Urban Energy Systems

uEn

urban energy systems

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“There is an ecology of bad ideas, just as there is an ecology of weeds and it is characteristic of the system that basic error will propagate itself.”

-Gregory Bateson, Steps to an Ecology of Mind

ENERGY SYSTEMS FOR URBAN ARCHITECTURE The intent of this year-long research and innovation studio is to interrogate the important contexts and systemic operating logics of the production, manufacturing, infrastructure, and performance of architecture as the source for innovation that condition contemporary built environments. We thus aim for systemic innovations as the basis of meaningful and relevant evolutions of both built environments and the practice of architecture.

The focus in this graduate research studio is on energy systems as the basis of necessary and compelling transformations of urban architecture. This section will consider Embodied Energy, On-Site Energy Production, Thermally Active Surfaces, and Day-lighting Energy as primary systems and parameters that can direct integrated design innovations.

mo’ layers, mo’ problems: performative envelopes

26

air conditioning blows: thermally active surfaces

46

the shape of embodied energy: energy

11

let there be [day] light: day light

11

DAY LIGHT

HYDROLOGIES

6

got agency: agency and thermally active surfaces

11

EMERGY

THERMAL

ENVELOPES

bustle and flow: urban infrastructure

AGENCY

CONTENTS

bustle and flow Is it possible to change the dynamic of an urban realm

change. This includes urban heat island effect, and the

by adjusting its “street sandwich”? The goal is to create a

challenge of mobility. Addressing these four issues specifically

sustainable urban environment using close loop energy

we can start to develop a new system that enhances existing

systems and more thoughtful street planning.

conditions while reducing existing problems.

Similar to building systems, urban systems effect the way

The build up of Boston’s infrastructure over its evolution as a

an entire city runs. The city of Boston has experienced a

major metropolitan area shows a mass transformation from

plethora of issues most notably including outdated urban

water to landmass. This without careful mitigation of water

infrastructure and sea level rise. In addition to these, Boston

management combined with the increase in sea level rise and

experiences what other cities face as a result of climate

precipitation, can end in disaster when the capacity of that

Caption Title Short Caption text. Court Brevity.

1700

Caption Title

1800

Short Caption text. Court Brevity.

as well as an abundance of cars also contributing to city

if we experience a 100-year flood. In the year 2100, that same

warming. The pollution from these same endeavors are swept

flood would submerge much of the Boston area. In addition,

off city surfaces and find their way into our drains and water

the infrastructure can barely handle seasonal storms, and

supply. This all can be amended with careful planning, and

frequent backups occur within the sewer system throughout

implementation of more efficient, adaptable street sections.

the city. A surplus of dark impervious surfaces with a very

If current infrastructure is failing because it is relying on

high solar absorption and retention rate increases the effects

technologies of the past, let’s look to the future and respond

of urban heat islands. This raises the city temperature even

with goals of sustainability..

Flooded Boston

1900 in 2100 a storm surge could infiltrate

Current Solar Radiation

2000 surfaces UHI affects dark, absorbant

Mobility

Short Caption text. Court Brevity.

2100

AGENCY

DAY LIGHT

EMERGY

more than projected mean regional temperature rise as a result

HYDROLOGIES

FEMA projects that much of the city would be in great danger

ENVELOPES

of global warming. Energy released in inefficient buildings

THERMAL

system is met. Today, we are approaching that benchmark.

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

urban infrastructure

ROOFTOP SURFACES

CONDUIT SYSTEM

The city relies on the Fenway area, specifically the Fens, for most

Boston’s building footprint density has made a landscape of heat

of Boston’s urban infrastructure. The existing systems are from old

absorbing materials. These surfaces direct rainfall towards the urban

technologies and strategies that are unable to handle future flood loads

drainage system that is in constant overflow in most storms.

of the upcoming climate changes. In considering careful planning for implementing more efficient adaptable street sections, there are four major area’s for improvement within Boston’s urban infrastructure; rooftop surfaces, conduit system, greenspace and transit.

HYDROLOGIES ENVELOPES THERMAL Due to the constant overflow of the Old Stony Brook Conduit (OSC)

In addition to the existing conduit system, the emerald Necklace plays

into the Fens, a secondary conduit was created (Stony Brook Conduit,

a dual role as natural drainage system and an urban park. However,

SBC) to mitigate overflow by surpassing it all together and flowing

because of the increase in precipitation it is no longer controlling the

directly into the Charles River. Unfortunately during times of heavy

rainfall and reverting back to swamp land.

rainfall the SBC floods the Fens. A third system was installed, the

EMERGY

TRANSIT

DAY LIGHT

GREENSPACE

Muddy River Conduit (MRC), to reduce this flooding. However, the in turn creates a greater need for updated systems.

AGENCY

MRC doesn’t have the capacity to keep the area from overflow which

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

urban heat island As a result of impervious surfaces, global temperature rise, and surface roughness (vertical city building creates a higher “roughness� which refers to the amount of building surfaces with which to absorb heat) Boston faces an

ever increasing risk to Urban Heat Island Effect (UHI). Currently, the city of Boston is built up of densely packed city streets and buildings, most of which do not provide any alternative to dark, absorbent, impervious surfaces. These surfaces in the city center do not emit by evaporative cooling as quickly

Annual Temperature Increase

as natural materials. As a result, the average temperature in the city stays hotter. Mitigation and stainability efforts could improve this issue by providing more green space and more urban canopy area for evapotranspiration (the process which greenery transpires and then evaporates into the air). In addition, energy uses

from buildings and transportation generate heat, resulting in Boston warming up to 7 degrees (F) higher than the surrounding climate. If emissions, building practice, and city mitigation continue at this trend, the infrastructure and economic damages could be devastating.

Land Cover in Boston

HYDROLOGIES ENVELOPES THERMAL EMERGY DAY LIGHT

Thermal Map of Boston: NIGHT

AGENCY

Thermal Map of Boston: DAY

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

flooding City conditions, sea level rise, and the increase in annual precipitation provide an unsavory condition for existence in Boston by the year 2110. Impervious surfaces increase stormwater runoff, adding to the water mass in the Charles River and the Boston Harbor. As precipitation increases due to climate change, it becomes essential to manage stormwater runoff without sending it through city infrastructure. Boston’s 67% impervious surfaces can be reduced to prevent excess flooding.

By implementing

greenroofs of several varieties, runoff can be drastically reduced. Sea level rise should be expected and planned for. Perhaps extending current infrastructure by using sustainable

Precipitation Annual Increase, by Month and by Year

alternatives should begin to prepare the city for flooding. In 100 years, the 100-year flood, as projected by FEMA, will encompass more than 50% of Boston’s urban center.

The

problem zones include low-lying areas, and also the convergence of major city conduits.

Storm water management is necessary to help prepare for a larger issue in the future.

Green Roof Retention

HYDROLOGIES ENVELOPES THERMAL EMERGY

100 Year Flood in 2010

Projected Sea Level Rise

AGENCY

DAY LIGHT

Impervious Surfaces in 2010

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

mobility As population increases, improved transportation is imperative. The streets within the city are designed to accommodate vehicular traffic with little emphasis on bike lanes or meeting the needs of pedestrians.

Due to the mass of cars driven throughout the day it has contributed greatly to the negative changes in our climate with CO2 emissions. Boston being a smaller city, has the potential to eliminate a majority of its vehicular traffic to promote means of travel more suitable for urban life. By re-arranging mobility zones there will be more space for sustainable infrastructure.

Grams of CO2 Emissions per Passenger Mile

AGENCY

DAY LIGHT

EMERGY

THERMAL

ENVELOPES

HYDROLOGIES

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

STREET POTENTIAL A KIT OF PARTS FOR SUSTAINABLE STREET SECTIONS

PERMEABLE STREETS

DISTRICT GEOTHERMAL

Replacing the impervious surfaces of the street can improve future

Rerouting stormwater through a district geothermal system can be

flood loads. By increasing the drainage surface it will reduce the

used as a renewable energy resource for adjacent buildings. Capturing

overflow on the streets and seep directly into the ground below.

runoff in peripheral drains and filtering it through a pervious pavement

Depending upon void space and paving materials the street has the

strategy or bioswale can collect up to 42 inches per square inch each

potential to be 100% absorbent. Density and speed of traffic should

year. This adds up to 8,400 square inches of rain per block with

be considered when choosing paving strategies for mobility zones.

an average length of 200 feet. The water can either be harnessed

Some permeable materials can decrease the contamination of ground

straight from the street, or the system could tap into existing rainwater

phosphorus by up to 40% annually.

infrastructure, relieving old drainage pipes of water over its capacity.

By lining the street periphery with bioswales it will help control runoff

This strategy is designed to improve the mobility zones of the current

by absorbing it naturally into an eco environment that is designed

street section. By separating the mass and speed of traffic it will

to filtrate the water and facilitate evapotranspiration. The rainwater

increase the safety and reduce the amount of vehicular traffic within

has the potential to flow into a sustainable drainage system to be

a street. The median creates another pedestrian “safe haven� while

recycled and reused. The filtered water has significantly less levels of

also integrating green space within the street surface. Reducing traffic

nitrates and phosphorus making it usable for grey water systems. It

lane size by 50% will encourage lower average speed and other more

also provides greenspace into an urban environment and separates

sustainable modes of transportation.

HYDROLOGIES

TRAFFIC MITIGATION

AGENCY

pedestrians from vehicular traffic.

DAY LIGHT

EMERGY

THERMAL

ENVELOPES

BIOSWALE DRAINAGE

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

materials catalog Plant Species

Vegetated

Low Density

High Density Solar Reflectance Index of Various Materials

is similar to pervious concrete, and contains 18-20% void space due to the use of larger sand granules in the aggregate.

In the northeast, it is especially feasible because the absorption quality of the material increases the temperature of the roads during winter months. This reduces the necessity for salting roads because it minimizes freezing road conditions.

Grass Pavers

is also used at a the lower density volume. The infrastructure includes an interlocking grid of plastic or recycled HDPE (High Density Polyethylene Plastic) supports that are filled with soil and grass seeds. The plastic grid is supported underneath by a stone and sand layer for drainage. The advantage of using grass pavers is that you have no impervious surface at all, and the whole area reduces or prevents stormwater runoff.

ENVELOPES

HYDROLOGIES can be implemented for low-density traffic lanes, parking, or multi-use open space.

The benefit is that vegetation can still exist among the grid to reduce runoff and increase evapotranspiration.

It is often used for erosion control, and is modularly available for maintenance.

THERMAL

Concrete Grid Pavers

EMERGY

pervious

Porous Asphalt

can provide varying degrees of stormwater absorption given the percent of openings between blocks. Runoff also depends on the frequency of channels to catch and absorb water. Standard block pavers have an average of 8% opening to ground layers below. Blocks can also be specified to include chamfers providing about 13% of open soil.

DAY LIGHT

porous

asphalt

Pervious Block Pavers

AGENCY

pervious

concrete

contains a larger aggregate so that more void space is achieved within the material. This leaves space for stormwater to be absorbed and released slowly into the soil below the concrete. This reduces stormwater runoff by delaying peak runoff and redirecting that water to be naturally absorbed rather than sent through the stormwater conduit.

concrete

Pervious Concrete

grass

existing

hard surfaces throughout the city have an intensely high heat absorption rate, and during the summer months retain heat to prevent night cooling.

The percentage of asphalt in urban areas is a main contributor to the most harmful effects of UHI. Concrete and asphalt are minimally pervious and results in 100% of stormwater runoff draining into the existing infrastructure, commonly over exerting capacity.

concrete

Existing

grey

(ethylene propylene diene monomer) is the most common roofing material used in Boston. Usually, it is applied in black, which has a SRI of 5.

The reflectance of this material is very low, contributing to its extreme heat gain during the day. When applied in gray or white the SRI increases to 21 and 84 respectively.

