solution from the available materials. To do this we need to balance the nutritional needs of the given poultry species on one side, on the other side, the nutritional value of the ingredients and of course their price. From now on, the task would be simple, but that is not the case. The cost of optimization programs is high, but with the cheapest feeding solution, you can save a lot of money, so the price of software can be recovered within a short time. However, this is only true if we use the right basic data and we are aware of the possible compromises on the basis of the large number of recipe optimizations.
Poultry nutritional requirements We have the nutrition recommendations of poultry breeding companies in which we find the main nutritional requirements and which are probably based on good research results. Based on these data and the experience of the producer, the premix company, it is advisable to prepare a customized recipe for the company. Of course, optimization should take into account the previously emphasized aspects such as the feed mill’s raw materials base, poultry breed and hybrid, production objectives and level. Occasionally, the proposed values are „over-insured”, that is the breeding company does not want to extend the nutritional framework providing performance, and even the nutritionist can be „cautious”, which together can cause significant additional costs. Often the specified levels are difficult to assure as the high energy level for broiler feeds, which often causes difficulties. In that case, the recipe should be converted based on experience. The nutrient values specified are already based on digestible amino acids, but its accuracy is questioned by many, and therefore it is difficult to accept protein level’s reduction while providing proper amino acid levels. Of course, the customer may have ideas based on his experience as well. Agrofeed’s poultry breeding specialists, based on their extensive international experience, are the right partners to determine the nutritional needs of the given farm, the poultry flock, and to optimize the compound feed nutrient content and feed mill mixing formulas.
Nutrient content of feed raw materials The nutritional values of feed raw materials for compound feed should be known for accurate recipe optimization. The most favorable is when fresh laboratory test results are obtained of the nutrient content of the raw materials will be mixed. This is also justified by the fact that the nutrients of the raw materials tend to move in a wider range of values. This test before use is rarely realized (it would be indispensable for larger integrations and feed mills) or only partially available. Therefore, it is important that the recipe maker com36
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Optimizing poultry feed recipes pany has a large number of data, from which you can select with sufficient reliability what values to work. The current result (e.g. protein) for a given nutritional data already allows for an adequate estimate of further data (energy, amino acid, digestible amino acid). Prior to the start of feed production, it is important to define the minimum and maximum levels and limitations of each feed and nutrients. For most nutrients we use a minimum limit (energy, protein, amino acids, minerals). There is a maximum limit on some nutrients such as minerals that may be toxic at higher doses or cause metabolic disturbances. Also, a maximum limit is given for the oil (in the average feed mill it is technically possible to mix up to 3-4%) or the crude fiber content because its high level deteriorates the digestibility of the other nutrients. Many raw materials contain a lower or higher proportion of anti-nutritive materials, which high level may undermine feed performance, even if the feed have good values in all respects. At the same time, if we exclude the given raw material we lose the possibility of the „least cost”. The applied feed optimization software calculates at which point there are clamping factors that can be solved with a slight compromise (e.g. fiber content overrun maximum of 0.1%) and which can be used to achieve significant cost reduction with minimum risk. It may be worthwhile to make more versions in these cases, after which your partner can choose.
Agrofeed prepares mixed feed recipes (nu-
trient content, mixing formula) on the basis of the agreed and accepted feeding concept (hybrid, production target, farm conditions) with our customers and on the basis of which the required premixes, which contain, in addition to vitamins and minerals, the necessary feed additives, taking into account the technical capabilities of the feed mill. The basic objective of recipe optimization is to find the balance between production objectives, performance, feed price and feed conversion, to achieve the lowest unit feed costs!
Control of feed performance and maintaining feed recipes The feed optimization results are in practice, that is, the performance of the poultry flock and the associated production parameters will justify it. Accordingly, it is necessary to maintain the feed recipes continuously, which takes into account the production results and operational changes as well as the changes in the available raw materials (new stocks, nutrient content and price). For small poultry farms and companies, it is enough to make it periodically and in some cases a year, but it can take up to a week for large integrations, so we provide our partners an “on-line” feed service that allows quick and effective recipe reviews and modifications at international level too.
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Additives for feed, modern use of feed additives
Additives for feed, modern use of feed additives For modern and efficient, cost-optimized poultry feed, it is now not enough to mix the available raw materials. From the large number of feed additives available on the market, it is essential to use the necessary ones. Additives may be required for the production of feed or to improve the organoleptic quality of the feed, to increase nutritional value, to favorably influence production, to prevent adverse effects or to prevent disease. Based on their use or effect, feed additives are divided into four groups.
• • • •
Technological additives, Substances that improve organoleptic quality, Feed additives with nutritional value, Zootechnical additives (Directive 1831/2003/EC). Feed additives for use in animal feed can be found in the European Union under Directive 1831/2003 / EC. This provision specifies the concept of feed additives: „Feed additives are considered to be substances, micro-organisms or preparations other than feed raw materials and premixtures which, when added to feeds or drinking water, have one or more beneficial effects on animal production or animal products quality „. Annex 1 to the Directive classifies authorized additives into categories. The technology additives category includes 13 different groups of which antioxidants, emulsifiers and toxin binders are to be emphasized in poultry feed. With additional amendment (386/2009 / EC), this category also included a new functional group of toxin binders. Additives that affect the organoleptic quality include coloring agents (carotenoids). For nutrition and nutritional additives, the regulation also lists amino acids and their analogues besides vitamins and microelements (in contrast, the active ingredient of amino acids is involved in optimization). Additives used in animal husbandry, included in Category No. 4, belongs 5 functional groups, including enzymes, but also many other substances such as probiotics, prebiotics, organic acids, plant agents (e.g. thymol, carvacrol), and even coccidiostats. The range of feed additives is constantly changing and expanding. Producer needs (cost-effective production) and the legal environment (ban on antibiotic 38
growth promoters, salmonella eradication, etc.) are constantly opening up to the development and appearance of new products. That’s why nutritionists often feel that it’s almost impossible to get under the ‚supply’ pressure. The experts of Agrofeed Kft. feed and poultry branch professionals are proud to assist in the selection of suitable additives on a professional and economical basis, which is not an easy task, due to the large number of these kind of products. The experience of a large number of domestic and international partners are also greatly assisting our work.
