Arch7130 2016 fall weiderspahn eparker research bookhp

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THE AERIAL CORRIDOR

URBAN BIODIVERSTY:

TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. THE EXTINCTION CRISIS 2. POLLINATORS AND NATIVE SPECIES 3. LOCAL ECOSYSTEMS 4. CURRENT HABITAT CONDITIONS 5. OPERATING AT MULTIPLE SCALES 3

EMILY PARKER

My research and design project will create an aerial corridor for native avian species to increase biodiversity in urban environments. Local and global ecological networks are critically diminished as infrastructure and development push non-human species to the outskirts of ever-growing urban areas. This research will inform the design of modules for animal habitation that can be integrated and dispersed throughout the existing urban fabric of Boston—to foster a network of biodiversity and reestablish connectivity between ecosystems that have been fragmented by human activity. My project will bridge this divide between humans and animals, and interrupt this historical pattern that relegates other species to a lower class.

THE AERIAL CORRIDOR

EMILY PARKER INSTRUCTOR: PETER WIEDERSPAHN


THE SIXTH EXTINCTION:

THE EXTINCTION CRISIS: A PRODUCT OF HUMAN EXISTENCE

98% of species extinctions in this era have been a direct result of human activity. We are altering our environment at such a rapid rate that most other species cannot keep up, resulting in species endangerment, or even worse, extinctions. Ecosystems around the world rely on their interconnectedness to function, and the removal of even one species can alter the entire system, creating a domino-effect of imbalance and species disappearance.

HABITAT DEGREDATION OTHER

% OF ENDANGERED SPECIES IN THE WORLD TODAY

40 END-ORDOVICIAN

END-CRETACEOUS

END-TRIASSIC

50,000

HUMAN POPULATION (MILLIONS) EXTINCTIONS

7000 6000

END-DEVONIAN

40,000

20

10

5000 30,000

4000

20,000

3000

1

HUMAN POPULATION

30

EXTINCTIONS

EXTINCTION OCCURENCES (%)

50

SPECIES INTRODUCTION

THE AERIAL CORRIDOR

END-PERMIAN

HUNTING

URBAN BIODIVERSTY:

There have only been five recorded mass extinctions in Earth's history, and trends show that we are in the middle of the sixth. Each extinction was caused by some catastrophic event, and the current catastrophe is us: humans.

2000

10,000

0 500 4

450

400

350

300

250

200

150

MILLIONS OF YEARS BEFORE PRESENT TIME

100

50

0

ELIZABETH KOLBERT

1000 1800

1850

1900

1950

YEAR

EMILY PARKER

A HUMAN-LED CATASTROPHE

2000 5


BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY:

URBANIZATION:

A SYSTEM OF CHECKS AND BALANCES

FRAGMENTATION AND HABITAT DEGREDATION

bit

ea

r ch

eti cs

L RE

CE

SO

CI

UR

AL

SO S

1900 1990 2010 2030 2050

THE AERIAL CORRIDOR

2 OUT OF EVERY 10 PEOPLE LIVED IN AN URBAN AREA 4 OUT OF EVERY 10 PEOPLE LIVED IN AN URBAN AREA

320 MILLION/ 1.6 BILLION

5 OUT OF EVERY 10 PEOPLE LIVED IN AN URBAN AREA

3.5 BILLION/ 7 BILLION

6 OUT OF EVERY 10 PEOPLE LIVED IN AN URBAN AREA

5.1 BILLION/ 8.5 BILLION

7 OUT OF EVERY 10 PEOPLE LIVED IN AN URBAN AREA

6.65 BILLION/ 9.5 BILLION

URBAN BIODIVERSTY:

nt R eco ver y

tion

Re s

ats

Indu Mat strial eria ls

Educa

sth Ae

Ha

Tourism

IT S

e

Bre

n

atio

e Recr

NEF

ding

Culture

A BIOLOGIC

6

BIODIVERSITY SERVICES

Food

rs

ve

Di

n

Ge

More people live in urban areas than rural areas today, and although cities account for only 3% of land area on Earth, they consume the most resources.

ity

BE

ine

c eti

Habitat degredation is the primary cause of loss of biodiversity, due to urbanization and agriculture. Urban areas are rapidly expanding, fragmenting open spaces and natural ecosystems. Retrofitting urban areas to encourage biodiversity is necessary if we are to prevent the decline of species.