While none of these membranes reduce stormwater runoff, the daily temperature range of a building can be greatly reduced by applying grey or white roofing membrane.

mid-range

Vegetated

gravel

intensive

extensive

black

white

EPDM

Roofs

can eliminate stormwater runoff, and helps with heating/cooling. An Extensive Green Roof includes a growing medium depth of 4-6 inches. Plants such as sedum, cacti, or any other shallow-rooting vegetation can be used to insulate and increase the SRI to 86. An Intensive Green Roof has a growing medium 6-12 inches deep, and should include native flowering plants, produce, shrubbery or trees. The reflectance of the roof increases, bringing the SRI to 107.

Gravel can be used as a roof covering

or on street level to delay stormwater runoff and increase the SRI (37).

asclepias

danthonia

materials catalog

seedum

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

danthonia spicata

also known as poverty oat grass, is a particularly resilient, ground covering plant. It is ideal for Northeast climate and for a shallow growing medium.

sedum album

not only survives in extreme dry and wet conditions, it also helps facilitate an environment for the survival of other plants. Sedums absorb and store water into their broad, bulbous leaves.

asclepias verticillata

is a type of milkweed that is native to a wide variety of regions. Its root system is particularly fibrous and good for rainwater retention. The a. verticillata is also known to colonise which is beneficial for groundcover.

HYDROLOGIES ENVELOPES

also known as the Eastern Teaberry is a shrub conducive to slightly deeper growing medium.

It is a flowering, fruiting plant with broad leaves to assist with evapotranspiration and cooling.

THERMAL

cornus racemosa,

also known as the Gray Dogwood is a plant native to Massachusetts. This is a thickly-branched hedge that can grow up to 6’ tall. It can adapt to a variety of environmental conditions including other surrounding plants.

acer rubrum,

commonly known as Red Maple, is a widespread tree in the Northeast. It can adapt to many climates and is quite resilient. It’s deciduous qualities increase urban canopy, and can survive flooding in low-areas.

EMERGY

Bioswales

combine cooling effects of open greenspace with actual drainage infrastructure. By using vegetation to filter rainwater and then a drainage system to capture it, you can start to build a retention reservoir to reuse the stormwater for renewable energy systems.

gaultheria procumbens

DAY LIGHT

bioswales

Tree Planters

can help absorb some runoff before it gets to the street. It also provides more coverage for an urban canopy.

It’s possible to use porous asphalt instead of a metal grate. This increases the pedestrian walking area, and functions the same way for absorbing and filtering runoff.

is a rhizomous broad leaf plant that can survive in cold weather. This is an ever green plant that flowers in late April, and is very useful as a groundcover.

AGENCY

acer rubrum

cornus

gaultheria Trees

epimedium planters

Planters

applied as a roof treatment or a sidewalk element reduces stormwater runoff and has cooling effects. Introducing vegetation in an otherwise impervious environment evapotranspiration and can increase the urban canopy surface area.

epimedium perralderianum

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

existing section: Back bay

Examining a street section through Commonwealth Avenue, it is

scale, and one utilized as a local corridor. Car traffic is also separated

revealed that much of the street section is being either under-utilized

but not mediated in a way that is safe for pedestrian crossing. Perhaps

or overworked. Great potential exists here in the wide span between

hatching out more specific zones for travel could assist pedestrian and

building faces along the boulevard. Currently there are two disjointed

vehicular safety, add a corridor for future transit, and provide more

pedestrian areas, one more focused on city connectivity.

sustainable infrastructure.

AGENCY

DAY LIGHT

EMERGY

THERMAL

ENVELOPES

HYDROLOGIES

potential

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

existing section: The fens

Examining a street section through Riverway and the Fens, the

stormwater runoff. With the installation of concrete grass pavers, the

vulnerability of pedestrians and bikers is revealed. It also shows how

street can be transformed into a mix-use, more pedestrian friendly

the drainage infrastructure of the water in the Fens is not being utilized

rainwater absorption zone. Adding a raised bike lane could encourage

to its greatest potential. Connecting the drainage potential from Fenway

bike ridership, and also provide a further separation between pedestrians

to the retention potential of the Fens could be beneficial to reduce

and vehicular traffic.

AGENCY

DAY LIGHT

EMERGY

THERMAL

ENVELOPES

HYDROLOGIES

potential

There exists a fundamental problem in the field of architecture; the building process has become over-organized.

This bureaucratic approach to design

brick layers

capenter steel worker

carpenter union

masons union

structural engineer

builder

steel workers union

client

trades

mo’ layers mo’ problems

lawyer

builder lawyer

client

architect

architect

in our enclosures will facilitate an easier

wall section is a response to the overall organization of the building process.

The architect is in a unique position to control this process through developing

code

process. The attempt to simplify the

CODE OF HAMMURABI

communication throughout the building

a more sophisticated design.

0-1900

1925

20 SHEETS 1927

Reducing the amount of layers that exist

A

THE UNIFORM BUILDING CODE

promotion of largely inefficient buildings.

S

1911

in the construction method and the

cd set

a response to the build up of liability

THE NATIONAL BUILDING CODE

construction methods we see today are

1500BC

enclosures. The current design and

10 SHEETS

has created a build up of layers in our

plumbing egineer

plumbing egineer pipe fitter

plumbing egineer plumber

1985

1992

1992

1997

NEHRP

IFGC

ADA

FIRE PROTECTION CODE

1950 SBCCI BUILDING CODE

electrical union

mechanical engineer

electrician

1976

1950 SBCCI BUILDING CODE

electrical union

M&E

1975

electrician egineer

hvac

CABO

1950 BOCA BUILDING CODE

P

1950

pipe fitter

plumber

40 SHEETS

plumber

architect

thermal barrier

pipe fitter

electrician

FP - ADA

2000

HYDROLOGIES ENVELOPES

mechanical engineer

building inspector

THERMAL

electrician egineer

hvac

lawyer insulation installer

EMERGY

architect

thermal barrier

permits

client

DAY LIGHT

architect

glazing installers

building inspector

municipalities

builder

steel workers envelope union engineers

AGENCY

lawyer

NAFP lawyer

100 + SHEETS

client

ADA consultant

NATIONAL FIRE PROTECTION CODE 2001

permits

insulation installer

masons union

FP engineer fire protection

structural engineer

municipalities

builder

brick layers

2001

NAFP

carpenter union

2004

steel worker

concrete installers

INTERNATIONAL BUILDING CODE

capenter

FP engineer

lawyer

steel workers union

client

lawyer

masons union

fire protection

structural engineer

municipalities

builder

carpenter union

brick layers

NATIONAL ELECTRICAL CODE

lawyer

concrete installers

INTERNATIONAL MECHANICAL CODE 2001

steel worker

masons union

structural engineer steel workers union

capenter

2001

carpenter union

brick layers

INTERNATIONAL PLUMBING CODE

steel worker

concrete installers

100 + SHEETS

capenter

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

layers in wall systems There are some real disconnects that exist in the construction of the envelope and these issues lead to the complexity of building and the architectural process.

When looking at the graphics along the right, we can start to ask critical questions to the organization of the building process. Why don’t we focus more of our building budget on design of

the

enclosure systems than the design of the mechanical equipment? It is our opinion that if we adjust the organization that

80%

ONE OF THE MAJOR FACTORS THAT LEADS TO THE BUILD UP OF CODE AND DOCUMENTATION IS LIABILITY. OVER 80 PERCENT OF ALL CONSTRUCTION CLAIMS STEM FROM THE ENVELOPE AND FAILURES THAT OCCUR IN THE MULTITUDE OF TRADES AND LAYERS THAT WORK INDEPENDENTLY IN THE BUILDING PROCESS.

10% CONSIDERING THE AMOUNT OF PROBLEMS THAT OCCUR WITH THE ENVELOPE IT IS INTERESTING TO NOTE THAT ONLY 10 PERCENT OF A TYPICAL PROJECT BUDGET IS DEDICATED TO THE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF THE ENVELOPE.

exists in architecture today, we can start to answer the question with real solutions

50%

MOST OF THE PROJECT BUDGET GOES IN TO DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF THE MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT THAT GOES IN TO THE BUILDING.

Typical Commercial Wall Section Thin facade, Thick ceiling to floor space.

HYDROLOGIES ENVELOPES THERMAL EMERGY CONSTRUCTION COST INDEX

ENERGY COST INDEX

1890

1900

1910

1920

1930

1970’S BOOM

WORLD WAR II

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1980’S BOOM

1990

2000

AGENCY

GREAT DEPRESSION

DAY LIGHT

CURRENT BOOM

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

currnent layers of organization

architect construction mang. structural engineer mechanical engineer specialties

Looking at current building schedules and the organizational there is a lack of organization. The various sub-contractors enter the project as their specific task is required. There is little

plumbing electrical glazing

scale of importance

stategies in the design and construction process, it is evident

exterior panels

finishes

initial intergrated communication between these groups, which leads to more complicatied and lengthy building schedule.sacp building schedule timeline

typical project schedule 2009

2010

2011

JAN JANFEBMARAPR MAYJUN JUL AUG SEP OCTNOVDEC JANFEBMARAPR JAN MAYJUN JUL AUG SEP OCTNOVDEC JAN JANFEBMARAPR MAYJUN JUL AUG Planning Process Construction of Science & Project Closeout

layers in the building process

Foundations Structural System Heating and Cooling Systems Exterior Panel System Roof Electrical Systems Glass & Glazing Elevators Interior Fit Out MEP Finish Restoration of Site Testing & Inspections Commissioning Systems

Stereotypical Building Schedule Multiple layers entering at different phases of constrution.

office buildings that we see common place today. Alough revered for there ability to provide an open floor plan and free facade, they have also produced some of the most energy inefficent buildings. They has helped produce a

INTERIOR

HYDROLOGIES

The International style of design has produced the typical

construction method that is quick, layered and cheap.

How

can we re-work this method to produce a more preformative enclosure piece, as well as a new construction process?

EMERGY

LOAD BEARING WALLS

ENVELOPES

ENCLOSURE

typical methods of construction

THERMAL

MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL

DAY LIGHT

STRUCTURAL STEEL

Pepisco-center NY, NY 1951 Architect : SOM

AGENCY

SITE WORK

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

innovative layers of organization

architect construction mang. structural engineer mechanical engineer

There needs to be a more innovative approach to this process development to construction phase, an architect would be to think of these layers more succinctly and earlier in the

plumbing

scale of importance

which could help yield a more efficient building . From design

glazing

finishes

design process. Creating a more sophisticated enclosure system that integrates layers in the architectural process. building schedule timeline

compressed project schedule 2009

2010

2011

JAN JANFEBMARAPR MAYJUN JUL AUG SEP OCTNOVDEC JANFEBMARAPR JAN MAYJUN JUL AUG SEP OCTNOVDEC JAN JANFEBMARAPR MAYJUN JUL AUG Project Intergration Phase Construction of Project

layers in the building process

Project Closeout

Innovative Building Schedule Intergrating systems ealry in the design process.

Foundations Structural System Heating and Cooling System Enclosure System Electrical System Plumbing System Glazing System Finishes and Fit-out

construction method. The material used to accomplish a performative, thin concrete shell. This construction method no only is able to stream line the construction process and cut overall labor cost. Approaching enclosure with this thought behind

PREFORAMTIVE ENCLOSURE

PREFORAMTIVE ENCLOSURE

material light and space is a much more sophisticated design and should be the expected standard in all future buildings.

THERMAL

PREFORAMTIVE ENCLOSURE

ENVELOPES

The Zollervin School of Management uses this single layer

EMERGY

PREFORAMTIVE ENCLOSURE

HYDROLOGIES

innovative methods of construction

DAY LIGHT

INTERIOR

SITE WORK

AGENCY

STRUCTURAL CONCRETE

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

the real layers in design interior electronics / stuff

It is apparent that there are an excessive amount of layers that exist in the construction of the envelope. Most of these layers can be combined or eliminating by paying attention to the actual layers that

interior finishes

exist in envelope design. The graphic

mechanical equipment

below and a brief study of the history of

sturcture

Crown Hall we see where these layers

thermal barrier

actually exist. These are the layers to

exterior envelope solar heat gain

Layers of Design Diagram How we design for a larger system of layers.

pay careful attention to when designing.