Technological feed additives Antioxidants Oxidation is the most important process of degradation of fats, oils and fat-containing foods. Oxidation can cause food degradation, deterioration in quality and can lead to animal health problems. By using antioxidants, we can preserve the vital and sensitive nutrients of feeds, and it has also preventive, protective effect on vitamins in premixes. The antioxidant effect is measured by ORAC (Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity).
Surfactants Surfactants, emulsifiers, which increase the absorption of nutrients, including fat-soluble vitamins. They are lysophospholipids, enzymatically modified lecithin, which have excellent emulsifying properties. It is important to use them, especially for young animals, where fat digestion is still limited.
The effect of toxins and the use of toxin binders In the poultry feed’s raw materials, a large number of toxins can occur which can seriously damage the poultry’s organization. In addition to the cultivation and plant culture and practice of large scale plant cultivation on a very wide scale, the presence and detrimental effects of toxins are often to be considered. This justifies the continuous testing, classification of the feed ingredients and protection against the effect the toxins. Toxins are effective and special poisons that are created during a natural biological process.
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Additives for feed, modern use of feed additives Mycotoxins are secondary metabolic products of individual molds, biological compounds with strong effect, which have adverse effects on animal health and performance. Molds producing mycotoxins can be divided into two large groups, depending on whether they require more (> 20% field molds) or fewer (<20%, warehouse molds) moisture to grow. Aspergillus and Penicillium ssp. are the main representatives of the warehouse molds, which produce the following major toxins: aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, citrinin, patulin, rubratoxin B, ergot toxins. The group of field molds includes Fusarium and Stachybotrys ssp., whose major toxins are zearalenone (F2) and trichothecene skeletal toxins (T-2, HT-2, nivalenol, DON, DAS, fusarenon-X and fumonisins), as well as satratoxins. The effects of mycotoxins are influenced by the types and coexistence of mycotoxins, their dosage and duration, the species, age, sex and animal health status as well. Aflatoxins are liver poisons that cause the body’s immune response decreasing, inhibit protein synthesis, reduce fertility and hatchability, weight gain, egg production and feed conversion rate (FCR). Mortality increases, foot problems and bone formation abnormalities may occur. Ochratoxins are kidney poisons that cause gout, feed intake, egg production loss and egg shell quality deterioration. Trichothecenes - T-2 and DON toxins, cause mouth injuries, loss of appetite, irritation of the skin and digestive tract, particularly dangerous for broiler chickens. Fumonisins may cause nervous system disorders, liver damage and gizzard degeneration. Zearalenones may have estrogenic effects and may cause reproductive abnormalities. Toxin binders are substances used to reduce the infection of the feed by mycotoxins, substances that suppress or reduce the absorption of mycotoxins and help their excretion or modify their mechanism of action. Materials suitable for binding mycotoxins produced by filamentous molds may be inorganic and organic compounds. Inorganic groups include silicon polymers, such as certain clay minerals (kaolin, sepiolite, zeolite, bentonite etc.) and various forms of carbon. Organic adsorbents include high-fiber feed (hay, straw), yeast cell wall extracts, certain humic acid derivatives, and partially synthetic compounds such as chlorophyllin or cholestyramine. Enzymes and various bacterial strains can also be used to alter the structure and effects of mycotoxins.
The expectations and good qualities of a good toxin binders are as follows.
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reduce the potential adverse effects of mycotoxins and their metabolic products in the intestinal tract, • have a broad binding spectrum, bind several types of toxins, • cannot be side-effect of the feed’s nutrient content (vitamins, trace elements), • reduce the presence and activity of mycotoxins, • reduce the toxic effect in animals and quantity of toxins in tissues / products, • do not adversely affect animal or food products, • show positive results, • can be used in precise and manageable doses, • resistant to technological impacts during feed production, • be cost-effective. The best efficacy in poultry feed can be achieved with multi-component toxin binder products, where adequate protection can be provided at low doses. Agrofeed’s recommended multi-component toxin binders will satisfy the protection of poultry from the harmful effects of toxins in the most economical way.
Additives to improve sensory properties Dyes Consumers in many markets prefer yellow yolk and poultry skin than white. To meet consumer demand, egg yolk or broiler skin can also be stained. Coloring is a complex biochemical process that is influenced by animal-dependent factors (feeding, diseases, genetic conditions, poultry flock environment) and color-dependent factors (the chemical structure of carotenoids). The coloring effect of carotenoids depends on their color tone or entrapment. For the coloring of egg yolk on the one hand, a natural additive is used, which is an extract of Tagetes erecta (amaranth or marigold) grown in Mexico, which contains on average 8,000 mg / kg carotenoid. The „yellow” pigment produced by a special manufacturing process, especially lutein, to a lesser extent zeaxanthin, is characterized by a beautiful yellow color. This product is mixed with intense red color, which is a nature-identical compound. The main feature of the product used is that it is stable, water-miscible, easy to absorb and mix well.
