THE AERIAL CORRIDOR
URBAN BIODIVERSTY:
TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. THE EXTINCTION CRISIS 2. POLLINATORS AND NATIVE SPECIES 3. LOCAL ECOSYSTEMS 4. CURRENT HABITAT CONDITIONS 5. OPERATING AT MULTIPLE SCALES 3
EMILY PARKER
My research and design project will create an aerial corridor for native avian species to increase biodiversity in urban environments. Local and global ecological networks are critically diminished as infrastructure and development push non-human species to the outskirts of ever-growing urban areas. This research will inform the design of modules for animal habitation that can be integrated and dispersed throughout the existing urban fabric of Boston—to foster a network of biodiversity and reestablish connectivity between ecosystems that have been fragmented by human activity. My project will bridge this divide between humans and animals, and interrupt this historical pattern that relegates other species to a lower class.
THE AERIAL CORRIDOR
EMILY PARKER INSTRUCTOR: PETER WIEDERSPAHN
THE SIXTH EXTINCTION:
THE EXTINCTION CRISIS: A PRODUCT OF HUMAN EXISTENCE
98% of species extinctions in this era have been a direct result of human activity. We are altering our environment at such a rapid rate that most other species cannot keep up, resulting in species endangerment, or even worse, extinctions. Ecosystems around the world rely on their interconnectedness to function, and the removal of even one species can alter the entire system, creating a domino-effect of imbalance and species disappearance.
HABITAT DEGREDATION OTHER
% OF ENDANGERED SPECIES IN THE WORLD TODAY
40 END-ORDOVICIAN
END-CRETACEOUS
END-TRIASSIC
50,000
HUMAN POPULATION (MILLIONS) EXTINCTIONS
7000 6000
END-DEVONIAN
40,000
20
10
5000 30,000
4000
20,000
3000
1
HUMAN POPULATION
30
EXTINCTIONS
EXTINCTION OCCURENCES (%)
50
SPECIES INTRODUCTION
THE AERIAL CORRIDOR
END-PERMIAN
HUNTING
URBAN BIODIVERSTY:
There have only been five recorded mass extinctions in Earth's history, and trends show that we are in the middle of the sixth. Each extinction was caused by some catastrophic event, and the current catastrophe is us: humans.
2000
10,000
0 500 4
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
MILLIONS OF YEARS BEFORE PRESENT TIME
100
50
0
ELIZABETH KOLBERT
1000 1800
1850
1900
1950
YEAR
EMILY PARKER
A HUMAN-LED CATASTROPHE
2000 5
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY:
URBANIZATION:
A SYSTEM OF CHECKS AND BALANCES
FRAGMENTATION AND HABITAT DEGREDATION
bit
ea
r ch
eti cs
L RE
CE
SO
CI
UR
AL
SO S
1900 1990 2010 2030 2050
THE AERIAL CORRIDOR
2 OUT OF EVERY 10 PEOPLE LIVED IN AN URBAN AREA 4 OUT OF EVERY 10 PEOPLE LIVED IN AN URBAN AREA
320 MILLION/ 1.6 BILLION
5 OUT OF EVERY 10 PEOPLE LIVED IN AN URBAN AREA
3.5 BILLION/ 7 BILLION
6 OUT OF EVERY 10 PEOPLE LIVED IN AN URBAN AREA
5.1 BILLION/ 8.5 BILLION
7 OUT OF EVERY 10 PEOPLE LIVED IN AN URBAN AREA
6.65 BILLION/ 9.5 BILLION
URBAN BIODIVERSTY:
nt R eco ver y
tion
Re s
ats
Indu Mat strial eria ls
Educa
sth Ae
Ha
Tourism
IT S
e
Bre
n
atio
e Recr
NEF
ding
Culture
A BIOLOGIC
6
BIODIVERSITY SERVICES
Food
rs
ve
Di
n
Ge
More people live in urban areas than rural areas today, and although cities account for only 3% of land area on Earth, they consume the most resources.
ity
BE
ine
c eti
Habitat degredation is the primary cause of loss of biodiversity, due to urbanization and agriculture. Urban areas are rapidly expanding, fragmenting open spaces and natural ecosystems. Retrofitting urban areas to encourage biodiversity is necessary if we are to prevent the decline of species.
EMILY PARKER
on
on
Medic
Eve
uti
Pollina ti
Po ll
utrients
ats
ate lim sC
mb
N Recycles
ilize
b Sta
Co
Water Sou rce Protection
SYSTEM BALANCE O C E
1
2.12 BILLION/ 5.3 BILLION
7
POLLINATORS:
NATIVE SPECIES:
Pollinators are the foundation of a healthy, diverse ecosystem, and as such, the pollinator population in an area is a great indicator of the overall health of that ecosystem.