HYDROLOGIES

Meis originally designed Crown hall while thinking about these larger layers that exist in the design process. His intent was to use the landscape design of the rings around the building to best respond to the sun. this all glass facade. There are also hydronic radiant heat zones inside the floor plates to control comfort level from interior to exterior.

Crowne Hall 1965

ENVELOPES

Specifically how the sun would radiate on

The problems in Crown Hall arose when the above simple architectural solar and heating THERMAL

control designs were ignored. The interior became an inefficient space. The removal of the exterior landscape that responded to the sun as well as the introduction of computers and more

Crowne Hall - 1990

EMERGY

Crowne Hall - present

AGENCY

specifically latent heat created this difficulty.

The reintroduction of the exterior landscape DAY LIGHT

was one method to help combat the radiation that entered the building. The addition of a layer of film to the glass was also a new technological method to combat that solar radiation entering the building. They also reverted back to using the four original thermal heating and cooling zones Meis originally designed for Crown Hall. Thus restoring the appropriate design to the layers of enclosure.

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

to use for simpler performative envelopes. By looking at tools like Ashby charts and programs like WUFI, we can analyze how certain materials will perform. The point is to not over-design the performative envelope, but to select materials that are appropriate for the climate and the region. The Ashby chart on the left shows the relationship between the thermal conductivity and the thermal diffusivity (thermal lag) of the materials shown. The Ashby Chart on the right compares the strength and the embodied energy of the materials selected. WUFI is a program for calculating the coupled heat and moisture transfer in

Temperature [°F]

We have used a few tools to analyze the materials that would be best

104

Water Content [lb/ft3]

material selection

25

68 32 -4

19 13 6 0 2” Concrete

building components. The blue background represents the year long sample of where the temperature or water content lines have fluctuated.

More Strength

More Conductive

Metals

7” Concrete

Technical Ceramics

Woods Non-technical Ceramics

2.5” EPS Insulation

3/4” Interior Gypsum

Metals and Alloys

Glasses Porous Ceramics

Stone

Concrete

Polymers and Elastomers

Brick

Plastics

Epoxies

Elastomers

Foams Cork

Less Diffusivity

More Diffusivity

Less Strength

Less Conductive

Wood

Neoprene

Less Embodied Energy

Foams More Embodied Energy

designing for preformative enclosure. There are many design tools

Temperature Rel.Humidity Wind Speed

°C

Direct Solar Diffuse Solar Cloud Cover

MONTHLY DIURNAL AVERAGES - Boston, USA

W/ m²

40

1.0k

to use but some other tools like psychometric charts can also help

30

0.8k

us understand the ideal comfort zones in specific areas. They base

20

0.6k

there results off relative humidity and the temperature of the region.

We used the region of Boston to help focus our research for the ideal

HYDROLOGIES

You must understand your location and climatic conditions when

LEGEND Comfort: Thermal Neutrality

10

0.4k

0

0.2k

-10

preformative enclosure for this region. Some things to consider are that

ENVELOPES

climate concerns

0.0k Feb

Jan

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

region has a severe climate. Boston has cold harsh winder and hot cold temperatures out design the winter, as well as let winter sun in.

heating dehumidfying

cooling

THERMAL

humidfying

humid summers. Designing for this region we want to keep heat in and

Psychrometric Chart

Psychrometric Chart

AH

Psychrometric Chart

EMERGY

AH

Location: Boston, USA Frequency: 1st December to 1st March Weekday Times: 00:00-24:00 Hrs Weekend Times: 00:00-24:00 Hrs Location: Boston, USA Barometric Pressure: 101.36 kPa Frequency: 1st December to 1st March © W e a th e r T o o l Weekday Times: 00:00-24:00 Hrs Weekend Times: 00:00-24:00 Hrs SELECT ED DESI GN T ECHNI QUES: Barometric Pressure: 101.36 kPa 1. passive solar heating © W e a th e r T o o l 2. thermal mass effects 3. exposed mass + night-purge ventilation SELECT ED DESI GN T ECHNI QUES: 4. natural ventilation 1. passive solar heating 2. thermal mass effects 3. exposed mass + night-purge ventilation 4. natural ventilation

AH

Location: Boston, USA Frequency: 1st June to 1st September Weekday Times: 00:00-24:00 Hrs Weekend Times: 00:00-24:00 Hrs Location: Boston, USA Barometric Pressure: 101.36 kPa Frequency: 1st June to 1st September © W e a th e r T o o l Weekday Times: 00:00-24:00 Hrs Weekend Times: 00:00-24:00 Hrs SELECT ED DESI GN T ECHNI QUES: Barometric Pressure: 101.36 kPa 1. passive solar heating © W e a th e r T o o l 2. thermal mass effects 3. exposed mass + night-purge ventilation SELECT ED DESI GN T ECHNI QUES: 4. natural ventilation 1. passive solar heating 2. thermal mass effects 3. exposed mass + night-purge ventilation 4. natural ventilation

Psychrometric Chart

30 30

25

AH

30

30

25

25 25

20

20

15

15

10

10

5

5

DAY LIGHT

20

20

15

15

10

10 5 Comfort Comfort

Comfort

5

10 DBT(°C)

15 5

20 10

25 15

30 20

35 25

40 30

Boston Winter Physcometric Chart

45 35

50 40

45

50

DBT(°C)

5

10 DBT(°C)

15 5

20 10

25 15

30 20

Boston Summer Physcometric Chart

35 25

40 30

45 35

50 40

45

50

AGENCY

5 Comfort DBT(°C)

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

simpler wood envelopes

SIPs Wall Construction

Solid Wall Construction, New Zealand

vertical systems: SIPs panel walls

vertical systems: solid wood wall (no other insulation)

Woods

Metals and Alloys

Glasses Porous Ceramics

Metals and alloys

More Embodied Energy

More Strength

Technical Ceramics

Paper Foams

Glasses

Elastomers Less Strength

Less Embodied Energy

Foams More Embodied Energy

Less Embodied Energy

Plastics

Porous ceramics

Less Expensive

Oak MDF

Woods

Pine Balsa

More Expensive

HYDROLOGIES ENVELOPES THERMAL EMERGY board,

Stick-Frame (left

to

right):

fiberglass

Wall

Section

Solid

Interior

gypsum

Layers

to

planks

Wall

Section

into air

The amount of layers in this wall over-

This wall type utilizes the thermal lag

This wall section may seem to be a layered

complicates the building process on site.

properties of wood, which are 2.5 times that

system, but the panels are created off-site,

While

of

exterior

wood

Panelized

Layers (left to right): SIP panel (osb,

system,

space,

solid

SIPs

layered

properties

precut

Section

Wood

exterior

insulatory

a

Wall right):

sheathing, building paper, exterior cladding.

the

insulation,

Wood (left

insulation,

osb),

exterior

cladding.

cladding.

this

of concrete. In this case the wood acts as a

which simplifies the construction. These

wall type may be sufficient, the thermal

structural component as well as the insulation

panels are even pre-cut for electrical, reducing

lag (diffusivity) properties of wood are not

while acting as a heat source at night.

the time lost due to layered building processes.

utilized. This type is also very susceptible to problems with thermal bridges (studs).

DAY LIGHT

Layers

AGENCY

Typical

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

simpler concrete envelopes

House in Chur, Patrick Gartmann

Zollverein School, SANAA

vertical: air-entrained concrete; horizontal: hydronic tubing in concrete floor slabs

Woods

Metals and Alloys

Glasses Porous Ceramics

Metals and alloys

More Embodied Energy

More Strength

Technical Ceramics

vertical: concrete with hydronic tubing horizontal: raised floor panels, hydronic tubing, displacement volumes

Foams

Glasses

Less Strength

Less Embodied Energy

Foams More Embodied Energy

Less Embodied Energy

Plastics Elastomers

Porous ceramics

Less Expensive

Woods Concrete

Brick

Porcelain More Expensive

HYDROLOGIES ENVELOPES THERMAL EMERGY Hydronic Radiant Concrete Wall Section

(left

Layers (left to right): Air-Entrained Concrete

Layers

(left

gypsum

board,

with

hydronic

insulation, Concrete

to

right):

concrete,

exterior sandwich

rigid

concrete walls

have

Interior foam

to

right):

Concrete

PEX

tubing.

layer. good

Air-entrained concrete walls have more air

Thermally active walls, like the ones in the

insulatory properties but the complication lies

pockets than normal concrete, increasing it’s

Zollverein School, utilize the capabilites

in the building process. With this wall type,

capability to insulate. Patrick Gartmann uses

of concrete to act as a heat source. The

construction can take longer because the

only air-entrained concrete walls in his house

hydronic tubing circulates water from an

wall must be installed in layers of insulation

in Chur as structure and insulation combined.

underground water source at a constant

before the concrete layers are applied.

temperature

of

90

degrees

Farenheit.

DAY LIGHT

Solid Air-Entrained Concrete Wall Section

Layers

AGENCY

Typical Concrete Sandwich Wall Section

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

simpler brick envelopes

Kopenick Library, Bruno Fioretti Marquez

Marktoberdorf Gallery, Bearth & Deplazes

vertical system: 26� solid brick wall

Woods

Metals and Alloys

Glasses Porous Ceramics

Metals and alloys

More Embodied Energy

More Strength

Technical Ceramics

vertical system: hydronic tubing in triple wythe brick

Foams

Glasses

Less Strength

Less Embodied Energy

Foams More Embodied Energy

Less Embodied Energy

Plastics Elastomers

Porous ceramics

Less Expensive

Concrete

Brick

Porcelain More Expensive

HYDROLOGIES ENVELOPES THERMAL EMERGY Hydronic Radiant Brick Wall Section

Layers (left to right): Brick

Layers (left to right): Brick with copper tubing.

This type of masonry wall also has an

The brick wall at Kopenick Library in Germany

This thermally active brick wall uses hydronic

overcomplicated building process due to

26 inches thick with no insulation cavity or

tubing to act as a heat source for the building. The

the steps needed to complete the wall. This

expansion joints necessary. This wall utilizes

hydronic tubing maintains an even temperature

type of wall is more susceptible to problems

the thermal properties of brick to maintain

and a balanced indoor climate, replacing

with thermal bridging and water permeation.

the atmosphere inside the ‘one-room’ library.

the need for elaborate mechanical services,

concrete block, vapor barrier, face brick.

reducing construction complexity even more

DAY LIGHT

Solid Brick Wall Section

Layers (left to right): Interior gypsum board,

AGENCY

Typical Masonry Wall Section

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

So the question remains; how can we solve the complexities

shearing layers

we have created for ourselves in the building process?

Instead of designing these layers independent of one another, we should integrate these layers in to a more

Competing Layers in Design

5-15

5-20

interior plan

5-20

5-30

service

30-60

structure

60-100

skin

>bldg

site

100+

site

stuff

skin

5-15

stuff interior plan service structure

75

human

human

site

75

skin structure service interior plan stuff

site

skin

stuff interior plan service structure

human

skin structure service interior plan stuff

site

cohesive system, designed to last as long as possible.

>bldg

Lifespan of Layers

Intergrated Building Design

HYDROLOGIES

CURRENT BOOM CONSTRUCTION COST INDEX

ENERGY COST INDEX

1900

1910

1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980’S BOOM

1980

1990

2000

EMERGY

THERMAL

1890

1970’S BOOM

WORLD WAR II

ENVELOPES

GREAT DEPRESSION

Old Building Construction

Internation Style of Construction

Low energy-cost, high building cost.

High energy cost, Low building cost.

Low energy cost, moderate building cost.