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Additives for feed, modern use of feed additives Nutritional additives Vitamins Vitamins (provitamins and chemically well-defined substances having a similar effect) are micro nutritional, organic compounds that are needed in small quantities but are indispensable for the living organisms. They are not always able to produce enough quantities, so we need to ensure their availability. Individual vitamins have a special function that other vitamins cannot perform in the same way. Vitamins can be divided into in fat soluble vitamins (lipovitamins, which are typically stored by animals) and water-soluble vitamins (unable to store the body). Vitamin supplementation makes it possible to provide the needs of poultry and make a major contribution to improving the economy of livestock farming. Today’s intensive livestock can only be imagined with adequate vitamin supplements. The „absolute” vitamin demand for animals is relatively low (NRC) and experiments show that the vitamin requirement of animals increases significantly in stress and illness. Establishing the most appropriate vitamin levels for farm and production conditions is also part of the professional service of premix manufacturers. In addition to large-scale poultry production, there is often a persistent stress situation (given on one or more permanent negative stimuli durable response of the body) may also result in severe impairment of performance as it weakens the body’s resistance ability. Stress factor can be any environmental factor such as light, noise, excessive housing density, feed change, extreme temperature, pathogenic bacteria or parasites.
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Vitamin A (retinol, epithelium protector, infection inhibitor, growth vitamin) occurs only in green feeds, which industrial feed raw materials does not include. It is important to maintain health and growth, protect the epithelium, increase antibody formation, thereby resistance against infectious diseases. Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol, anti-rachitic vitamin) also does not occur in feed raw materials, it can only be produced by UV rays effect in free-range poultry farming. On a closed hold, however, the feed must provide it daily because it is not stored in the body. It regulates the metabolism of Ca and P, promotes absorption of Ca and P from the intestine, contributes to the mobilization, absorption and emptying of bones. Vitamin E (tocopherol, fertility or anti-dystrophic vitamin) is of particular importance to the body, it has an antioxidant effect, protects the cell membrane against the aggressive attack of free radicals, thereby improving the resistance of animals. It has a beneficial effect on fertility and facilitates the uninterrupted reproductive processes. It also plays an important role in metabolic processes. Vitamin K3 (menadione, anti-hemorrhagic vitamin) occurs only in green feed. It is absolutely necessary for normal blood coagulation, to prothrombin formation.
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Additives for feed, modern use of feed additives Additional completion of vitamin B1 (thiamine, anti-neurotic, anti-beriberi vitamin) is required in addition to the intensive poultry farm technology, even though raw materials contain. It is component of essential enzymes in carbohydrate metabolism. Vitamin B2 (riboflavin, lactoflavin) contains higher levels of feed from animal origin, mainly dairy by-products, whereas cereals are only in very low proportions. It is component of many enzymes, so it has important role in metabolic processes. Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) plays a central role in protein metabolism, and also plays important functions in other physiological processes, as an ingredient of enzymes. Feed raw materials are included, but an intensive farming requires an additional supplement. Vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin, animal protein factor / APF) occurs only in feed materials of animal origin. It is indispensable for hematopoiesis and protein metabolism in the synthesis of nucleic acids. Pantothenic acid, vitamin B3 (chicken anti-dermatitis factor) is included in the feed raw materials, but it is necessary to supplement it in intensive poultry farming. As the constituent of coenzyme-A, catalysis one of the most common enzymatic reactions in metabolism. Niacin, vitamin B5 (nicotinic acid, PP-pellagra prevention factor) is necessary for the formation of essential enzymes in cell metabolism. Feed raw materials including, but it is necessary to supplement it in intensive poultry farming. Folic acid, vitamin B9, plays an important role in the production of white and red blood cells, as well as in the intermediate metabolism, in the nucleic acid synthesis. Although feed raw materials are including, but are generally less useful in knit form, an additional addition is required. Biotin, Vitamin H plays an important role in metabolic processes as part of a number of enzyme systems. Feed materials are including, but some of them are in a form which poorly utilized, so an additional supplement is required. Choline, Vitamin B4 plays an important role in the metabolism of phospholipids and lecithin formation, and in the transport of fat. Feed raw materials containing, but some of them are only in a limited way. Betaine as an effective methyl group donor supports metabolism and protects cells from osmotic inactivation, can be used for partial or complete replacement of choline. Vitamin C (L-ascorbic acid) is rarely found in feed raw materials, but the animal organism can synthesize it under normal conditions. In a stressful situation the
bodyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s demand increases, but vitamin C formation is decreasing, so in such cases supplementation may be necessary. It enhances hormone formation in the adrenal glands and increasing resistance. Vitamins are generally sensitive to physical and chemical changes in the environment. Technological methods strive to the homogeneous distribution of each active ingredient - premixes serve this purpose. To increase the feed intake and to improve the microbiological state, it is used granulation and expansion of compound feeds. Heat treatment, interaction between the different ingredients of the feed can negatively affect the vitamin content of the feed. The leading vitamin manufacturing companies are providing ever-more heat-stable products with continuous product development, so reliable purchasing of raw materials is an indispensable condition for safe vitamin levels in feed. An the Agrofeed recipes, the formation of vitamin levels is based on our own experience values, which is part of the companyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s know-how. In our premixes a larger proportion of vitamins are added in a protected, heat-stable form.