Species that are native to an area or region co-evoloved together and therefore have specific qualities and behaviors that allow them to survive in their natural surroundings. The introduction of non-native species (invasive species) threatens the livelihood of native species and in recent decades has contributed to the extinction of dozens of species.
BENEFITS OF NATIVE SPECIES: • Species are less prone to collapse • Limits management/maintenance • Plants require less pesticides
THE AERIAL CORRIDOR
185 known pollinator species are currently endangered, threatening the balance of the world's ecosystems.
URBAN BIODIVERSTY:
90% of all plant species and 75% of crop plants need pollinators to reproduce and enable genetic diversity.
THE KEY TO A BALANCED ECOSYSTEM
2
• Plants require less hand watering • Plants require less fertilizers • Maintains ecosystem balance • Less pollution
8
90% of Earth's plants are flowering species, and 87.5% of them depend on animal pollinators to reproduce
EMILY PARKER
THE FOUNDATION OF A HEALTHY ECOSYSTEM
• Less competition • Increases biodiversity 9
BIG BROWN BATS
POPULATION THREATS:
(Eptesicus fuscus)
common bat species in Massachusetts
•WHITE NOSE SYNDROME (WNS) A white fungus is found on the bat's nose/body
• Have
a high tolerance to cold weather and stay in the area year-round • Hibernate from late fall - early spring
This causes severe hydration, waking the bats from hybernation and depleting their fat stores ultimately causing death
11"- 14"
Since its appearance in 2006, WNS has killed millions of bats
• They
= 100 INSECTS
5" - 8"
mate prior to hibernation, but give birth in late spring - early summer, forming nursery colonies consisting of 2 - 200 bats
= 5 BATS
BENEFITS AND SERVICES: Pollinators Insectivores •Individuals can consume up to 600 insects an hour •Primarily eat crop pests such as beetles and other night-flying insects •A colony of 150 bats can consume enough beetles in one summer to prevent the production of 33 million larvae, which are a major threat to corn crops in New England.
10
THE AERIAL CORRIDOR
to live in dense/urban areas; very few natural habitats left in the northeast
•HUMANS Studies show that (although WNS is primarily spread from bat to bat) humans can also spread the disease
URBAN BIODIVERSTY:
• Prefer
PREFERRED LIVING CONDITIONS: Dark exterior colors help insulate the habitats (32-41 preferred for hibernation)
Shelf or platform to catch droppings
2
10 - 30 yards from densly wooded areas Habitats should be 10-15 feet above the ground
EMILY PARKER
• Most
•HABITAT LOSS Common alternatives to natural habitats are attics, rooftops, cathedrals, etc.
Within 1/4 mile of water source Should face SE or SW for at least 7 hours of direct sun exposure a day
N 11
AMERICAN BUMBLEBEE
POPULATION THREATS:
(Bombus pensylvanicus)
• Social species; colonies range from 50-500 bees • (relatively small compared to honeybee hives of up
to 50,000 individuals)
WORKER
• They rely on a strict social hierarchy consisting of one queen, infertile females called worker bees,and males called drones.
DRONE
• One of the larger species of bees- their size helps them generate more body heat, which extends their activity both daily and seasonally.
BENEFITS AND SERVICES: Pollinators • Native bumble bee species are 2 - 3 times more efficient pollinators than invasive species
12
Bumble Bee species pollinate 30% of crops in the United States
• We depend on them to pollinate crops for human food consumption, but they are also responsible for the survival of thousands of native plant and flower species • Honeybees are not native species • They were brought here from Europe and are primarily cultivated by humans. Those that have escaped threaten native bees with disease and competition • They can withstand the colder temperatures of the Northeast, pollinating for 2/3 of the year
• INVASIVE SPECIES Species such as the European Honeybee compete with the Bumble bee for pollen and nectar
THE AERIAL CORRIDOR
QUEEN
• PESTICIDES Get absorbed by the plants, transferring the toxins to bees when they consume the flowers' nectar/pollen.
A decline in native plant species has made it difficult for Bumble bees to find enough food • HUMANS Bumble bees are among bee species that rarely sting, but people often kill bumble bees out of fear
PREFERRED LIVING CONDITIONS: Maintain a close proximity to native plants, such as:
• Shaded/cool spaces with limited sun exposure • Dark/dry nest conditions are optimal
URBAN BIODIVERSTY:
EMILY PARKER
• Native bee species found in the Northeast and other parts of North America
• HABITAT LOSS
2
• A space that is not easily accessible to predators (badgers, squirrels, raccoons)
• Typically underground or high above ground level
• Within 1 mile of flowering plants 13
MONARCH BUTTERFLY Monarch Butterflies can be found in the Northeast during the spring and summer months; in the fall they begin their annual migration to Mexico.