These buildings were highly energy efficient

The international style helped streamline

New

because

methods

like

that

of

were

designed

with

out

the construction process. The enclosure

Chur and Zollervin look to combine the

systems.

However

as

time

system was able to become thin. Large

two important aspects of these building

has progressed the methods to construct

span of glass became common place. As

methods. The design looks to use material

these buildings are extremely inefficient

a result massive heating and cooling loads

and

to today’s building standards. The require

exist in most of our buildings today that

achieve both low energy cost for the building

specified

are designed based on these principles.

as well as low construction and labor cost.

mechanical

and

skilled

material

labor

cost

are

and

construction

relatively

high.

innovative

construction

methods

DAY LIGHT

construction

to AGENCY

they

Technological Infused Construction

AIR CONDITIONING BLOWS Conventional HVAC design, reliant on air for a thermal medium,

thermoregulation through radiant emission and absorption, is

is an inefficient system responsible for 35% of building energy

particularly responsive to radiant conditioning.3 Yet we invested

How has an insulating medium

much in a thermal comfort system that relies on the convection

consumption each year.1

become the dominant method for heating and cooling the built

of air.

environment? And, more importantly, is there a more rational

In fact, radiant hydronic systems could reduce energy

and architectural alternative to air?

consumption by up to 75% over conventional HVAC systems,4

Indeed there is: water! Water has a long history as a thermal

as well as improve occupant comfort and reduce the space

Water is

requirements of thermal comfort systems. Radiant hydronic

over 833 times more dense than air, and, as such, is capable

systems are based on the principle that: a) water is more

of carrying 3,200 times more heat in the same volume.

efficient than air at storing thermal energy; and b) thermally

Additionally, our skin, which is primarily responsible for our body’s

tempering surfaces (instead of volumes) and relying on

medium in architecture, until relatively recently.

2

Reduce Energy Consumption by up to

75%

Heat Capacity of Water vs. Air 1 ft3 of Water = 3,200 ft3 of Air

decreasing individual buildings’ energy consumption is critical.

then select appropriate sources of renewable thermal energy.

Radiant hydronic systems are the next step towards a low-

At the urban scale, radiant hydronic systems offer the potential

energy architecture.

for geothermal heating and cooling.

The use of water as a thermal medium offers architects many

may lead to a reconsideration of programming and functional

opportunities to decrease building energy consumption. First, it

adjacencies both at the scale of building and city.

provides a logic to return to a thermally massive structure that

1

can modulate internal temperatures and act as the thermallyactive surface.

An architect may then use thermodynamic

Finally, these systems

“Buildings Energy Data Book, 1.1.4: 2006 U.S. Buildings Energy End-Use Splits, by Fuel Type,” US Department of Energy, accessed 10/25/2010, http://buildingsdatabook.eren.doe.gov/ TableView.aspx?table=1.1.4 2 Kiel Moe, Thermally Active Surfaces (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2010) 3 Ibid, 69.

4 Ibid, 91.

HYDROLOGIES

Once a buiding’s heat load profile is defined, an architect can

ENVELOPES

energy consumption of the building sector continues to grow,

THERMAL

thermal envelope further modulates the internal heat load.

EMERGY

is a far more efficient thermal comfort system. As the overall

DAY LIGHT

principles to optimize the spatial arrangement. An efficient

AGENCY

radiation to exchange thermal energy with the human body

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

HISTORICAL PROGRAMMING 78 19.08 19.08

98 32.55 32.55

78 10.54 10.54

78 23.07 23.07

Architecture and energy have had a long relationship in the Northeast.

From colonial houses such as the “saltbox”,

which

materials

with

used

vernacular

centrally

located

hearths, to masonry mill buildings with localized radiant heating, to modern offices buildings with more homogenous construction and ducted HVAC systems.

Historically, the salbox houses and mill buildings used similar methods of radiant heating, localizing program around heat sources, or vice versa. It wasn’t until mid-century and modern building that the price of energy lessened the demand for efficient systems, in favor of open plans and maximum leasable space.

Chart 1 100 75

Construction Method

- Heavy timber,

- Heavy timber, post and beam

post and beam

- Load-bearing masonry walls

Energy Systems

Energy Systems

- Two thermally massive masonry fireplaces

- Ceiling-hung radiant panels

- Natural ventilation

Energy Source

- Wood burning

25 Oil

Electricity

Natural Gas

Heating Efficiency Price Per Million BTUs

Propane

Mill Buildings | 1700’s

Construction Method

Energy Source

50

0

Saltbox House | 1600’s

Plan Type - Cellular

- Oil furnace Plan Type - Open plan, distributed services

HYDROLOGIES ENVELOPES THERMAL

Construction Method - Concrete encased steel frame

Energy Systems

Energy Systems

- HVAC Forced Air

- HVAC Forced Air

Energy Source

Energy Source

- Oil furnace

- Oil, Natural Gas, Electricity

Plan Type

Plan Type

- Open plan, central services

- Open plan, central services

DAY LIGHT

Construction Method - Poured-in-place concrete

EMERGY

Modern- Office Tower | 1900’s

AGENCY

Office Buildings | 1800’s

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS Structural solutions to thermal surface design can collect, store and distribute solar energy without the use of mechanized systems. When the basic components of a structure, i.e. walls, floors, windows and ceilings, are designed as multifunctional elements with proper orientation, buildings Direct Gain

in the Northeast can provide 60 to 80 percent of their required heating. Direct gain, trombe walls, and sun spaces can be optomized with a 35% South glazing area in comparison to floor area.

Trombe Wall Thickness Material

Thickness

Surface to Glazing ratio

Adobe

6 - 10 inches

1:1

Concrete or Brick

10 - 16 inches

1:1

Trombe Wall

Thermal Mass in Sunspace

Sun Space

Masonry Wall

Thickness

Surface to Glazing ratio

Noninsulated

8 - 12 inches

1:1

Insulated

4 - 6 inches

2:1

* “Heating, cooling, lighting: sustainable design methods for architect� US Department of Energy, Robert Lechner, John Wiley & Sons, 2009.

low heat energy surfaces is what creates the feeling of asymmetrical comfort.

In a thermally active spaces, glazing acts as a low heat energy surface,

20 10

Cool ceiling

Warm wall

5 4 3

drawing heat from occupants, which is why optimal glazing percentages are

2

crucial to efficient space design.

1

0

+ ++ + ++ + + + + + +++ + + + + + 15 20++ + +25++ 30 35 + + + Asymmetry Radiant Temperature + + + + + + + + ++ + + + +

5

10

F째

ENVELOPES

discomfort is minimized. The transfer of electromagnetic heat from high to

Cool wall

THERMAL

of radiant a-symmetry is eliminated, while energy use to overcome this

Warm ceiling

40 Percent of People Dissatisfied

surface locations. By surrounding occupants on all sides, the discomfort

HYDROLOGIES

80 60

A six sided heat source and sink strategy is the ideal configuration for thermal

+ + + + ++ + + + + + +++ + + + + + + + ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +++ + +++++ + + + + + + + + ++ + + + + + + + + + + ++ + + + + + + + + ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + ++ + + + + ++ + + + ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ++ + + + + ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

+ + + + ++ + + + + + +++ + + + + + + ++ + + + + + + + + + ++ + + + ++ + + + + + + + + + + + ++ + + + +++ + + +

++ + + + + + + + + +++ + ++ +

+

+ + + + + + + + ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + ++

Radiant Ceiling + + + +++ + + +

+ +++ + + + + + + ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ++ + ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ++ + + + + + + + ++ +

+

+

+ comfortable + + + + + + + ++ Somewhat + + + + + +

++ + + + + + + + +++ + ++ +

Radiant Floor +

Somewhat comfortable + + + + ++ + + + + + + + + + + ++ + + + +

+

+ + + + + + + + ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + ++

Radiant Walls + + + +++ + + +

+ +++ + + + + + + + ++ + + + + ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ++ + ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ++ + + + + + + + ++ +

+

+ + + + Comfortable + +

+ + + ++ + + + + + +++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ++ + + + + ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ++ ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ++ + + + + + + + + + + ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + ++ + + + + ++ + + + ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ++ + + + + ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + ++ + + + + + + + + + + +++ + + + + + ++ + + +

6-Sided Approach Most comfortable

DAY LIGHT

Kiel Moe, Thermally Active Surfaces (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2010)

AGENCY

*

Vertcal temperature asymmetry <9oF temperature asymmetry <18oF

++ Horizontal + + + + + + + +++ + ++ +

EMERGY

Comfort Range for Radiant Asymmetry + + + + + + + + + + + + +++ + + +

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

POWER OPERATED SYSTEMS

10’-0” 1’-6”

PEX System and Parameters

Capillary Mats and Parameters

Cross linked polyethylene (PEX) tubing

Capillary mats provide a simple solution

Concrete Embedded A slab-embeded system is the most

by

efficient means of creating a power

underneath

operated thermal mass. Loops of tubing

connect zones of tubing (300Lft max

drywall, plaster or concrete. Water is

are layed before the slab is poured,

each) to a central control system. PEX

transfered through 1/16” diameter tubes

allowing the concrete to act as the

heating can be easily integrated into hot

spaced 1/8” apart. Because of their close

thermal

water systems, is quieter than forced air,

spacing, capillary mats have faster

embedded system, it is important to

and can be re-zoned as program

reaction times and higher efficiency.

pressure test the system to identify leaks

is a flexible material used in hydronic

to

heating systems. Manifolds are used to

embedding

changes.

retrofitting

existing

thin

mats

buildings

mass.

When

before the pour is made.

installing

an

HYDROLOGIES ENVELOPES THERMAL

Similar to concrete, masonry embedded

Much like a concrete structured

In a typical wood framed building,

systems act as an efficient thermal

building, steel frame construction allows

access to the joist space and wal cavities

mass, holding an average of 25BTU/ft

3 .

the use of embedded tubing in concrete

allows for radiant systems to be installed

F, compared to concreteâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s capacity of

finished surfaces. Using this shallow

using either aluminum heat transfer

include

pour method requires a minimum of 3/4â&#x20AC;?

plates or plaster embeded tubing. Wood

brick, stone, tile, slate, terrazzo and

of concrete above the highest point of

typically holds 10-20BTU/ft3

marble. Control/expansion joints, and

the tubing. Aluminum panels can also be

floors via overpours or paneling are other

crack supression techniques required.

used as heat transfer plates.

means of creating a thermal surface.

o

30BTUs.

Efficient

mateirals

. o

F. Finish

EMERGY

Wood Frame

DAY LIGHT

Steel Frame

AGENCY

Masonry Embedded

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

THERMAL ENVELOPE The thermal envelope is one of the most important components of a building to consider

2

when trying to minimize energy consumption in

2

cold climates. The axonometric section details to the right exemplify the best practices in thermal envelope design. The section details may be characterized as representative of either massive (masonry, concrete) structure

6

or frame (wood, steel, glass) structure.

Additionally, we have selected examples of concrete, and wood.

3

3

different enclosure material systems: glass,

5

Finally, the selected

examples demonstrate different levels of

1

complexity in the building envelope.

2 5 1

Radiant hydronic tubing

2

Rigid Insulatiion

3

Framed, thermally broken glazing

1 3

system

4

Air-entrained lightweight concrete

5

Concrete

6

Power-operated ventilated cavity

7

Glue-laminated timber wall

Kunsthaus Bregenz

Gotz Headquarters

Bregenz, Austria

Wurzburg, Germany

Architect: Peter Zumthor

Architect: Webler + Geissler Architects

1 3

7

5 3 5

HYDROLOGIES

2

ENVELOPES

4

3 1

1

1

THERMAL

4

House in Chur

Housing for Kripalu Center Yoga and Health

Private House

Chur, Switzerland

Stockbridge, Massachusetts

Architect: Heinz and Nikolaus Bienefeld

Architect: Patrick Gartmann

Architect: Peter Rose and Partners AGENCY

4

DAY LIGHT

EMERGY

2

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS Hydronic radiant systems pump heated fluid from a storage tank

The simplest way to link energy systems to hydronic heating

through tubing within the active surfaces. Individual thermostat

is to pump the heat transfer fluid from the solar collector or

regulates the flow of heated water, ideally regulated between

geothermal loop directly through the tubing in the thermal

**

62 -79 F, per the Batiso System . Thermal energy systems allow

surfaces. This system can however be difficult to control, and

the fluid to be preheated using direct solar gain via solar-thermal

cause over/under heating. A regulator can be installed to control

panels, or solar heat stored within the earth via geothermal

the temperature fluxuation. Other systems pump the heated

systems.

liquid into a storage tank, passing through a heat exchanger to

o

o

transfer the energy to to water in a traiditional hot water tank.