Microelements Microelements are present in small amounts in the animal body, but are essential in certain physiological and biochemical processes, as components of enzymes. If their quantity in the feed is lower, than the demand of the given animal species, age group or type of utilization, subclinical or clinical deficiency symptoms occur. Because of the interactions between the minerals, the micro element deficiency can be caused by inappropriate ratios. The chemical form of microelements is also important, as it affects the absorption, the effectiveness of which can be obstructed by environmental and stress effects. The most important role of iron is oxygen transport, its emptying is limited and its utilization is well controlled. For poultry species, iron supplementation of feed can improve immune responsiveness, and intensive egg production increases the iron requirements of laying hens. The effect of copper is related to iron as it promotes its incorporation into tissues but also plays a role in the functioning of the nervous system, the immune system, the heart and the circulation system. It improves the quality of the eggshell, and the lack of young turkeys can cause aortic distortion. It can cause in high level toxicosis for which the turkey is particularly sensitive. Zinc
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Additives for feed, modern use of feed additives is a constituent of many enzymes that affect growth and development, affecting the viability and feed conversion of young animals. Zinc as enzyme component is important for carbohydrate and protein metabolism, feather production and egg-shell formation. Manganese is of paramount importance in optimizing reproduction biology processes. In the absence of it, the formation of the eggâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s hard shell will be disrupted and the cause of the deficiency illness known as perosis (osteoporosis). Selenium is a constituent of glutathione peroxidase enzyme that protects membranes against oxidative damage. Typical deficiencies are muscular dystrophy, exudative diathesis, which is susceptible to superficial inflammation, irritable mucous membranes and skin diseases, and susceptibility to nutritional supplements, feathering, cardiac and circulatory disorders. Lack of iodine came across locally. Secondary iodine deficiency can be caused by the nitrate contamination of the waters and the formation of goitrogenic substances (rapeseed containing large amounts of glucosinolate). Organic-bound microelements have a higher bioavailability, their absorption is much more favorable than inorganic salts, and therefore significantly lower their emptying rate. For glycinates, metal ions (Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn) bind to small molecular weight glycine ligands in organic form. These microelements indirectly contribute to the stabilization of other feed ingredients, including vitamins and macro elements. These microelements can be mixed with the feed and have excellent solubility properties. In Agrofeed premixes we use well-utilized microelement forms, if necessary in their organic form, with careful attention to the appropriate ratios to avoid interactions and microelement deficits.
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Amino acids, salts and analogues The role and significance of the amino acids have already been described above, and here are the only aspects of their use as feed additives. The importance of methionine in poultry feeding has been known for a long time, which is found to be lower in most feeds, and therefore the higher levels of protein and higher fish meal have been found the solution. Features of amino acids Parameters of amino acid additives
%
Dry material
%
99,5
99,5
99,5
88,0
Crude protein
%
58,4
95,4
73,1
49,3*
Methionine
%
99,0
Lysine
%
Threonine
%
ME/B
MJ/kg
MethionineDLL-lysine hydroxymethionine HCL L-threonine analogue
84,0* 78,0 98,0
17,3
14,1
12,6
15,3
Based to Evonik, Ajinomoto and Novus data
The production technology and use of synthetic methionine has long been widespread and synthetic lysine, threonine has been available for decades. There are now experimental results that supplementation of amino acids in poultry feed can be further expanded with tryptophan and / or valine supplementation. To supplement the poultry feed, Agrofeed uses crystalline amino acid products. Lysine and methionine (hydroxy analogs) are also available in liquid form, but this may be of importance to feed mills. Agrofeedâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s recipes are optimized on di-
gestible amino acids to reduce rationally the protein levels in feeds for cost-effective nutrition.
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Additives used in animal husbandry
Additives used in animal husbandry There are four functional groups in animal husbandry additives category, the presentation of which is very important.
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Digestibility enhancing substances – feeding with the animals enhance feed digestibility by effect on certain feed raw materials. Enzymes are included here and some probiotics, Intestinal flora stabilizers - microorganisms or other chemically defined substances that have a positive effect on the intestinal flora; Probiotics can be classified into this group, Environmentally beneficial substances - no additives have been registered for this group, Other zootechnical additives - is an important category because the European Union is based on the registration process and based on official scientific advice, it assists in the selection of genuine and useful feed additives, Coccidiostats or histomonostats.
Digestibility enhancers, enzymes Digestion of nutrients in feeds is ensured by the mechanical and enzymatic function of the intestinal tract. However, some substances are not, or are not fully digestible, the body does not possess the appropriate enzymes for their degradation, so their supplementation is necessary. Anti-nutritive substances also limit the utilization of other important nutrients. Previously in poultry feed, wheat or barley mixing rates had to be limited because NSP materials (non-starch polysaccharides) had a strong increase in intestinal viscosity. Xylanase and β-glucanase enzyme products are rapidly spread. These external (exogenous) enzymes break down cell wall’s forming materials, soluble and insoluble arabinoxylan and beta-glucan, and simultaneously release the nutrients contained in the cell wall and reduce the intestinal viscosity caused by the soluble fibers. The use of enzymes makes it more flexible to make feed recipes, improve digestibility of feed and increase livestock productivity. In addition, it is an indirect advantage that fewer nutrients (most notably nitrogen) are eliminated, which causes pollution. In addition to the XB (xylanase + β glucanase) enzymes, the use of complex enzyme preparations containing
xylanase, amylase and protease (XAP) also has an increased effect - they have a beneficial effect on many plant origin protein feeds and even on the digestibility of maize. The XAP enzyme mixture targets the most important anti-nutritional substances contained in various feeds, plant and other origin, and high fiber content by-products. X ‚targets soluble and insoluble arabinoxylans in the dietary fiber and releases the secreted nutrients, A ‚maximizes starch digestibility and P ‚targets stored proteins in the raw materials, increasing amino acid digestibility and starch availability. Reduces anti-nutritional substances (such as trypsin inhibitors and lectins), limiting excessive endogenous losses.
Phytase enzyme Plant feeds contain phosphorus’ 2/3 in a phytin bond, which is not or only low level can be utilized (1040%) due to lack of phytase enzyme. However, with the phytase enzyme, the phosphorus content of the feed can be largely liberated and the rate of utilization can reach 40-60%. This reduces the amount of mineral phosphorus completion and the phosphorus content of the faeces and decreases the phosphorus load in the environment. The effect of the phytase enzyme improves the calcium utilization of the feed, and scientific studies have also demonstrated the utilization of the amino acid improved as well. Enzymes are heat-sensitive, and manufacturers have developed different „defense” technologies, and developments are still being carried out. There are heat-stable enzyme products on the market, to verify that the enzyme activity test is applicable.