• PESTICIDES These are toxic to butterflies and other pollinators; many farmers and gardners use herbicides to kill milkweed which is vital to the monarchs' survival.
•
Monarch larvae depend almost entirely on native milkweed as a food source. •
3.5"- 4"
• Female monarchs can lay up to 500 eggs in one mating period, leaving a single egg on each plant. The chance of survival from the egg to the adult stage is only 2-8%
• POLLUTION Ground-level pollution (smog) can harm monarch eggs and larvae.
BENEFITS AND SERVICES: Pollinators • Monarch Butterflies are key wildflower pollinators and contribute to the diversity of other plant species. • As bee populations decline, butterflies become more vital (90% of crops depend on pollinators). • They are the 3rd most populous pollinators (behind bees and wasps)
14
Many species of milkweed contain heart poisons called cardiac gyycosides. The toxic chemical is ingested and sequestered by the caterpillars, which is carried through to the adult stage. Birds and other predators get sick when they prey on monarchs, and know to stay away.
• CLIMATE CHANGE Temperature changes have forced the monarchs to migrate farther, reducing the numbers that survive the journey. Monarchs cannot fly if their body temperature drops below 86 degrees.
Indicator Species • We can learn about toxins or changes in the environment by studying monarch's behaviors
90% DECLINE IN RECENT YEARS
PREFERRED LIVING CONDITIONS: • Naturally, monarchs prefer grassy fields, marshes, and weedy areas. • In more urban areas, they can be found in the growth along roadsides and medians or in parks and gardens.
URBAN BIODIVERSTY:
• HABITAT LOSS
EMILY PARKER
(Danaus plexippus)
THE AERIAL CORRIDOR
POPULATION THREATS:
2
• Prefer to be around native flowers with different bloom types, especially native milkweed. 15
RUBY-THROATED HUMMINGBIRD
POPULATION THREATS:
(Archilochus colubris)
• HABITAT LOSS Naturally they live in woodlands, forest edges, and grassland areas.
• Ruby-Throated
Hummingbird can be found in Massachusetts and New England from late March through September, when they make their fall migration south to Mexico/Central America.
are largely solitary birds, very inquisitive, and have adapted to human presence.
3"- 4"
Domestic cats have also become a predatory concern.
• At the moment, this species is not threatened.
PREFERRED LIVING CONDITIONS:
BENEFITS AND SERVICES:
• Prefer to nest on thin horizontal branches (usually deciduous trees) with leafy cover.
Pollinators
It's the only hummingbird species that breeds in the Northeast Breeding Non-Breeding
16
• Hummingbirds feed on nectar from flowers, as well as sap, insects, and spiders. • They can eat up to 2x their bodyweight in one day, visiting anywhere from 1,000 - 2,000 flowers, pollinating as they go.
Insectivores • They supplement their diet with unwanted pests such as mosquitos, gnats, and flies.
• As an adaptation to human presence, hummingbirds have been seen to nest on loops of chain and wire.
URBAN BIODIVERSTY:
extremely short legs make it difficult to walk or hop, so they primarily hover, beating their wings 53 times each second.
EMILY PARKER
• HUMANS People enjoy the hummingbirds' colorfulness and put out birdfeeders close to their homes; unfortunately, many birds fly into windows close to feeders.
• Their
• They
THE AERIAL CORRIDOR
• PESTICIDES/HERBICIDES The toxins are transferred to the flowers' nectar.
2
10' - 40' Nests are the size of a thimble
• They nest anywhere from 10 - 40 feet above the ground, but typically are found within a 15 25 foot range. • They prefer red and orange tube-shaped flowers.