This water is also able to be pumped directly through the energy systems, without using a heat exchanger.

New England

CONVENTIONAL AIR CONDITIONING

Building Bioclimatic Chart

100%

80% 60%

COMFORT VENTILATION

40%

THERMAL COMFORT ZONE

INTERNAL GAINS

20% JUL

PASSIVE AND ACTIVE SOLAR

AUG JUN

CONVENTIONAL HEATING

CONVENTIONAL AIR CONDITIONING HIGH THERMAL MASS WITH NIGHT VENTILATION

MAY

SEP APR

OCT

MAR JAN

ºF

10º

20º

FEB

DEC

30º

40º

50º

GROUND TEMP

60º

70º

80º

90º

HIGH THERMAL MASS

100º

110º

120º

HYDROLOGIES

Geothermal | Ground Loop

Geothermal | Well

Average % of Daylight Hours** Chart 1

Monthly Insolation**Chart (BTUs per ft2) 1

70

60000

65

50000

60

40000

55

30000

50

20000

45

10000

40

0

*

“Heating, cooling, lighting: sustainable design methods for architect” Untitled 1 US Department of Energy, Robert Lechner, John Wiley & Sons, 2009.

60

60

48

53446

40487

51

Ground Depth Temperatures** 0

40

Feb

50

60

Nov

Mar

15’

70ºF

Aug

30’

45’ Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct NovDec **

“Buildings Energy Data Book, 1.1.4: 2006.

Untitled 1 http://buildingsdatabook.eren.doe.gov/Charts.aspx

50ºF

AGENCY

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

- well depths specific to site 54746 57313 59279 - geothermal pilings

43841

EMERGY

- trenches dug 182086’-8’ deep 24637 37311 - average soil temperatures*:

- 37o | very cold o 60 - 45 62 | cold 66 64

- 52o | moderately cold - ideal heat sink for cooling needs

DAY LIGHT

- approximate required panel size: (per person)*

- 35ft2 | very cold 2

cold 58 - 25ft | 58 58 58

- 15ft2 | moderately cold

THERMAL

ENVELOPES

Solar-thermal

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

THERMAL LOAD PROFILES The relationship between a buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s program and thermal design is critical to understanding its thermal performance. Thermal loads may be divided into two broad categories: envelopedominated loads, and internally-dominated loads.

These categories help the architect

prioritize and focus their design strategy.

In an envelope-dominated building, such as a single-family home, the thermal envelope should be robust and carefully detailed to minimize thermal bridging. Another strategy to reduce thermal transfer is to minimize surface area. The igloo is an example of a envelopedominated building in which the maximum interior volume is provided with the minimum envelope surface area, thereby reducing heat 40

35

35

an office building, the primary source of heat

30

30

is people, lighting and equipment, so much so

25

25

1

Paul Oliver, Dwellings (New York: Phaidon, 2007), 25

Electrical load

Heating load

Residential:

Commercial:

-Envelope-dominated thermal load

-Internally-dominated thermal load

-Load curve peaks in the morning and

-Load curve peaks in the early afternoon

evening

-Highly variable over course of day

11:00

12:00

9:00

8:00

Time of Day

10:00

7:00

6:00

5:00

4:00

3:00

2:00

1:00

12:00

9:00

11:00

8:00

7:00

6:00

5:00

0

1:00

11:00

12:00

9:00

8:00

10:00

7:00

6:00

5:00

4:00

3:00

2:00

1:00

12:00

9:00

11:00

8:00

10:00

Time of Day

10:00

effectively transfer that heat elsewhere.

7:00

5

0

6:00

5

year, and then implementing strategies to

5:00

over the course of a day, week, season and

4:00

10

3:00

10

2:00

15

to understand how the thermal load changes

1:00

15

4:00

20

winter. The challenge in these instances is

3:00

20

2:00

that in some cases cooling is needed even in

Energy Load

40

In an internally-dominated building, such as

Energy Load

loss.1

HYDROLOGIES ENVELOPES THERMAL 30

30

25

25

Mission Critical:

Assembly Space:

-Internally-dominated thermal load

-Internally-dominated thermal load

-Load curve peaks in the early afternoon

-Load curve peaks tend to occur in morning, noon, or evening,

-Consistent load level

depending on facility, and are highly variable over the course of the day

AGENCY

12:00

9:00

11:00

8:00

7:00

6:00

5:00

4:00

10:00

Time of Day

3:00

2:00

1:00

12:00

9:00

11:00

10:00

8:00

7:00

6:00

5:00

4:00

3:00

0

1:00

11:00

12:00

9:00

8:00

7:00

6:00

5:00

10:00

Time of Day

4:00

3:00

2:00

1:00

12:00

9:00

11:00

10:00

8:00

1:00

7:00

5

0

6:00

5

5:00

10

4:00

15

10

3:00

15

DAY LIGHT

20

2:00

20

EMERGY

35

Energy Load

40

35

2:00

Energy Load

40

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

PROGRAMMATIC TYPES By

analyzing

historical

building

types,

Detached Residential

“Hotel” Confgurations

envelope design, programming, infrastructure and power operated, structural, and renewable energy systems, contemporary building types in the northeast have a variety of thermally active surface design parameters that should be matched to fit these standard types. The following building typologies (research/lab, manufacturing, residential, “hotel” and office tower) each have varying programmatic needs and typical construction methods, as well as energy requirements, which lend themselves

Heat Production: LOW

Heat Production: LOW

- Envelope dominated thermal load

- Cellular program spaces

- Cellular program spaces

- Envelope dominated thermal load

to a unique combination of strategies for appropriate and effective thermal surface

- Mixed use program Construction Method:

Construction Method:

- Wood frame, masonry

- Concrete, Steel Frame, Masonry

Structural System

Design Recommendations:

Design Recommendations:

- Create tight thermal envelope to minimize heat loss and energy use.

- Utilize direct gain or trombe wall strategies for cellular program needs.

- Solar thermal integration is more efficient than photovoltaics in the Northeast.

- Integrate geothermal wells into pilings

Power Operated System

design.

Renewable Energy System

Manufacturing

HYDROLOGIES

Office Towers

- Open plan with centralized services

- Spatial flexibility and adaptability

- Spatial flexibility and adaptability

- Internally dominated thermal load

- Internal and external thermal loads

- Envelope dominated thermal load

Construction Method:

Construction Method:

Construction Method:

- Concrete, Steel Frame, Masonry

- Steel Frame, Concrete

- Masonry, Steel Frame

Design Recommendations:

Design Recommendations:

Design Recommendations:

- Use thermal mass as heat sink to absorb heat during day and release at night.

- Integrate geothermal wells into pilings

- Capture excess heat from manufacturing

- Avoid direct gain by use of trombe wall or sunspace strategies on perimeter.

- Cature heat from mixed-use programming

- Utilize ground loop geothermal as heat sink

- Control direct gain into open floor plan

- Allow and control direct gain to interior to use structure as heat source.

EMERGY

Heat Production: HIGH

- Open plan with centralized services

DAY LIGHT

Heat Production: MODERATE/HIGH

- Controllable thermal environment.

AGENCY

Heat Production: MODERATE

THERMAL

ENVELOPES

Research/Lab Facilities

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

THERMAL INFRASTRUCTURE

PILE PILE PILE PILE PILE PILE PILE PILE PILE PILE PILE PILE PILE PILE PILE PILE PILE PILE PILE PILE PILE PILE PILE PILE PILE PILE PILE PILE PILE PILE PILE PILE PILE PILE PILE PILE PILE PILE space, which could be treated as geothermal

fields and utilized as a heat source/sink. Here,

we have analyzed the Back Bay neighborhood

to demonstrate the thermal potential in the

city.

1

“Open Space Plan 2002-2006: Appendix 2,” Boston Parks and Recreation Department, accessed October 24, 2010. http://www.cityofboston.gov/parks/openspace_doc.asp

THERMAL

-119 acres of open space -66.75 billion Btu potential EMERGY

Back Bay

DAY LIGHT

GEOTHERMAL GEOTHERMAL GEOTHERMAL GEOTHERMAL GEOTHERMAL GEOTHERMAL GEOTHERMAL GEOTHERMAL GEOTHERMAL GEOTHERMAL GEOTHERMAL GEOTHERMAL GEOTHERMAL GEOTHERMAL GEOTHERMAL GEOTHERMAL GEOTHERMAL GEOTHERMAL GEOTHERMAL GEOTHERMAL GEOTHERMAL GEOTHERMAL GEOTHERMAL GEOTHERMAL GEOTHERMAL GEOTHERMAL GEOTHERMAL GEOTHERMAL GEOTHERMAL GEOTHERMAL GEOTHERMAL GEOTHERMAL GEOTHERMAL GEOTHERMAL GEOTHERMAL GEOTHERMAL GEOTHERMAL GEOTHERMAL

-6290 acres of open space1 -3.5 trillion Btu potential there remains a significant amount of open

AGENCY

300’ 300’ 300’ 300’ 300’ 300’ 300’ 300’ 300’ 300’ 300’ 300’ 300’ 300’ 300’ 300’ 300’ 300’ 300’ 300’ 300’ 300’ 300’ 300’ 300’ 300’ 300’ 300’ 300’ 300’ 300’ 300’ 300’ 300’ 300’ 300’ 300’ 300’

Boston Even in a densely developed city like Boston, ENVELOPES

HYDROLOGIES

heat retention through super-insulated thermal envelopes and thermally massive structures - a static strategy inasmuch as buildings are static.

However, the thermal environment is dynamic, composed of active heat sources and heat sinks. Framed this way, one may find opportunities - synergies - between programmatic elements. At right and below is a hypothetical commercial/residential mixed-use project. The residential function benefits at night from a shared thermal plane charged by the commercial use during the day.

40

Residential

35

Commercial

Energy Load

30

25

Average

20

15

10

Electrical 7:00

8:00

9:00

10:00

8:00

9:00

10:00

11:00

6:00

7:00

12:00

5:00

6:00

11:00

4:00

5:00

Time of Day

12:00

3:00

4:00

2:00

1:00 1:00

3:00

12:00 12:00

9:00

11:00 11:00

8:00

10:00 10:00

7:00

6:00

5:00

4:00

3:00

1:00

0

2:00

5

Demand Profile

40

35

25

20

15

10

2:00

9:00

8:00

7:00

6:00

5:00

4:00

3:00

0

2:00

5

1:00

Energy Load

30

Time of Day

Thermal Profile

NIGHT

like? Much of thermal comfort design in cold climates is focused on

NIGHT

What might an architecture, designed for the thermal environment, look

NIGHT

THERMAL PROGRAMMING

COMMERCIAL RESIDENTIAL COMMERCIAL RESIDENTIAL COMMERCIAL RESIDENTIAL COMMERCIAL

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

on top of a vast thermal asset, the earth, the top 300â&#x20AC;&#x2122; of which has a total heat capacity of 66.75 billion Btu. Even when we eliminate the territory beneath the roadways and concentrate on that area under the linear park and alleys, the 53.1 billion Btu/hour thermal potential far exceeds the local demand of .25 billion Btu/hour. There is already precedent for shared district heating infrastructure in combined heat and power plants.