EMILY PARKER

on

on

Medic

Eve

uti

Pollina ti

Po ll

utrients

ats

ate lim sC

mb

N Recycles

ilize

b Sta

Co

Water Sou rce Protection

SYSTEM BALANCE O C E

1

2.12 BILLION/ 5.3 BILLION

7


POLLINATORS:

NATIVE SPECIES:

Pollinators are the foundation of a healthy, diverse ecosystem, and as such, the pollinator population in an area is a great indicator of the overall health of that ecosystem.

Species that are native to an area or region co-evoloved together and therefore have specific qualities and behaviors that allow them to survive in their natural surroundings. The introduction of non-native species (invasive species) threatens the livelihood of native species and in recent decades has contributed to the extinction of dozens of species.

BENEFITS OF NATIVE SPECIES: • Species are less prone to collapse • Limits management/maintenance • Plants require less pesticides

THE AERIAL CORRIDOR

185 known pollinator species are currently endangered, threatening the balance of the world's ecosystems.

URBAN BIODIVERSTY:

90% of all plant species and 75% of crop plants need pollinators to reproduce and enable genetic diversity.

THE KEY TO A BALANCED ECOSYSTEM

2

• Plants require less hand watering • Plants require less fertilizers • Maintains ecosystem balance • Less pollution

8

90% of Earth's plants are flowering species, and 87.5% of them depend on animal pollinators to reproduce

EMILY PARKER

THE FOUNDATION OF A HEALTHY ECOSYSTEM

• Less competition • Increases biodiversity 9


BIG BROWN BATS

POPULATION THREATS:

(Eptesicus fuscus)

common bat species in Massachusetts

•WHITE NOSE SYNDROME (WNS) A white fungus is found on the bat's nose/body

• Have

a high tolerance to cold weather and stay in the area year-round • Hibernate from late fall - early spring

This causes severe hydration, waking the bats from hybernation and depleting their fat stores ultimately causing death

11"- 14"

Since its appearance in 2006, WNS has killed millions of bats

• They

= 100 INSECTS

5" - 8"

mate prior to hibernation, but give birth in late spring - early summer, forming nursery colonies consisting of 2 - 200 bats

= 5 BATS

BENEFITS AND SERVICES: Pollinators Insectivores •Individuals can consume up to 600 insects an hour •Primarily eat crop pests such as beetles and other night-flying insects •A colony of 150 bats can consume enough beetles in one summer to prevent the production of 33 million larvae, which are a major threat to corn crops in New England.

10

THE AERIAL CORRIDOR

to live in dense/urban areas; very few natural habitats left in the northeast

•HUMANS Studies show that (although WNS is primarily spread from bat to bat) humans can also spread the disease

URBAN BIODIVERSTY:

• Prefer

PREFERRED LIVING CONDITIONS: Dark exterior colors help insulate the habitats (32-41 preferred for hibernation)

Shelf or platform to catch droppings

2

10 - 30 yards from densly wooded areas Habitats should be 10-15 feet above the ground

EMILY PARKER

• Most

•HABITAT LOSS Common alternatives to natural habitats are attics, rooftops, cathedrals, etc.

Within 1/4 mile of water source Should face SE or SW for at least 7 hours of direct sun exposure a day

N 11


AMERICAN BUMBLEBEE

POPULATION THREATS:

(Bombus pensylvanicus)

• Social species; colonies range from 50-500 bees • (relatively small compared to honeybee hives of up

to 50,000 individuals)

WORKER

• They rely on a strict social hierarchy consisting of one queen, infertile females called worker bees,and males called drones.