17
ECOSYSTEM WEB:
ECOSYSTEM WEB:
Falcons Owls
Big Brown Bats
American Bumblebee
Ruby-Throated Hummingbird
Monarch Butterfly
Mosquitoes
Japanese Beetles
Gypsy Moths Emerald Ash Borers
Squirrels
Mice
Hawks
Big Brown Bats
American Bumblebee
Ruby-Throated Hummingbird
Monarch Butterfly
Crops Parasites
Spiders Domestic Cats
Wildflowers Wasps Cucumber Beetles Fruit Flies
Skunks
Potato Beetles
Ants
URBAN BIODIVERSTY:
THE AERIAL CORRIDOR
SPECIES CONNECTIVITY LAYER 1
EMILY PARKER
ORIGINAL FOUR SELECTED SPECIES
3
Gnats
18
19
ECOSYSTEM WEB:
SPECIES CONNECTIVITY LAYER 3
Fungi
Geese
Ducks
Coyotes
Foxes
Pigeons Songbirds
Japanese Beetles
Gypsy Moths Emerald Ash Borers
Songbirds
Big Brown Bats
American Bumblebee
Ruby-Throated Hummingbird
Monarch Butterfly
Crops
Japanese Beetles Parasites
Spiders Domestic Cats
Wildflowers
Gypsy Moths Ants
Big Brown Bats
American Bumblebee
Ruby-Throated Hummingbird
Monarch Butterfly
Domestic Cats
Pine Trees
Maple Trees
Cucumber Beetles Fruit Flies
Potato Beetles
Gnats
Snails
Hover Flies Frogs
Slugs Fish Snakes
Parasites
Ground Beetles
Elm Trees
Mites
Fruit Flies
Skunks
Maple Trees
Pine Trees
Cucumber Beetles
Ash Trees
Gnats
Snails
Ants
Dragonflies
Fish Snakes
Turtles Hedgehogs
Mites
3
Midges
Hover Flies Frogs
Slugs Moles
Potato Beetles
Grubs
Ground Beetles
Weevils
Aphids
Turtles Grasshoppers
20
Dogs
Crops
Wasps
Ash Trees Skunks
Deer
Wildflowers
Wasps Elm Trees
Dandelions
Spiders
Emerald Ash Borers
Dragonflies
Algae Worms
Squirrels
Mice
Hawks
Mosquitoes
Rabbits
Rats
Owls
Earthworms
Plankton
Raccoons
Voles
Falcons Squirrels
Mice
Hawks
Coyotes
Foxes
Pigeons
Rats
Owls
Mosquitoes
Geese
Ducks
Raccoons
Voles
Falcons
Grass
THE AERIAL CORRIDOR
Aquatic Plants
URBAN BIODIVERSTY:
SPECIES CONNECTIVITY LAYER 2
EMILY PARKER
ECOSYSTEM WEB:
Centipedes 21
CURRENT POSSIBLE HABITAT RANGE
N
0
0.25 0.5
1
1.5 miles
Big Brown Bats within 1/4 mile of water source
URBAN BIODIVERSTY:
10-30 yards from dense forests
THE AERIAL CORRIDOR
URBANIZATION AND ECOSYSTEM FRAGMENTATION
BIG BROWN BATS:IN THE BOSTON AREA TREE CANOPY DENSITY
EMILY PARKER
BOSTON AREA TREE CANOPY:
4
22
23
AMERICAN BUMBLEBEES:
MONARCH BUTTERFLIES:
CURRENT POSSIBLE HABITAT RANGE
0
0.25 0.5
1
1.5 miles
N
0
0.25 0.5
1
1.5 miles
Monarch Butterflies
within 1 mile of wildflowers
highway medians, bike paths, railroad tracks, gardens, vacant lots
URBAN BIODIVERSTY:
American Bumblebee
EMILY PARKER
N
THE AERIAL CORRIDOR
CURRENT POSSIBLE HABITAT RANGE
4
24
25
0
0.25 0.5
1
Ruby-Throated Hummingbird
1.5 miles
N
0
0.25 0.5
1
1.5 miles
Big Brown Bats
forest edges, gardens, parks near marsh/stream edges
American Bumblebees Monarch Butterflies Ruby-Throated Hummingbirds
URBAN BIODIVERSTY:
N
EMILY PARKER
CURRENT POSSIBLE HABITAT RANGE
THE AERIAL CORRIDOR
SPECIES OVERLAP
RUBY-THROATED HUMMINGBIRDS:
4
26
27
SCALE A: ELEMENT/MODULE SCALE A: THE THECITY CITY ELEMENT
PROJECT SITE:
THE STREETLIGHT
THE STREETLIGHT
33 ft 30 ft
24”
16 ft
THE CITY ELEMENT/MODULE
28
SCALE B: THE PARK/LOT
SCALE C:
THE NEIGHBORHOOD/GAPS
SCALE D: THE CITY
0 ft
FREQUENCY: 50-150 feet apart based on density
8
5
6 ft
SCALE A:
URBAN BIODIVERSTY:
32”
10” diameter
THE AERIAL CORRIDOR
Big Brown Bats
EMILY PARKER
OPERATING AT MULTIPLE SCALES
Dimensions: 24” X 32” X 12”
Dimension
1-2 miles between roosts 18-20 habitats 2,700-3,000 bats
~1/2 mile b 100-150 ha 50,000-75,
29
SCALE A: SPECIES HABITAT/MODULE
SCALE A: SPECIES HABITAT/MODULE
BIG BROWN BAT HABITAT LOCATIONS/FREQUENCY