Intestinal flora stabilizers Intestinal flora stabilizers are microorganisms or other chemically defined substances which, when fed with animals, have a positive effect on the intestinal flora. Probiotics are considered as „live” feed additives that help maintain the „balance” of the intestinal microflora of the animals. These may be yeasts or bacteria, stimulate the immune system, and in a competitive manner (nutrients, related surfaces) and other compounds (acids and bacteriocins), the life conditions of the pathogenic bacteria are significantly impaired or directly destroyed. In spore or protected condition can
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Additives used in animal husbandry tolerate heat treatment (granulation), depending on the used microbe strain, but in many cases not determinable, so it is recommended to use them in non-heat-treated feed (mashed feed) or in drinking water. It should be noted that interaction with other feed ingredients (acids, antibiotics) may occur. Prebiotics are generally selectively fermented ingredients that allow unique changes in the composition and activity of intestinal microflora which are beneficial to the well-being and health of the host. Prebiotics, mostly carbohydrate fibers (oligosaccharides), but also nutrients that are limiting to certain members or groups of intestinal ecosystems (lactose, inulin). Prebiotics also include non-living yeast cells, yeast cell walls, and nucleotides. There are currently no registered prebiotics in this group, but in terms of its impact, we are listed here.
Other additives This group includes all the additives used for the performance of animals in good health or for beneficial effects on the environment. This group includes organic acids or their salts, a combination of herbal agents and probiotics (a total of 16 products). Organic acids are often used in feed because their antibacterial nature is well-defined and proven. Organic acids or free organic acid mixtures are also used as part of the Salmonella-eradication programs for the hygienisation of feeds. There are also organic acid preparations that can be used in protected (microencapsulated or coated) form. The purpose of the protection is to transfer the antibacterial effects of acids to the intestines, and to shape the microflora of the intestine in a favorable direction. The combination of the organic acid composition and the applied microencapsulation process, with synergistic compounds (Timol, carvacrol, eugenol, etc.) greatly influences the effect exerted. Lower fatty acids (butyric acid, lactic acid) can be the primary energy source of intestinal cells, accelerating the differentia-
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tion of these cells and supporting the formation of intestinal tracts with a healthy high absorption surface, especially in young animals. Plant extracts, essential oils and their synthetic equivalents, the use of nature-identical compounds in animal feed are also worthy of attention. All animal species can be detected to improve feed intake and have antioxidant, bactericidal and fungicidal activity. It is important to know that these volatile compounds are lost in the active substance content due to feed production and treatment and are rapidly absorbed into the small intestine and decomposed. The active substance content of plant extracts should be standardized or the use of synthetic molecules may be recommended. The microencapsulated form makes it possible to extend the beneficial effect on the intestines. Agrofeed professional staff help in the se-
lection of an effective enzyme, gut flora stabilizing organic acid, plant extract or coccidiostats.
Coccidiostats Coccidiostats have long been used in large poultry farms without them, the poultry industry could not have reached the present level and could not have become such a size. In the last decade practice, the basis for the control of coccidiosis in broilers is chemoprophylaxis, i.e. broiler chickens consume coccidiostats nearly up to the time they are slaughtered (with attention to the required retention time), while in the breeding and laying stock the building of protective immunity is the goal. Over the last decades more than 30 different active substances have been developed to control coccidiosis. Their two major groups are distinguished by chemical or synthetic agents and ionophore or polyether antibiotics (the latter being produced by fermentation).
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Anti-nutritive materials of feeds
Anti-nutritive materials of feeds Anti-nutritive substances affect the utilization of nutrients in a variety of ways, reduce digestibility of the protein, bind certain nutrients, or damage the intestinal epithelium, thereby reducing digestive efficacy. The most important of these compounds are lectins, protease inhibitors, tannins, phytic acid, glucosinolate, gossypol and various antigenic proteins. For some of them, such as lectins and tannins, their analytical measurement is not completely resolved. It has been shown that the lectins, trypsin inhibitors and tannins reduce the apparent and actual digestibility of nutrients. Heat treatment, in some cases, such as lectins and protease inhibitors, can significantly reduce their activity. The phosphorus utilization of the phytin bounded phosphorus can be improved by an exogenous phytase enzyme. There is no procedure for the inactivation of tannins and glucosinolate. The anti-nutritive substances can be grouped in different ways.