DRONE

• One of the larger species of bees- their size helps them generate more body heat, which extends their activity both daily and seasonally.

BENEFITS AND SERVICES: Pollinators • Native bumble bee species are 2 - 3 times more efficient pollinators than invasive species

12

Bumble Bee species pollinate 30% of crops in the United States

• We depend on them to pollinate crops for human food consumption, but they are also responsible for the survival of thousands of native plant and flower species • Honeybees are not native species • They were brought here from Europe and are primarily cultivated by humans. Those that have escaped threaten native bees with disease and competition • They can withstand the colder temperatures of the Northeast, pollinating for 2/3 of the year

• INVASIVE SPECIES Species such as the European Honeybee compete with the Bumble bee for pollen and nectar

THE AERIAL CORRIDOR

QUEEN

• PESTICIDES Get absorbed by the plants, transferring the toxins to bees when they consume the flowers' nectar/pollen.

A decline in native plant species has made it difficult for Bumble bees to find enough food • HUMANS Bumble bees are among bee species that rarely sting, but people often kill bumble bees out of fear

PREFERRED LIVING CONDITIONS: Maintain a close proximity to native plants, such as:

• Shaded/cool spaces with limited sun exposure • Dark/dry nest conditions are optimal

URBAN BIODIVERSTY:

EMILY PARKER

• Native bee species found in the Northeast and other parts of North America

• HABITAT LOSS

2

• A space that is not easily accessible to predators (badgers, squirrels, raccoons)

• Typically underground or high above ground level

• Within 1 mile of flowering plants 13


MONARCH BUTTERFLY Monarch Butterflies can be found in the Northeast during the spring and summer months; in the fall they begin their annual migration to Mexico.

• PESTICIDES These are toxic to butterflies and other pollinators; many farmers and gardners use herbicides to kill milkweed which is vital to the monarchs' survival.

Monarch larvae depend almost entirely on native milkweed as a food source. •

3.5"- 4"

• Female monarchs can lay up to 500 eggs in one mating period, leaving a single egg on each plant. The chance of survival from the egg to the adult stage is only 2-8%

• POLLUTION Ground-level pollution (smog) can harm monarch eggs and larvae.

BENEFITS AND SERVICES: Pollinators • Monarch Butterflies are key wildflower pollinators and contribute to the diversity of other plant species. • As bee populations decline, butterflies become more vital (90% of crops depend on pollinators). • They are the 3rd most populous pollinators (behind bees and wasps)

14

Many species of milkweed contain heart poisons called cardiac gyycosides. The toxic chemical is ingested and sequestered by the caterpillars, which is carried through to the adult stage. Birds and other predators get sick when they prey on monarchs, and know to stay away.

• CLIMATE CHANGE Temperature changes have forced the monarchs to migrate farther, reducing the numbers that survive the journey. Monarchs cannot fly if their body temperature drops below 86 degrees.

Indicator Species • We can learn about toxins or changes in the environment by studying monarch's behaviors

90% DECLINE IN RECENT YEARS

PREFERRED LIVING CONDITIONS: • Naturally, monarchs prefer grassy fields, marshes, and weedy areas. • In more urban areas, they can be found in the growth along roadsides and medians or in parks and gardens.

URBAN BIODIVERSTY:

• HABITAT LOSS

EMILY PARKER

(Danaus plexippus)

THE AERIAL CORRIDOR

POPULATION THREATS:

2

• Prefer to be around native flowers with different bloom types, especially native milkweed. 15


RUBY-THROATED HUMMINGBIRD

POPULATION THREATS:

(Archilochus colubris)

• HABITAT LOSS Naturally they live in woodlands, forest edges, and grassland areas.