These systems are typically built around either steam or water pipes, further reinforcing the use notion that water ought to be the preferred thermal medium in architecture.

Enlarged Plan of Back Bay Neighborhood

430,000 Btu/hour

THERMAL

scale. As previously noted, the district of Back Bay shown below is built

107,000 Btu/hour 107,000 Btu/hour

Typical Multi-family Building in Back Bay

EMERGY

Other opportunities for optimized thermal design exist at the urban

DAY LIGHT

periodic intense thermal loads and a more constant, low thermal load.

AGENCY

might be paired with an assembly space,like a theater, which has

430,000 Btu/hour

Low-Energy Design

97,350,000 Btu/hour

facility, like a data center with an intensive and constant heat source,

HYDROLOGIES

These thermal synergies exist, not only at the scale of a building, but also at the scale of an urban district. For example, a mission critical

ENVELOPES

THERMAL URBANISM

AGENCY

DAY LIGHT

EMERGY

THERMAL

ENVELOPES

HYDROLOGIES

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

AGENCY

DAY LIGHT

EMERGY

THERMAL

ENVELOPES

HYDROLOGIES

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

AGENCY

DAY LIGHT

EMERGY

THERMAL

ENVELOPES

HYDROLOGIES

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

AGENCY

DAY LIGHT

EMERGY

THERMAL

ENVELOPES

HYDROLOGIES

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

AGENCY

DAY LIGHT

EMERGY

THERMAL

ENVELOPES

HYDROLOGIES

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

AGENCY

DAY LIGHT

EMERGY

THERMAL

ENVELOPES

HYDROLOGIES

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

AGENCY

DAY LIGHT

EMERGY

THERMAL

ENVELOPES

HYDROLOGIES

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

AGENCY

DAY LIGHT

EMERGY

THERMAL

ENVELOPES

HYDROLOGIES

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

AGENCY

DAY LIGHT

EMERGY

THERMAL

ENVELOPES

HYDROLOGIES

LET THERE BE [DAY] LIGHT By studying daylighting techniques through a

geometry play a large part in how light affects

3 economics of daylighting

range of factors, beginning with the cost of glass

a space, coupled with the percentage of

4

daylighting & productivity

and electricity and how this affected how these

transparency within the facade, to determine

5

contrast

resources were used in buildings, conclusions

an ideal building dimension. By applying

6

luminosity

can be made on what constitutes appropriate

such architectural techniques as skylights,

7

office lighting levels

daylighting levels to maximize productivity in

clerestory windows, louvers, or lightshelves,

9

surface area ratios

the workplace. By understanding contrast and

as well as material techniques such as fritted,

11 room geometry

luminosity as it relates to the eye, we can

colored, or tinted glass, mirrored surfaces or

13 transparency within facade

determine what light levels are necessary for

certain paint colors, transparency within the

15 double glazed walls & insulation

work spaces. Surface area ratios and room

facade can be minimized to improve insulation

16 solar control techniques

while controlling daylight.

17 solar control devices

Lever House

Zollverein School

Monadnock Building Burnham & Root, 1891

Skidmore, Owings, & Merrill, 1951

SANAA, 2005

COOLING

$$$

R-VALUE

$$$

FRITTED GLASS

$$$

LOUVERS

$$$

LIGHT SHELVES

$$$

FREE LIGHTING

---

FREE HEATING

---

A psychologically healthy connection to the outdoors can still be achieved with a percentage of glazing around 20-40%.

60% - 100% TRANSPARENCY Window-to-wall ratios should not be over 60 percent for maximum energy efficiency and

ADDITIONAL SHADING REQUIRED

lighting quality.

An effective lighting level can be achieved

HYDROLOGIES

ADDITIONAL INSULATION REQUIRED

$$$

ENVELOPES

under-insulated spaces.

HEATING

THERMAL

for electric lighting. It creates overlit and

EMERGY

Floor to ceiling glass does not offset the need

leaving no space untouched by natural light.

Architects should avoid designing a space with direct light. All light should be ambient or diffused light with an even distribution.

20% - 40% TRANSPARENCY

SOLAR CONTROL

AGENCY

is able to penetrate deep into the floorplate,

DAY LIGHT

with a 40’ - 50’ floorplate depth so that daylight

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

Economics of Daylighting The cost of glass has had a huge impact on the percentage

The cost of electricity shows in inverse affect from that of the cost

of glazing surface on the façade of a building. The price has

of class. When electricity prices were at a high, buildings were

fluctuated throughout the 19th and 20th century due to a

forced to maximize on sunlight. When electricity prices were at

number of factors.

These factors include a sharp increase in

an all-time low, buildings were less reliant on daylight and more

price during the two World Wars, and then a drastic decrease in

reliant on artificial lighting. Once electricity prices began to rise

the 1960’s with the invention of a streamlined process of making

once again, a drastic rise in fully glazed structures assuming

“float’ glass. Also, during this time much research was being put

that 100% glazing allowed for the best daylight conditions. This

into the study of new glazing techniques and technology which

rise in glazing percentages also led to the increase in necessity

in turn made the prices drop.

for air-conditioning systems.

Oldfield, Trabucco, and Wood. “Five Energy Generations of Tall Buildings.” 2008.

Cost of Glass (dashed) & Cost of Electricity (solid) X: Year, Y: Cent/kwhr

US Energy Imformation Administration, 2009.

HYDROLOGIES

Daylighting & Productivity Studies conducted on office workers prove that physical conditions, such as view out of a window, cubical heights, daylight illumination levels, ventilation status, and air temperature,

ENVELOPES

all had an effect on worker performance. The condition most consistently associated with worker performance was view, gauged primarily by the size of the view and secondarily by the greater vegetation content. Horizontal daylight illumination levels proved an inconsistent relationship to performance.

THERMAL

Higher illumination levels had a positive effect on short term memory, but workers had more sensitivity to changes at lower levels of illumination and progressively less sensitivity at higher levels.

DAY LIGHT AGENCY

The diagram shows that if office workers who earn $60,000/year in a standard 450,000 square foot office building are just 10% more efficient in their work, a total of $5,400,000 can be saved every year.

EMERGY

Economics of Productivity

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

Contrast There

is

daylighting architecture.

a

misconception

and

its

about

application

in

It is widely believed that

the more natural daylighting a building has, the better.

However, the correct

contrast between high luminosity and low luminosity is more important to the quality of light than to the percentage of glazing on the faรงade.

The Illusion of Contrast

The stripe of grey below demonstrates the illusion of contrast. This solid grey stripe appears to change its shade, when in reality, the shade of the background is the one changing.

HYDROLOGIES

Luminosity The pupil of the eye dilates and contracts when exposed to light. In conditions of high luminosity the pupil contracts. And When the pupil contracts or

dilates too quickly, from extreme contrast When

Contrast Applied

This study demonstrates the effects of contrast in a room. Achieving an appropriate light level for a room is determined by the level of contrast, not by the amount of light. The room with the smaller widow appears brighter than the room with a large window because of the contrast with the daylight of the outside.

THERMAL

avoided if at all possible.

EMERGY

designing for daylighting, glare is to be

DAY LIGHT

in luminosity, glare is created.

AGENCY

dilates.

ENVELOPES

in conditions of low luminosity the pupil

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

Office Lighting Levels

FULL SUNLIGHT

The preferred amounts of lighting levels in an office environment has varied based on historical evidence. In the beginning of the century the levels required for indoor lighting were low at 80-100 lux. In the middle of the century these levels rose sharply to 1075 the present day awareness of optimal lighting strategies.

OVERLIT

lux. Currently the level has evened out at 375-500 lux, showing

Office lighting levels over time have been determined based on â&#x20AC;&#x153;needâ&#x20AC;?, but these values are subjective and have not always been correct. From the chart on the right documenting what current lighting levels are necessary for certain functions, it is obvious that lighting levels were far exceeding what the eye actually required for working tasks.

As the chart on the left indicates, the level of light that is provided by direct sunlight exceeds the necessary office lighting levels.

Direct daylight can offer up to 20,000 lux, when normal office

LOW

OPTIMAL

work can be achieved in anywhere from 150-1000 lux.

Performance of very prolonged and exacting visual tasks

2000-5000 lux

Performance of visual tasks of low contrast and very small size for prolonged periods of time

1500-2000 lux

Detailed Drawing Work, Very Detailed Mechanical Works

1000 lux

Normal Drawing Work, Detailed Mechanical Workshops, Operation Theatres

750 lux

Supermarkets, Mechanical Workshops, Office Landscapes

500 lux

Normal Office Work, PC Work, Study Library, Groceries, Show Rooms, Laboratories

250 lux

Easy Office Work, Classes

150 lux 150-500 lux 50-100 lux 20-50 lux

Typical Office Lighting Levels Lux and task

Warehouses, Homes, Theaters, Archives Working areas where visual tasks are only occasionally performed Simple orientation for short visits Public areas with dark surroundings

http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/light-level-rooms-d_708.html

EMERGY DAY LIGHT AGENCY

HYDROLOGIES

5000-10000 lux

ENVELOPES

Performance of very special visual tasks of extremely low contrast and small size

THERMAL

10000-20000 lux

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

Room Geometry The depth of a building’s floor plate can determine interior

As architectural precedents have shown, there is no real

daylight conditions, natural ventilation, and the surface area to

correlation between room depth and percentage of glazing.

volume ratio of a building. There must be a balance between

Shallow structures have utilized 100% glazing, while deep

the surface area to volume ratio of a building and the depth of

buildings lack in percentage of glazing. By narrowing down

the floor plate so that natural daylight levels are optimal and

what this ideal proportion is, architects can successfully allow

not simply maximized. Also, for natural ventilation to occur a

light to penetrate into a building, reducing the need for artificial

narrow floor plate is key to allow air movement throughout the

lighting.

floor. Therefore a mid- sized floor plate depth is best when considering all three factors.

Oldfield, Trabucco, and Wood. “Five Energy Generations of Tall Buildings.” 2008.

Floorplate Depth and Glazing X: Floor Plate Depth, Percent Glazing

ENVELOPES

The geometry of a room impacts how the light reflects within it.

The light hitting the back of a 30’ room will be a higher luminosity than the light hitting the back of a 50’ room if all lighting conditions are the same. By applying light shelves to a deeper room, light can penetrate deeper into a space. In a room over 40’ deep, double exposure can be the solution to allowing daylight to reach all points in a room.

HYDROLOGIES

Room Depth Study

30’

Daylight

Daylight

40’

DAY LIGHT

Daylight & Lightshelves

50’

AGENCY

Daylight

Daylight & Lightshelves

EMERGY

THERMAL

Daylight & Lightshelves & Double Exposure

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

Double Glazed Walls

Insulation

There is a widespread misconception concerning the benefits

The U-Value of a material describes how well it conducts heat.

of using a double skin facade system in architectural practice.

The R-Value is a measure its thermal resistance. The primary

Double skin facades use two glazed surfaces with an intermediate

mode of heat transfer is through conduction, convection, and

zone of air between the interior and exterior skins to mitigate

radiation.

noise, temperature, and wind.

This system is commonly

to R-19, the most energy efficient windows are 3 to 4 times

considered the savior to all design issues in terms of natural

less efficient than the wall they’re installed in. By decreasing

ventilation, daylighting, and passive heating and cooling. It is

the percentage of glazing, the overall R-Value of the wall is

touted as being environmentally responsible and sustainable.

increased. A fully glazed wall, even eith the highest R-Value

Most exterior wall cavities are a minimum R-13

glass, lacks any insulation. Solar radiation heats up the interior However, the research proves that there are huge problems with

space in hot periods while heat is lost through the glass during

this notion of the double skin façade being used to solve the

cold periods.

issues mentioned above. It is important to look critically at the effects of using a double skin facade. Things to consider are the large amount of embodied energy it takes to produce and transport the materials, the extreme excess of daylighting which results from the high percentages of glazing, the life-cycle/ durability of the end product, and also the high installation and maintenance costs.