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Protein digestibility and utilization reducing factors such as trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors, lectins and hemagglutinins, polyphenolic compounds, NSPs and saponins, • Carbohydrate digestibility reducing factors such as amylase inhibitors, polyphenolic compounds, NSPs, • Factors that reduce the digestion and utilization of minerals (glucosinolate, oxalic acid, phytic acid, gossypol, • Vitamins inactivating factors (antivitamins), • The immune system stimulating factors (antigen proteins). Different feed raw materials contain different forms and amounts of anti-nutritional substances. The same feed may contain more than one kind and the amount of them may significantly differ in the same feed. For these differences, the technology used in plant production, differences between varieties and environmental factors may be responsible. In the pulses seeds (soy, peas, beans) protease inhibitors and lectins are the most important anti-nutritional substances. Some cereal seeds, such as rye and triticale, also contain smaller amounts of trypsin inhibitors. It is found tannin, in color flower fava bean, peas, rape, sorghum and some barley varieties. Various glycosides in linseed, sorghum shoots, glucosinolate in crucifer plants, and sinapine in rape, various alkaloids
in lupine, potato, and gossypol in the cotton seed play an important role. In the construction of non-starch polysaccharides (NSPs), only 9 out of about 100 monosaccharides in nature are involved. These include arabinose and xylose (pentoses), glucose, mannose and galactose (hexoses), rhamnose and fucose (6-deoxyhexoses), galacturonic acid and glucuronic acid (6 uronic acids). The structure of the various polysaccharides may be very diverse and may include various other non-carbohydrate compounds, methyl and acetyl groups, proteins, lignin. Carbohydrate chains may also form bonds with each other. Cellulose is a cell wall constructor found in all plants. ß-glucan is found in barley and arabinoxylan is found in larger quantities of the cell wall of wheat, rye, sorghum and triticale. NSP materials found in pulses seeds are more complex than compounds found in cereals. Many of the feed contains oligosaccharides that mammals and birds cannot be dismantled. These include α-galactosidases containing 3-9 monosaccharides, raffinose, stachiose and verbascose, which are constructed of the fusion of fructose, galactose and glucose. Soy (6%), peas (5%) and rape contain a significant amount of these oligosaccharides. The indigestible part of starch, the so-called resistant starch, contains units similar to NSP materials. NSP materials have an effect on animal production, digestive enzymes activity, intestinal epithelium structure, intestinal microbial composition, and secretion of a number of hormones such as insulin and glucagon. Since animals cannot break NSPs with their own enzymes, their utility is dependent on their microbial degradation. During bacterial fermentation, shortchain volatile fatty acids are formed which, absorbed from the digestive tract, are an energy source for the animals. The average 30% digestibility of NSP materials is considerably weaker than starch and simple sugars. The presence of NSP materials reduces the digestibility of proteins, fats and starch. The constituent elements of the fiber physically inhibit the access of digestive enzymes to cell nutrients, NSPs also increase the magnitude of endogenous losses due to the digestive enzymes and intestinal epithelium wear. NSPs with high water absorption capacity may also bind a significant portion of bile acids, preventing their absorption and recurrence into the liver. These endogenous losses reduce the apparent digestibility of nutrients. The
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Anti-nutritive materials of feeds further digestibility-reducing effect of NSPs is that the chymus (is a semi-solid semi-liquid mass formed from food, which contains partially digested food, nutrients and gastric juice. The chymus is produced by gastric movement and digestive function, and the stomach is phased out in the small intestine in an appropriate state for the body) due to the increased viscosity the rate of passage of the intestinal tract is accelerated, the digestive enzymes have less time to break down and the degraded nutrients to absorb. The production of increased gastric mucosa of the intestinal epithelium also has a negative effect on the absorption of nutrients. Water-soluble NSPs stimulate microbial activity, resulting in increased protein and fat from the microbial origin in the chymus and the faeces. The effects of NSPs are influenced by the heat treatment processes used in feed production, the enzyme supplements, the degree of digestive enzyme
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secretion in the intestine and the volume of microbial fermentation. Among the monogastric animal species, the negative correlation between the presence of NSP materials and the digestibility of nutrients in poultry species is more pronounced. In order to ensure their energy needs, animals with larger NSP-containing feeds generally consume more. Of course, this applies to varieties and types of utilization that have the capacity of the digestive tract to do so. In the case of laying hens, for example, this compensatory ability works in some respects, while broilers are less able to consume less energy supplies due to the ad libitum feeding. Part of NSP materials such as Ă&#x;-glucans and oligosaccharides also act as prebiotics. They favorably influence the composition of the intestinal microflora in the colon, preventing the binding of harmful pathogens to the intestine in the small intestine.
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The effect of feeding to the quality of poultry products
The effect of feeding to the quality of poultry products A large number of research results are available on the effect of protein and energy of feeds on fat-forming effect. Chicken grown in higher protein / amino acid and energy ratios compound feed contain less fat, while decreasing the rate leads to the production of more fatty chickens. Greater fattening can be explained by the fact that chickens consume more protein from low-protein feed to meet their protein needs, resulting in energy over-consumption. High protein content, however, reduces fat generation due to the energy needs of protein synthesis and degradation of unnecessary amino acids and uric acid synthesis.
lower protein level is accompanied by the addition of essential amino acids, this can be avoided. The increase in the ratio of breast meat to the amino acid supplementation of the feed has been shown, suggesting that the amino acid needs of the maximum breast meat production exceed the maximum body mass gain or the need for the smallest feed conversion. From this point of view, each amino acid has a different effect. For lysine and sulfur-containing amino acids, the positive effect has been demonstrated, while for example, for threonine, valine and non-essential amino acids, the enhancing effect of breast meat was not demonstrated.
The incorporation of fat is influenced not only by the amount of protein and its ratio to energy content, but also by the actual level of each amino acid. Many researchers have confirmed the effect of sulfur-containing amino acids on reducing fatty acid synthesis. In contrast, the levels of threonine intake do not significantly affect the amount of abdominal fat. According to the results of the experiments, the increased lysine level in the feed reduced fattening, while the insufficient protein content increasing, the lysine level over demand decreases the abdominal fat content of broilers. Due to environmental considerations, the protein content of nutrients and the N-loading of the environment can be reduced by increasing the levels of essential amino acids. The protein level of compound feed can be significantly reduced by supplementing the crystalline amino acid that does not affect the performance of the chickens.
The modification of the fatty acid composition of poultry tissues is also a major research task, as well as increasing the proportion of unsaturated fatty acids to increase the content of n-3 fatty acid, conjugated linoleic acid of different poultry meat. The fat content and the fatty acid composition of the meat parts and the skin are significantly different. Breast fat is usually less than 1%, the thigh 2-3%, while the skin 30-35%. While the fat of the skin is predominantly triglycerides, 55% and 16% of the fat in the breasts and thighs are phospholipid.