• Ruby-Throated

Hummingbird can be found in Massachusetts and New England from late March through September, when they make their fall migration south to Mexico/Central America.

are largely solitary birds, very inquisitive, and have adapted to human presence.

3"- 4"

Domestic cats have also become a predatory concern.

• At the moment, this species is not threatened.

PREFERRED LIVING CONDITIONS:

BENEFITS AND SERVICES:

• Prefer to nest on thin horizontal branches (usually deciduous trees) with leafy cover.

Pollinators

It's the only hummingbird species that breeds in the Northeast Breeding Non-Breeding

16

• Hummingbirds feed on nectar from flowers, as well as sap, insects, and spiders. • They can eat up to 2x their bodyweight in one day, visiting anywhere from 1,000 - 2,000 flowers, pollinating as they go.

Insectivores • They supplement their diet with unwanted pests such as mosquitos, gnats, and flies.

• As an adaptation to human presence, hummingbirds have been seen to nest on loops of chain and wire.

URBAN BIODIVERSTY:

extremely short legs make it difficult to walk or hop, so they primarily hover, beating their wings 53 times each second.

EMILY PARKER

• HUMANS People enjoy the hummingbirds' colorfulness and put out birdfeeders close to their homes; unfortunately, many birds fly into windows close to feeders.

• Their

• They

THE AERIAL CORRIDOR

• PESTICIDES/HERBICIDES The toxins are transferred to the flowers' nectar.

2

10' - 40' Nests are the size of a thimble

• They nest anywhere from 10 - 40 feet above the ground, but typically are found within a 15 25 foot range. • They prefer red and orange tube-shaped flowers.

17


ECOSYSTEM WEB:

ECOSYSTEM WEB:

Falcons Owls

Big Brown Bats

American Bumblebee

Ruby-Throated Hummingbird

Monarch Butterfly

Mosquitoes

Japanese Beetles

Gypsy Moths Emerald Ash Borers

Squirrels

Mice

Hawks

Big Brown Bats

American Bumblebee

Ruby-Throated Hummingbird

Monarch Butterfly

Crops Parasites

Spiders Domestic Cats

Wildflowers Wasps Cucumber Beetles Fruit Flies

Skunks

Potato Beetles

Ants

URBAN BIODIVERSTY:

THE AERIAL CORRIDOR

SPECIES CONNECTIVITY LAYER 1

EMILY PARKER

ORIGINAL FOUR SELECTED SPECIES

3

Gnats

18

19


ECOSYSTEM WEB:

SPECIES CONNECTIVITY LAYER 3

Fungi

Geese

Ducks

Coyotes

Foxes

Pigeons Songbirds

Japanese Beetles

Gypsy Moths Emerald Ash Borers

Songbirds

Big Brown Bats

American Bumblebee

Ruby-Throated Hummingbird

Monarch Butterfly

Crops

Japanese Beetles Parasites

Spiders Domestic Cats

Wildflowers

Gypsy Moths Ants

Big Brown Bats

American Bumblebee

Ruby-Throated Hummingbird

Monarch Butterfly

Domestic Cats

Pine Trees

Maple Trees

Cucumber Beetles Fruit Flies

Potato Beetles

Gnats

Snails

Hover Flies Frogs

Slugs Fish Snakes

Parasites

Ground Beetles

Elm Trees

Mites

Fruit Flies

Skunks

Maple Trees

Pine Trees

Cucumber Beetles

Ash Trees

Gnats

Snails

Ants

Dragonflies

Fish Snakes

Turtles Hedgehogs

Mites

3

Midges

Hover Flies Frogs

Slugs Moles

Potato Beetles

Grubs

Ground Beetles

Weevils

Aphids

Turtles Grasshoppers

20

Dogs

Crops

Wasps

Ash Trees Skunks

Deer

Wildflowers

Wasps Elm Trees

Dandelions

Spiders

Emerald Ash Borers

Dragonflies

Algae Worms

Squirrels

Mice

Hawks

Mosquitoes

Rabbits

Rats

Owls

Earthworms

Plankton

Raccoons

Voles

Falcons Squirrels

Mice

Hawks

Coyotes

Foxes

Pigeons

Rats

Owls

Mosquitoes

Geese

Ducks

Raccoons

Voles

Falcons

Grass

THE AERIAL CORRIDOR

Aquatic Plants

URBAN BIODIVERSTY:

SPECIES CONNECTIVITY LAYER 2

EMILY PARKER

ECOSYSTEM WEB:

Centipedes 21


CURRENT POSSIBLE HABITAT RANGE

N

0

0.25 0.5

1

1.5 miles

Big Brown Bats within 1/4 mile of water source

URBAN BIODIVERSTY:

10-30 yards from dense forests

THE AERIAL CORRIDOR

URBANIZATION AND ECOSYSTEM FRAGMENTATION

BIG BROWN BATS:IN THE BOSTON AREA TREE CANOPY DENSITY

EMILY PARKER

BOSTON AREA TREE CANOPY:

4

22

23


AMERICAN BUMBLEBEES:

MONARCH BUTTERFLIES:

CURRENT POSSIBLE HABITAT RANGE

0

0.25 0.5

1

1.5 miles

N

0

0.25 0.5

1

1.5 miles

Monarch Butterflies

within 1 mile of wildflowers

highway medians, bike paths, railroad tracks, gardens, vacant lots

URBAN BIODIVERSTY:

American Bumblebee

EMILY PARKER

N

THE AERIAL CORRIDOR

CURRENT POSSIBLE HABITAT RANGE

4

24

25


0

0.25 0.5

1

Ruby-Throated Hummingbird

1.5 miles

N

0

0.25 0.5

1

1.5 miles

Big Brown Bats

forest edges, gardens, parks near marsh/stream edges

American Bumblebees Monarch Butterflies Ruby-Throated Hummingbirds

URBAN BIODIVERSTY:

N

EMILY PARKER

CURRENT POSSIBLE HABITAT RANGE

THE AERIAL CORRIDOR

SPECIES OVERLAP

RUBY-THROATED HUMMINGBIRDS:

4

26

27


SCALE A: ELEMENT/MODULE SCALE A: THE THECITY CITY ELEMENT

PROJECT SITE:

THE STREETLIGHT

THE STREETLIGHT

33 ft 30 ft

24”

16 ft

THE CITY ELEMENT/MODULE

28

SCALE B: THE PARK/LOT

SCALE C:

THE NEIGHBORHOOD/GAPS

SCALE D: THE CITY

0 ft

FREQUENCY: 50-150 feet apart based on density

8

5

6 ft

SCALE A:

URBAN BIODIVERSTY:

32”

10” diameter

THE AERIAL CORRIDOR

Big Brown Bats

EMILY PARKER

OPERATING AT MULTIPLE SCALES

Dimensions: 24” X 32” X 12”

Dimension

1-2 miles between roosts 18-20 habitats 2,700-3,000 bats

~1/2 mile b 100-150 ha 50,000-75,

29


SCALE A: SPECIES HABITAT/MODULE

SCALE A: SPECIES HABITAT/MODULE

BIG BROWN BAT HABITAT LOCATIONS/FREQUENCY

AMERICAN BUMBLEBEE HABITAT LOCATIONS/FREQUENCY 1/4 MILE WATER SOURCE HABITAT

8”

24”

10”

32”

32”

10”

2 MILE RADIUS

8”

24”

URBAN BIODIVERSTY:

1 MILE RADIUS

EMILY PARKER

HABITAT

THE AERIAL CORRIDOR

1/2 MILE RADIUS

5 Dimensions: 24"X 32"X 12" 1-2 miles between roosts 19 habitats 2,700-3,000 bats 30

Dimensions: 8"X 10"X 8" 1/2 miles between nests 100-150 habitats 50,000-75,000 bats 31