After considering all of these issues, it has been determined that the overall benefits of the double skin façade do not outweigh the negative consequences. The double skin façade is a high tech, high expense solution to a problem that can be solved in a variety of alternative ways. The double skin façade should no longer be used in architecture as a way to design for daylighting.

Oldfield, Trabucco, and Wood. “Five Energy Generations of Tall Buildings.” 2008.

Typical U-Values

Typical U-Values vs. Year

HYDROLOGIES

Solar Control The goal of understanding solar control is to eliminate or minimize the sunâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s effect on a building during over-heated periods and maximize solar radiation during under-heated periods of the

ENVELOPES

year. During hot periods, architects strive to avoid heat gain and excessive glare through simple architectural techniques. During cold periods, daylight can be used to increase heat within the buildings walls.

THERMAL

Traditional methods of analyzing sun angles and mathematical calculations can be applied to projects using sun angle diagrams and climate data. Modern technologies can also assist in the understanding of solar control. Such programs as Ecotect can determine sun angles, climate conditions, as well

EMERGY

as wind patterns. Ecotect allows desigers to simuate building performance through building orientation in the initial stages of design.

DAY LIGHT

Resources _Autodesk Ecotect _Lightcsape _Desktop Reliance _FormZ RadioZity

Sun path diagram and shadow path for Ecotect Base Summer Solstice

AGENCY

_Lumen Macro

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

Primary Devices for Solar Control: Architectural Techniques

Light shelves provide the opportunity for sunlight

of light throughout the day and usually admit

to be reflected into a space. Direct rays are not

more light per unit area than standard vertical

only shaded from the interior space, reducing

windows. The ideal size and area of skylights

glare, but they provide an ambient light that can

and the characteristics of the specific skylight, but it usually falls within 4-8% of the total overall floor area of a space.

reach further depths than that of the typical sun angle. The shape of a light shelf, along with its material reflectance, can be altered to control the direction and intensity of the light.

Clerestory windows are high, vertically- placed

Louvers can be placed on the faรงade of a building

windows. When placed on the north side of

to allow air and diffused light in, but keep direct

a building, clerestories provide a direct light

light out. Louvers can be made of many materials

to rooms that otherwise would not be highly

such as wood, plastic, or metal and can be used

illuminated.

When placed on the south side

as design elements. They are an excellent option

are used to increase direct solar gain.

when trying to redesign an existing faรงade that

they

Clerestory windows evenly illuminate a space while retaining privacy at the same time.

Louvers

Clerestory Windows

Skylights

varies according to climate, geographic location,

Light Shelves

Skylights are able to provide an even distribution

has a high percentage of glazing by allowing only the desired amount of daylight into a space.

for glare purposes, they are best when white to reduce contrast with the sky. The pattern of frit can be simple dots or any number of arrangements. Frits do not diffuse light, they reduce the effective size of the glazing system.

types of light.

HYDROLOGIES

A grey colored glass provides

approximately 45 units of transmittance, while bronze tint has a transmittance level of 50. Green tint provides the highest level of transmittance at approximately 75, compared to a clear glass glazing with a transmittance at 88.

It is easy to use high tech solutions to solve basic

to a piece of highly polished metal to a reflecting

problems. Sometimes architects underestimate

pool carefully placed in an atrium. By having a

the impact that surface color has in the way

reflective surface, a small amount of daylight can

daylighting illuminates a space.

surface disperses light deep within a space and amplifies the light that enters a space.

create sufficient distribution of daylight, the color of walls, partitions, and even mullions should be relatively light to avoid a sharp contrast between the exterior and interior of the building.

AGENCY

become a larger source of light. The reflective

In order to

DAY LIGHT

A reflective surface can be anything from a mirror

Surface Color

Reflective Surfaces

EMERGY

Fritted Glass

a glazing system. They can be any color, but

which block and/or reflect different amounts and

ENVELOPES

into the interior surface of the exterior pane of

Glass can be tinted with various types of coating,

THERMAL

Frits are a series of reflective shapes placed

Colored/Tinted Glass

Secondary Devices for Solar Control: Material

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

Transparency within Facade The percentage of glazing within the faรงade dictates how much light is able to enter the building. In the past century this value has increased and decreased based on external factors. From 1900 to 1970 the percentage of glazing on facades of buildings rose consistently.

Partly, this was due to the increasing

misunderstanding of how much luminosity was needed for an interior to be comfortable to the inhabitant. With the energy crisis of 1973, the percentage of glazing steeply dropped. Once again, in the 21st we see a return to highly transparent facades.

28% 90 West Street, NYC

25%

31%

Equitable Building, NYC

Mercantile Building, NYC

32% Chrysler Building, NYC

HYDROLOGIES ENVELOPES THERMAL

Transparency within Facade

32%

24%

53%

100%

500 5th Avenue, NYC

570 Lexington Ave, NYC

Lever House, NYC

GSW Headquarters, Germany

AGENCY

DAY LIGHT

EMERGY

X: Year, Y: Percent Transparency

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

Surface Area Ratios Prior to the 1916 zoning law, skyscrapers were bulky, compact forms with stacked floors that maximised leaseable space.

These buildings were large volumes, but had relatively small envelope surface areas, allowing them to retain a high degree of heat in the winter, but at the expense of natural light penetration.

Surface area ratios can be anaylized as follows; the higher the ratio, the higher the energy consumption due to heat loss and solar gain from an increased surface area. This increased surface area also means a greater natural light penetration.

.024 90 West Street, NYC

.031

.041

Equitable Building, NYC

Mercantile Building, NYC

.039 Chrysler Building, NYC

HYDROLOGIES ENVELOPES THERMAL

Surface Area Ratios

.056 500 5th Avenue, NYC

.055 570 Lexington Ave, NYC

.049 Lever House, NYC

.069 GSW Headquarters, Germany

AGENCY

DAY LIGHT

EMERGY

X: Year, Y: Surface Areawv

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

Daylighting Applied The Zollverein School located in Essen Germany can be used as an example of a contemporary building that correctly embodies the ideal daylighting conditions. It has a modest floor plate depth of 35m and has a percentage of glazing on the façade of 114â&#x20AC;&#x2122;. By designing for the quality of daylighting in a building instead of the quantity of glazed surfaces, the Zollverein School was able to achieve both architectural and experiential success.

Surafce Area Ratios

Surface Area Ratios * Ocupiable Volume

.034 Zollverein School SANAA, 2005

Surface Area Ratio

22% Transparency

HYDROLOGIES

Daylighting Applied The Zuidas Building in Amsterdam is an example of the form that the contemporary office building could follow.

Previously, office towers were the most inefficient in terms of

ENVELOPES

energy consumption and they were also poorly designed for daylighting The Zuidas Building uses the correct percentage of glazing and the right ratio of surface area to volume to create a well daylight building. Its design is economical and yet

THERMAL

unrestrained.

Surface Area Ratios

.034 Zuidas

Toyo Ito, 2005

Surface Area Ratio

39% Transparency

AGENCY

DAY LIGHT

EMERGY

Surface Area Ratios * Occupiable Volume

GOT AGENCY? Over the past century, as building technology has proliferated,

have frequently been marginalized to the role of coordinators and

architects have increasingly relinquished their agency over

information gatherers. A decline in the architectural quality of the built

the process of building. Once commanding a near total control

environment has followed as a direct result, with large portions of a

over both design and implementation, modern architects

building now outside the architectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s control.

CONSULTANT ARCHITECT

HAB HAB

10%

CONSULTANT CONSULTANT

90%

SLAB

HAB HAB

Philosophical Ideal

Drop Ceiling

Maison Dom-ino

Leaver House.

DROP

ARCHITECT

67%

SLAB

SLAB

DROP

1910

1920

1930

1940

1950

Nat. Bldg. Code

Drop Ceilings

Levittown- AC Standard

Suburban Building Code

1st Window Air Conditioners

1st air conditioned building

Uniform Building Code

Plumbing Code

Fire Inspections Required

American Lumber Standards

SLAB

Electricity becomes standard

ARCHITECT AGENCY

23%

SLAB

SLAB

1900

10%

rigorous integration of the varied systems that have become ingrained

lens of thermally active surfaces, it becomes apart how the survival

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of the architectural profession and the future sustainability of our built

of constituents, uniting the goal of increased agency with the agendas

environment are fundamentally and inexorably interdependent.

CONSULTANT

SLAB

DROP

HAB HAB

ARCHITECT

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DROP

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HAB HAB

10% 90%

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THERMAL

CONSULTANT CONSULTANT

HYDROLOGIES

of the other professions involved in the building process. Using the

ENVELOPES

This must change. One way to solve this issue is through a much more

SLAB

SLAB

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EMERGY

Future Direction

Drop Ceiling + Raised Floor

Endless Possibilities

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

?

AGENCY AGENCY

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CMAA

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Un. Dwell. C

Nat. Elec.

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DAY LIGHT

Mansion House

1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950

Nat. Bldg. Code

Drop Ceilings

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:KLOH QRW D SLYRWDO HYHQW LQ LWVHOI WKHVH HDUO\ H[DPSOHV XVLQJ IRUFHG DLU technology are the start down the long and errant path of air mediated temperature control. The inertia they acquire will prove too much fore early DQG PRUH HIÃ&#x20AC; FLHQW K\GURQLF V\VWHPV WR RYHUFRPH UHOHJDWLQJ WKHP WR WKH EDFNJURXQG XQWLO WKH DGYHQW RI 3(; WXELQJ DQG WKH HQYLURQPHQWDO PRYHPHQW of the 1990s.

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The increasing amount of code that architects have to comply with changes WKH DLP IURP GHVLJQ WRZDUGV FRPSOLDQFH DQG WR PDVWHULQJ D FKHFNOLVW National codes begin to unintentionally standardize design solutions.

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Levittown- AC Standard

Suburban Building Code

1st Window Air Conditioners

1st air conditioned building

Uniform Building Code

American Lumber Standards

Fire Inspections Required

Plumbing Code

Electricity becomes standard

ARCHITECT AGENCY

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

AT WHAT COST?

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

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Further erosion of control over the way in which the challenges of buildings are solved comes in the IRUP RI HYHU PRUH SUHVFULSWLYH EXLOGLQJ FRGHV 7KH QRWLRQ RI D VLQJOH RQH VL]H Ă&#x20AC; WV DOO VROXWLRQ UXQV counter to the notion that buildings are individual products of their environments and programs.

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POSITIVELY RADIANT Greater systems Integration stands out as

Evaluating systems integration in building

Even within the category of thermally active

perhaps the most promising strategy by which

design, thermally active surfaces provide

surfaces

architects can reclaim the agency they have

a convenient example of how this strategy

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lost over the past century. Current construction

can not only lead to better buildings, but

but the surface area of the building the

budgets allot more money towards the

can

The

architect controls. From lower performing

mechanical

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there

are

varying

degrees

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building than the actual building itself. This

hydronic over conventional air heating and

embedded

perversion represents of the backward state

cooling allow for a drastic physical reduction

agency and environmental performance is

of our modern construction methodologies.

of the system. Decoupled from ventilation, the

clear. While pursuing different ends they

Rational design strategies provide tactics to

thermal services of the building can easily be

prove mutually supportive, leading to higher

reverse this trend.

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performing, better designed buildings.