The greatest growth potential and the most favorable feed conversion (FCR) can be achieved by feeding high-energy compound feeds. Less feed is enough to cover the energy needs and the energy needed for growth is guaranteed. Increasing the energy level of intensive poultry feed is possible with fat completion, which in turn increases the fat content of poultry body. The fat addition form, the fatty acid composition of the fats is also a factor influencing the fat intake. Fats rich in saturated fatty acids increase the fattening of birds more than vegetable oils, such as sunflower oil (reduces fatty acid synthesis in the poultry liver). Most poultry processing plants do not yet prioritize the increase in the proportion of valuable meats, but beyond the genetic methods, this can also be influenced by feeding. Reduction of protein levels of nutrients results in a decrease in breast meat size, but if the
Impact of meat quality and shelf life During the storage of poultry meat, oxidation processes are initiated in their fat, which primarily relate to the dissolution of unsaturated fatty acids and the formation of hydroperoxides. The resulting hydroperoxides are labile compounds from which subsequently the volatile substances, aldehydes and ketones that are adversely affected by the organoleptic properties of the meat are formed. Wider use of vegetable oils rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids, increased n-3 PUFA content in meat or more widely distributed pre-heat-treated products, their shelf-life decreases. Among the various bioactive substances, Vitamin E is the most effective biological antioxidant. Of the various compounds belonging to the tocopherol group, alpha tocopherol (AT) is the most effective, which in practice is supplemented with alpha tocopherol acetate (ATA). Vitamin E provides protection for cell membranes. The resulting free radicals are neutralized and thus prevent the degradation of the phospholipid and cholesterol fractions of the membranes and the formation of further harmful substances. Reduces the oxidation of lipids in meat during storage or after heat treat-
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The effect of feeding to the quality of poultry products ment, improves the oxidative stability of fats and muscle tissues. However, the stabilizing effect of vitamin E depends to a large extent on the fat form incorporated into the body. Increasing the proportion of unsaturated fatty acids increases the vitamin E requirement. The amount of vitamin E increases in the individual tissues is in correlation with its feed concentration. It is embedded in the heart and lungs fastest, followed by saturation of the liver, thighs and brain tissues. Meat containing more vitamin E generally has a higher score on organoleptic evaluation due to consistency of meat, flavor, taste defects, and better color stability. The oxidative stability of poultry products is also improved by other feed and feed additives (for example, oat in broiler feed improves the oxidative stability of broiler meat). Carnosine is a naturally occurring dipeptide in muscles that inhibits the catalytic processes associated with the oxidation of fats. Carnosine supplementation of 1.5% carnosine with the same efficiency as vitamin E has improved the shelf life of raw meat. The effect of vitamin E and carnosine is additive.
Contamination of feed with infectious pathogens Salmonella and E. coli bacteria, Listeria monocytogenes, Yersinia, Staphylococcus aureus, Clostridium perfringens and botulinum, and Champhylobacter jejuni, are the most susceptible pathogens that can be passed on through feed. Within this publication, we do not mention these, but we just wanted to indicate the possible poultry health hazard. Among the pathogens, the presence of Salmonella bacteria in poultry feed is also has great importance in terms of food safety, because the European Union has set a deadline for the Salmonella eradication of poultry 48
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flocks. This process has begun in many countries, and not only in Europe, but its efficiency is not perfect yet, so it continues to pose a serious challenge to all actors in the poultry sector. An important part of salmonella degradation programs is the maintenance of salmonella free animal feed and the use of feeding methods to reduce the salmonella content of the intestine.
Genetically modified plants Genetically Modified Plants (GMOs) are discussed when DNA modification is not achieved by natural mutations, crossings, breeding processes but by an artificial genetic engineering method for the introduction of a given property. Among feed raw materials mainly soy and corn may be affected. The import of Brazilian and US soya is a major proportion of GMOs. Most European, export-oriented poultry industry companies expect producers to not feed genetically modified feed materials. Once declared on the products in the European Union, the use of GMOs in food and feed within a regulated framework is permitted. Some European countries are currently not member of the licensing countries, so GMO corn and soybeans (tobacco) production is not allowed in these countries. The opinions of GMO crops on food safety are shared by professional opinions. There is the possibility that GMO feed or food genes will enter the consumerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s or animalâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s cells, but its risk of occurrence is minimal. Entering the gut bacteria of GMO genes and modifying the properties of bacteria is a more complex problem. The feed industry, alongside traditional GMO feed raw materials, uses widely enzymes and other feed additives produced by genetically modified bacteria. Their judgment also requires regulation.
The effect of feeding to the quality of poultry products Feeding methods to reduce environmental load One of the major challenges facing modern animal production is the sustainability, the rational use of environmental resources and the possible reduction of environmental load. In this feed industry, priority is given to the optimum, but raw material efficient feeding of the poultry, to the use of environmentally friendly technologies and the reduction of selected undigested or unused materials during production. Animal husbandry takes part in both the carbon and nitrogen cycles, because it produces carbon dioxide from organic matter, absorbs protein and drains reactive nitrogen. Feeding has been focused on the optimum satisfaction of animal needs, the digestion of feed, the utilization of nutrients, and the examination of selected materials only accelerated in the past. The amount of N and P-containing compounds in the environment should not be underestimated, as million tons nitrogen, phosphorus is burdening the environment. Nowadays, it has been regulated in many countries the amount of â&#x20AC;&#x17E;materialâ&#x20AC;? that can be deposited in air, water and soil. This material can be used for plants at a suitable concentration, as nitrogen and phosphorus are considered to be essential for plant growth. Gases escaping into the environment, without exception, compounds that none of the organisms can utilize and can directly harm the atmosphere. This kind of gas the methane, which is generated by break-down of some nutrients in the rumen of ruminants. Substances with N content in manure are also introduced into the N-cycle of nature where gases or other harmful compounds are formed after the microbial transformation.