1. Franklin Park 2. Harvard Arboretum 3. Jamaica Pond 4. Forest Hills Cemetery 5. Chestnut Hill Reservoir 6. New Calvary Cemetery

Charlestown Pier along Mystic River

Cedar Grove Cemetery 1,3000,000 SF

91,700 SF

Paul Revere Park 60,000 SF

Empty lot in Dorchester 225,000 SF

Boston Public Garden 1,000,000 SF

7. Cutler Park Reservation

USES AND PROGRAMS: • Public spaces of interaction/ engagement • Nursery •Habitats for Monarch Butterflies and Ruby-Throated Hummingbirds

THE AERIAL CORRIDOR

CURRENT WILDFLOWER LOCATIONS IN BOSTON:

COMPLETING THE NETWORK/PROJECT ICONS

URBAN BIODIVERSTY:

NATIVE WILDFLOWERS/MILKWEED DENSITIES

SCALE B: CITY PARKS AND LOTS

EMILY PARKER

SCALE C: IDENTIFIED RESOURCE GAPS

5

Pattens Cove

8. Charles River Bike Path 1 MILE RADIUS AROUND WILDFLOWER SITES 32

CURRENT GAPS IN THE NETWORK

117,000 SF

Medal of Honor Park 250,000 SF 33


SCALE D: THE CITYWIDE NETWORK

URBAN BIODIVERSTY:

EMILY PARKER

THE AERIAL CORRIDOR

COMBINING ALL SCALES

5

34

35


REFERENCES: "Big Brown Bat." National Park Service. N.p., 2016. Web. 8 Nov. 2016. <"Big Brown Bat." National Park Service. N.p., 2016. Web. 8 Nov. 2016.> Connif, Richard. "Urban Nature: How to Foster Biodiversity in World’s Cities." Environment 360. Yale University, 6 Jan. 2014. Web. 8 Nov. 2016. <http://e360.yale.edu/feature/urban_nature_how_to_foster_biodiversity_in_worlds_cities/2725/> "Create Habitat for Monarchs." Monarch Joint Venture. The Monarch Joint Venture, 2015. Web. 8 Nov. 2016. <http://monarchjointventure.org/get-involved/create-habitat-for-monarchs/> Gashler, Krisy. "Native Bees Are Better Pollinators, More Plentiful than Honeybees, Finds Entomologist." Cornell Chronicle. Cornell University, 24 Oct. 2011. Web. 8 Nov. 2016. <http://news.cornell.edu/stories/2011/10/native-bees-are-betterpollinators-honeybees> "Keeping Native Bees Abuzz." The Center for Agriculture Food and the Environment. University of Massachusetts Amherst, 13 Dec. 2013. Web. 8 Nov. 2016. <https://ag.umass.edu/news-events/highlights/keeping-native-bees-abuzz> "Massachusetts Highways May Become Haven For Monarch Butterflies." CBS Boston. The Associated Press, 3 Sept. 2016. Web. 8 Nov. 2016. <http://boston.cbslocal.com/2016/09/03/massachusetts-highways-monarch-butterflies-milkweed/> "Native Plants and Ecosystem Services." Ecosystem Services. Michigan State University, 5 July 2016. Web. 08 Nov. 2016. <http://nativeplants.msu.edu/ecosystem_services> "Number of Threatened Species." Endangered Species International. Endangered Species International INC, 2011. Web. 15 Oct. 2016. <http://www.endangeredspeciesinternational.org/overview2.html> Rosenberg, Matt. "Current World Population." About Education. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Oct. 2016. <http://geography.about.com/ od/populationgeography/a/populationgrow.htm> Schneider, David. "Urbanization." We Are the Practitioners. We Are the Practitioners, 2015. Web. 20 Oct. 2016. <http://www. wearethepractitioners.com/library/the-practitioner/2016/08/16/urbanization> 36


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