PEX,

the

corollary

between

Architecture

Mechanical

Architecture

Other

Interior

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Construction Buget Analysis Conventional Steel Construction (left) and Thermally Active Concrete (right)

Mechanical

Other

Interior

Electrical

Site Work

HYDROLOGIES

Attached

PEX Tubing inside Cast-In-Place Concrete

&DSLOODU\ 7XELQJ $I多 [HG WR &HLOLQJ 6XUIDFH

60%*

Suspended

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Water Walls as Independent Architectural Elements

Architectural Agency as Related to Various Thermally Active Surfaces

AGENCY AGENCY

83%

DAY LIGHT

EMERGY

Embedded

THERMAL

90%

ENVELOPES

100%

ENERGY SYSTEMS URBANURBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

INTEGRATION NATION Architects have been losing agency not only

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If architects regain their place as the hub of

in the social realm of the building hierarchy,

Behind them, engorged ducts attempt to

the design process, they can initiate early

but in the physical as well. Whereas once they

create a tolerable interior climate.

coordination and cross-pollination between

controlled all the surfaces of a building, they

Shortly after, raised access tiles would

the various consultants that contribute to

have slowly lost ground to an ever increasing

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buildings. This should result in markedly

amount of off-the-shelf solutions devised to

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Address service loads, reducing their respective cross Address

services. Drop ceilings erased the coffers and

are transformed from architectural strategies

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beams that modulated space and excited the

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sections of Address the present can be tamed into Address

eye, replacing them with an endless plane of

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No.

Typical Drop Ceiling + Raised Floor

Description

Thermally Active Surface

Owner

Project Name

Date

PRODUCED BY AN AUTODESK STUDENT PRODUCT

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HYDROLOGIES

2010

2011

Site Prep Formwork www.autodesk.com/revit

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No.

Description

Date

Glass & Glazing Elevators Interior Fit Out MEP Finish Restoration of Site Testing & Inspections Commissioning Systems

EMERGY

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Radiant Tubing Electrical Lighting Ventilation Plumbing Rebar Pour

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Integrated Building + Process

Planning Process

AGENCY

2009

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG

ENVELOPES

Construction Schedule

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

FOLLOW THE MONEY The notion among developers that architects

The reality however could be just the opposite.

Below is perhaps the most convincing

are bad for the budget is predicated on the

Architects stand in a unique position to

argument of how both architects and their

falsehood that design and the bottom line

innovate changes to building methodologies

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integration of the building on the left creates

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their clients without compromising design.

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atrophy of architectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s control over their own

Reclaiming lost agency, they can manage

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projects. Marginalized, they have planted their

their consultants in ways that produce much

envelope. The client gains 33% more leasable

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higher levels of integration and performance.

space over the conventional construction

in, they appear to developers to fanatically

This in turn frees up lost capital that can be

shown at right, and the architect regains

defend their design aesthetics regardless of

reinvested in better design and higher quality

agency over all 6 surfaces of the interior, as

budgetary constraints

construction and materials.

well as 33% more space to design.

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PRODUCED BY AN AUTODESK STUDENT PRODUCT

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Description

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Section 2 1/2" = 1'-0"

Date

4 Story Thermally Active Concrete Construction

Drawn By Checked By

Scale

PRODUCED BY AN AUTODESK STUDENT PRODUCT

1

Project Number Issue Date Author Checker

3 Story A103 1/2" = 1'-0"

Forced-Air Steel Construction

10/19/2010 4:33:13 PM

Project Number

Cost “in Billions”

-1

Projected Revenue Vacancy Renovation

50

A

Th

2 Co nv

100

Years

ti en on al C s on

150

tru

200 THERMAL

THERMAL

ENVELOPES

ENVELOPES

n

EMERGY

EMERGY

lly eC tio

DAY LIGHT

a erm v cti Co uc

DAY LIGHT

3 te

o re nc tr ns

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“in Billions”

4

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1 ReBuild

Demolition

Revenue

HYDROLOGIES

HYDROLOGIES

5

cti on

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

CODIFIED Beyond the additional square footage that

So while the choice of a thermally active

The task for the architect pursuing increased

can be gained from increasing the number

concrete building might have initially been

agency is then to illustrate for the client how

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the extra expected revenue generated by this

gaining square footage for a building. These

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increase in leasable space can be invested

lie in the maximum allowable buildable area

that directly translate into marketable assets.

back into the construction budget, allowing

and heights controlled by building codes.

If you can tell a client that not only have you

for higher quality design. Since construction

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PDQDJHG WR LQFOXGH RQH PRUH OHDVDEOH Ă&#x20AC; RRU

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within the maximum building height, but that

achieved from both more and higher-quality

As outlined in Table 503 of the International

you have also expanded the allowable size

leasable space is theoretically unlimited, it

%XLOGLQJ &RGH WKH OHVV Ă&#x20AC; DPPDEOH WKH GENERAL BUILDING HEIGHTS AND AREAS building, the more gross sf is allowed.

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proven your value.

the architect furthers their design.

TABLE 503 ALLOWABLE HEIGHT AND BUILDING AREAS Height limitations shown as stories and feet above grade plane.

Area limitations as determined by the definition of â&#x20AC;&#x153;Area, building,â&#x20AC;? per floor.

TYPE OF CONSTRUCTION TYPE I

TYPE II

TYPE III

TYPE IV

TYPE V

A

B

A

B

A

B

HT

A

B

Hgt(feet) GROUP

Hgt(S)

UL

160

65

55

65

55

65

50

40

A-1

S A

UL UL

5 UL

3 15,500

2 8,500

3 14,000

2 8,500

3 15,000

2 11,500

1 5,500

A-2

S A

UL UL

11 UL

3 15,500

2 9,500

3 14,000

2 9,500

3 15,000

2 11,500

1 6,000

A-3

S A

UL UL

11 UL

3 15,500

2 9,500

3 14,000

2 9,500

3 15,000

2 11,500

1 6,000

A-4

S A

UL Unlimited UL

11 UL

3 gsf 46,500 15,500

2 9,500

3 gsf 42,000 14,000

2 9,500

3 15,000

2 gsf 23,000 11,500

1 6,000

A-5

S A

UL UL

UL UL

UL UL

UL UL

UL UL

UL UL

UL UL

UL UL

UL UL

B

S A

UL UL

11 UL

5 37,500

4 23,000

5 28,500

4 19,000

5 36,000

3 18,000

2 9,000

S

UL

5

3

2

3

2

3

1

1

HYDROLOGIES ENVELOPES

Type I Radiant Concrete

Type I Radiant Concrete

Type I Radiant Concrete

Lost volume within code envelope

([WUD Ă&#x20AC; RRU JDLQHG ZLWK LQWHJUDWLRQ

Addtional volume allowed due to type

Ful realization of maximum buildable sf

54,000 sf

53%

VI

VI

VI

VI

VI

Habitable Volume Within Allowable Envelope* *Note 3rd option still outperforms 1st without taking advantage of allowable gains

VI

VI

EMERGY

60%

DAY LIGHT

80%

Public Space?

80%

AGENCY AGENCY

40,500 sf

THERMAL

Type III Forced Air

URBAN URBAN ENERGY ENERGY SYSTEMS SYSTEMS

SMART AND SEXY The programs of buildings are as varied as the clients who commissions them, and not all would count budget and revenue as their ultimate aims. If this is the case, what are the alternate strategies that can be employed with the added KHDGURRP DQG Ă&#x20AC; RRU VSDFH WKDW LQWHJUDWHG designs achieve?

One option would be to cannibalize the newfound space and transform it into doubleheight volumes throughout the building. Or perhaps it achieves a greater variation of Ă&#x20AC; RRU KHLJKWV PHGLDWLQJ EHWZHHQ GLIIHULQJ programmatic elements. Increased sectional complexity is made possible not only through

60°

68°

76°

60°

68°

76°

WKH JDLQV LQ Ă&#x20AC; RRU VSDFH EXW DOVR EHFDXVH WKHUH is no penalty for large or complex volumes when employing thermally active surfaces. This gives the architect a much greater degree of design freedom.

These double height spaces are well served by the thermally active surfaces that created them.

Since

effectiveness is not dependant on the

distance from the emitter/absorber, the ceilings of double height spaces can still be active VXUIDFHV UHJDUGOHVV RI WKHLU FRQÂż JXUDWLRQ Increased levels of physical and psychological comfort combine with more design freedom to produce a higher quality architecture.

CONVENTIONAL FORCED-AIR HEATING

Measuring Human Comfort

HYDRONIC TUBE RADIENT HEATING

HYDROLOGIES ENVELOPES THERMAL EMERGY DAY LIGHT Thermally Active Surface Forced Air

Radiant Energy Transfer

Increased Sectional Complexity

AGENCY AGENCY

Direct Sunlight

URBAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

CAPTAIN PLANET Sustainable design has become the cause

Yet beneath all the glitz of solar cells and

An example of the possible energy savings

celeb of the profession over the past two

green roofs lies a much more substantial and

that can be achieved from a thorough study

decades. While no one would argue with the

far-reaching solution to this global problem.

of construction methodologies can be seen

end objectives of the movement, the way in

Architects need to regain their agency over

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in substantial savings over conventional steel/

its accompanying proliferation of consultants,

designed and built. A careful re-evaluation

forced air construction.

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Zollverein School

Peter Zumthor

THERMAL

ENVELOPES

2

Kunsthaus Brenger

EMERGY

Patkau Architects

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DAY LIGHT

Gleneagles Center

Peter Rose

AGENCY AGENCY

Kripalu Housing Tower

URBAN URBAN ENERGY ENERGY SYSTEMS SYSTEMS

THE FALL OF TROY Over the past century, technological and social changes have eroded the agency that architects RQFH KHOG RYHU GHVLJQ DQG FRQVWUXFWLRQ RI WKH EXLOW HQYLURQPHQW 7KH H[WHQVLYH SUROLIHUDWLRQ RI DUWLÂż FLDO systems that temper and power the internal environment threaten to strangle the last drop of architecture out of buildings, transforming them into a mechanical spaghetti hidden within irrelevant scrims. In the SURFHVV DUFKLWHFWV KDYH EHFRPH LQFUHDVLQJO\ PDUJLQDOL]HG WR WKH UROH RI JORULÂż HG FRRUGLQDWRUV RI WKHVH systems.

This loss of control banishes architects to the realm of the reactionary, and lacking the ability to inform the technologies they employ, those systems have taken on a logic and life of their own. Langdon Winner, in his work Autonomous Technology, refers to this instance when, â&#x20AC;&#x153;...the modern technological ensemble develops a character, possibly even a spirit, unto itself, which is distinct from the structure or EHKDYLRU RI DQ\ RI LWV VSHFLÂż F SDUWV ´ 7KH GDQJHU LQ WKLV OLHV LQ WKH LQHUWLD WKDW WKLV ÂłVSLULW´ FDQ GHYHORS VWLĂ&#x20AC; LQJ RSSRVLQJ YLHZSRLQWV DQG OHJLWLPL]LQJ LUUDWLRQDO FRQFOXVLRQV :LWKRXW FRPSHQVDWRU\ FRQWURO LQ WKH form of the architect, foundational problems arise and persist, resulting in a proliferation of expensive yet poorly performing buildings.

Architects need to wrestle control back without distancing the clients, consultants, and contractors that are necessary to the realization of buildings. The methodology outlined in the prior pages builds D ÂłWURMDQ KRUVH´ VWUDWHJ\ LQ ZKLFK DUJXPHQWV DERXW SURÂż WDELOLW\ VXVWDLQDELOLW\ HIÂż FLHQF\ DQG DHVWKHWLFV combine with increased architectural agency as the only logical conclusion. Yet far from being a ruse to regain control, these various elements prove mutually reinforcing at increasing degrees that directly correlate to the architectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ability to inform, coordinate, and employ them. $UFKLWHFWV Ă&#x20AC; XHQW LQ WKH ODQJXDJH and agenda of developers, engineers, builders, and the larger community re-assert their intrinsic value and leadership in the simultaneous progress made on all fronts. The resulting product, its technology tamed, represents a vast leap forward from the buildings currently designed and just as often diluted by compromise.

Inherent but invisibly woven within the argument of increasing gains for the constituent parties, agency, like the ancient Greeks, slips silently past the status quo, poised to unleash transformative progress that will not only reassert the primacy of the architectural profession, but spark a revolution in the way we realize our future built environment.

AGENCY AGENCY

DAY LIGHT

EMERGY

THERMAL

ENVELOPES

HYDROLOGIES