AMERICAN BUMBLEBEE HABITAT LOCATIONS/FREQUENCY 1/4 MILE WATER SOURCE HABITAT
8”
24”
10”
32”
32”
10”
2 MILE RADIUS
8”
24”
URBAN BIODIVERSTY:
1 MILE RADIUS
EMILY PARKER
HABITAT
THE AERIAL CORRIDOR
1/2 MILE RADIUS
5 Dimensions: 24"X 32"X 12" 1-2 miles between roosts 19 habitats 2,700-3,000 bats 30
Dimensions: 8"X 10"X 8" 1/2 miles between nests 100-150 habitats 50,000-75,000 bats 31
1. Franklin Park 2. Harvard Arboretum 3. Jamaica Pond 4. Forest Hills Cemetery 5. Chestnut Hill Reservoir 6. New Calvary Cemetery
Charlestown Pier along Mystic River
Cedar Grove Cemetery 1,3000,000 SF
91,700 SF
Paul Revere Park 60,000 SF
Empty lot in Dorchester 225,000 SF
Boston Public Garden 1,000,000 SF
7. Cutler Park Reservation
USES AND PROGRAMS: • Public spaces of interaction/ engagement • Nursery •Habitats for Monarch Butterflies and Ruby-Throated Hummingbirds
THE AERIAL CORRIDOR
CURRENT WILDFLOWER LOCATIONS IN BOSTON:
COMPLETING THE NETWORK/PROJECT ICONS
URBAN BIODIVERSTY:
NATIVE WILDFLOWERS/MILKWEED DENSITIES
SCALE B: CITY PARKS AND LOTS
EMILY PARKER
SCALE C: IDENTIFIED RESOURCE GAPS
5
Pattens Cove
8. Charles River Bike Path 1 MILE RADIUS AROUND WILDFLOWER SITES 32
CURRENT GAPS IN THE NETWORK
117,000 SF
Medal of Honor Park 250,000 SF 33
SCALE D: THE CITYWIDE NETWORK
URBAN BIODIVERSTY:
EMILY PARKER
THE AERIAL CORRIDOR
COMBINING ALL SCALES
5
34
35
REFERENCES: "Big Brown Bat." National Park Service. N.p., 2016. Web. 8 Nov. 2016. <"Big Brown Bat." National Park Service. N.p., 2016. Web. 8 Nov. 2016.> Connif, Richard. "Urban Nature: How to Foster Biodiversity in Worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Cities." Environment 360. Yale University, 6 Jan. 2014. Web. 8 Nov. 2016. <http://e360.yale.edu/feature/urban_nature_how_to_foster_biodiversity_in_worlds_cities/2725/> "Create Habitat for Monarchs." Monarch Joint Venture. The Monarch Joint Venture, 2015. Web. 8 Nov. 2016. <http://monarchjointventure.org/get-involved/create-habitat-for-monarchs/> Gashler, Krisy. "Native Bees Are Better Pollinators, More Plentiful than Honeybees, Finds Entomologist." Cornell Chronicle. Cornell University, 24 Oct. 2011. Web. 8 Nov. 2016. <http://news.cornell.edu/stories/2011/10/native-bees-are-betterpollinators-honeybees> "Keeping Native Bees Abuzz." The Center for Agriculture Food and the Environment. University of Massachusetts Amherst, 13 Dec. 2013. Web. 8 Nov. 2016. <https://ag.umass.edu/news-events/highlights/keeping-native-bees-abuzz> "Massachusetts Highways May Become Haven For Monarch Butterflies." CBS Boston. The Associated Press, 3 Sept. 2016. Web. 8 Nov. 2016. <http://boston.cbslocal.com/2016/09/03/massachusetts-highways-monarch-butterflies-milkweed/> "Native Plants and Ecosystem Services." Ecosystem Services. Michigan State University, 5 July 2016. Web. 08 Nov. 2016. <http://nativeplants.msu.edu/ecosystem_services> "Number of Threatened Species." Endangered Species International. Endangered Species International INC, 2011. Web. 15 Oct. 2016. <http://www.endangeredspeciesinternational.org/overview2.html> Rosenberg, Matt. "Current World Population." About Education. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Oct. 2016. <http://geography.about.com/ od/populationgeography/a/populationgrow.htm> Schneider, David. "Urbanization." We Are the Practitioners. We Are the Practitioners, 2015. Web. 20 Oct. 2016. <http://www. wearethepractitioners.com/library/the-practitioner/2016/08/16/urbanization> 36