be reduced by feeding methods or by proper farm management practices. In the case of monogastric animals, a better fit of protein supply to nutrient demand with phase-feeding system has long been known. Individual steps in feed production such as grinding and granulation may affect feed intake, digestibility and N-discharge. The efficiency of phosphorus utilization in monogastric animals is particularly poor, only 20-40%, i.e. 60-80% of the phosphate intake is released into the environment. P is primarily deposited with soil erosion in surface waters and leads to eutrophication in rivers, lakes and seas. Due to the increasing P-load on the environment due to livestock, new methods need to be found to reduce or avoid this. The efficiency of the transformation is influenced by the genotype, age, body weight, vitamin D3 supply, the ratio of Ca: P in the feed, the origin of the P content of the feed, the health of the animals and the nutrition supply balance. The P-needs of monogastric animals are fed by the phosphorus content of the feed (native and inorganic phosphorus sources used as feed additives). The high levels of phosphorus emitted by the poultry sector can be reduced primarily by avoiding P overtaking, i.e. by meeting the exact P-needs of the animals. By better understanding the mechanisms influencing the absorption of P, by calculating the useful P-demand and using phytase enzyme, the degree of P-excretion can be significantly reduced by 25-50%, increasing the absorption level of P. (In the Netherlands between 1973 and 1995 the rate of P-reduction decreased by 50%).
More than 90% of the N-emission of intensive agriculture comes directly or indirectly from the livestock sector, which enhances acidification and eutrophication. Almost 50% of ammonia in the atmosphere comes from the livestock sector, extremely dangerous greenhouse gases, dinitrogen oxide is released into the air. Most commonly, fertilizers and N-containing compounds deposited in the soil can be washed away and may enter the groundwater and surface water. The biggest problem in recent years is the increase in concentrations of nitrates in the groundwater. N-emissions from livestock production may
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CONTENTS Introduction ������������������������������������������������ 3 Modern poultry feeding ������������������������ 4 "Agrofeed Plus" POULTRY FEEDING PROGRAM ���������������������� 5 Practical steps in feed production ������������������7 Assessment of status and performance of poultry farms ������������������������������������������������������7
Elements of modern feed management ������������������������������������������������ 7 Technical possibilities in feed mill ��������������������9 Compound feed production ������������������������������ 11 Supplementation of feed, premix manufacturing �������������������������������������������������� 12 Feed raw materials ������������������������������������������ 13 Nutrient content of feed raw materials ���������� 13 Minimum and maximum limit values for nutrients and feed raw materials �������������������� 13
Advanced feed raw material management ���������������������������������������������� 13 Purchase of feed raw materials logistic �������� 14 Purchase and checking before storage of raw materials ������������������������������������������������ 14 Raw material purchasing and quality assurance system for compound feed production ���������������������������������������������������������� 14 Quality criteria for feedstuffs �������������������������� 15 Criteria for safe feed ���������������������������������������� 15 The aspects of feed testing ������������������������������ 16 Storage and handling of raw materials ���������� 17
Survey of the objectives of poultry production �������������������������� 18 Growth and production parameters of poultry flock �������������������������������������������������� 18 Taking into account the nutritional demands ���������������������������������� 18 Production and feeding recommendation of poultry hybrids �������������������������������������������� 19 Broiler fattening ������������������������������������������������20 Commercial layer egg production ������������������20 Turkey growing ��������������������������������������������������21 Duck and goose fattening ��������������������������������22
The poultry farm management situation ��������������������������24 The technological capacity and standard of poultry farm ��������������������������24
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Broiler breeder management ��������������������������24 Broiler management technology ��������������������25 Production manual for commercial layers �� �� 28 The aspects of the preparation of compound feed and premix formulations 29 Aspects of the cheapest compound feed compilation ������������������������������������������������������ 31
Compilation of nutritional requirements for poultry feeds ���� 32 Energy supply of poultry feed ��������������������������32 Energy evaluation of poultry feed ��������������������32 Improve energy utilization with enzyme supplements ������������������������������������������������������33 Protein and amino acid supply of poultry feeds �������������������������������������������������33 Digestibility of amino acids ������������������������������35 Minerals ������������������������������������������������������������35
Optimizing poultry feed recipes ������36 Poultry nutritional requirements ��������������������36 Nutrient content of feed raw materials ����������36 Control of feed performance and maintaining feed recipes ��������������������������37
Additives for feed, modern use of feed additives ��������������������������������������38 Technological feed additives ����������������������������38 Additives to improve sensory properties ��������39 Nutritional additives ����������������������������������������40 Microelements �������������������������������������������������� 41 Amino acids, salts and analogues ������������������42 Digestibility enhancers, enzymes ��������������������43 Intestinal flora stabilizers ��������������������������������43
Additives used in animal husbandry ������������������43 Other additives ��������������������������������������������������44 Coccidiostats ����������������������������������������������������44
Anti-nutritive materials of feeds �� 45 Impact of meat quality and shelf life �������������� 47
The effect of feeding to the quality of poultry products �������������� 47 Contamination of feed with infectious pathogens ����������������������������������������������������������48 Genetically modified plants ������������������������������48 Feeding methods to reduce environmental load ������������������������������������������ 49
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„ AGROFEED PLUS” POULTRY FEEDING PROGR A M
Agrofeed Ltd. H-9022 Győr, Dunakapu tér 10. Phone.: +36 96 550 620 · fax: +36 96 550 621 · premix agrofeed.hu
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