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Acknowledgements
The editors wish to thank each contributor to this book. Without their dedication and enthusiasm about this project and their abiding academic interest in the fields of media, communication, and digital humanities, this book would not have been possible.
In addition to the contributors the editors would like to thank the peer reviewers, and a special word of thanks is extended to Jessica Seymour and Bjorn Beijnon in this regard.
Moreover, the editors wish to thank Palgrave Macmillan for the opportunity to publish with them and for their ongoing support in the process.
Finally, the editors wish to acknowledge HU University of Applied Sciences Utrecht for the opportunities created for two of them to attend subject-specific and related local and international conferences where they are facilitated to extend their networks and develop and hone their research skills and experience.
Utrecht, Netherlands Dennis Nguyen Ivonne Dekker Istanbul, Turkey Sergül Nguyen
Utrecht, Netherlands 2019
Part I Challenges and Oppor tunities in Media and Communication Studies 1
Introduction: Understanding Media and Society in the Age of Digitalisation 3
Dennis Nguyen, Ivonne Dekker, and Sergül Nguyen
Media and Communication Studies in the Age of Digitalization and Datafication: How Practical Factors and Research Interests Determine Methodological Choices 13
Dennis Nguyen
User Tactics and Algorithms: A Digital Humanities Approach to YouTube and Tumblr 35
Nicolle Lamerichs
Making Sense of the (Internet) Archive: Negotiating Meaning, Memory and History in Artistic Practice
Dulce da Rocha Gonçalves
Slow Tourism Joining New Media in Global Sustainability and Environmental Communication: Inspiring Individual and Industry Travel Practices and Media Expressions
Konrad Gunesch
55
73
Part II Researching Meaning, Representation, and Politics in Digital Media
Combining Qualitative and Digital Methods for Exploratory
Framing Analyses: The Case of Alternative Video Coverage of the Syrian War on YouTube 103
Ivonne Dekker and Dennis Nguyen
Mediating Fear by Breaking News: A Case Study of CNN Türk and NTV 131
Inci Çınarlı and Sergül Nguyen
Visual Framing and Migrant Discourses in Social Media: The Story of Idomeni on Instagram 157
Radmila Radojevic, Dennis Nguyen, Jan Bajec, and Ioanna Ferra
A Quantitative and Qualitative Approach to Analysing Cyberbullying in Classmates’ WhatsApp groups
Dana Aizenkot
Technology Experience, Health Beliefs or Background?
Examining the Factors Affecting the Intention to Use Social Media for Health Purposes
Dennis Rosenberg, Rita Mano, and Gustavo S. Mesch
Constructing 24/7 Madness. The Pathology Behind Schizophrenia in Western Urban Screen Cultures
Bjorn Beijnon
notes on contributors
Dana Aizenkot (PhD) is an associate doctor in the Department of Multidisciplinary Studies in Social Science, Ashkelon Academic College, Israel. Her research interests include cyberbullying in social networks among school-aged children and adolescents, twenty-first-century skills, and post-traumatic growth following loss and life challenges among children and adolescents.
Jan Bajec (MA, New Media and Digital Culture, University of Amsterdam) is an independent researcher specializing in data analysis and visualization. His interest is in digital methods for social and cultural research and visualization methods and techniques. He developed several data visualization courses, for example at the Utrecht University Summer School, 2013 with the contribution “Data Visualization: Telling Stories with Data”. In 2010 he collaborated with the University of Amsterdam (UvA) on the Twitter Lyrics information visualization project. Bajec also contributed to the online publication Right-Wing Formations in Europe and Their Counter-measures: An Online Mapping, compiled by Richard Rogers and the Digital Methods Initiative.
Bjorn Beijnon is a PhD candidate at the Amsterdam School for Cultural Analysis, University of Amsterdam, and a lecturer at the Institute for Communication, HU University of Applied Sciences Utrecht. His interests lie in embodied perception of media and the societal creation of conceptions of the pathological and the normal. He has published articles on numerous topics, varying from the visuality of
consciousness to the appliance of smartwatches. Through Virtual Reality Head-Mounted Displays and in-depth interviews with both psychiatrists and people with schizophrenia, he studies how people with schizophrenia construct and experience different subjectivities within contemporary Western urban screen cultures.
Inci Çınarlı (PhD) is Professor of Public Relations and Dean of the Faculty of Communications at Galatasaray University, Istanbul. Her research focuses on strategic communication, critical perspectives in public relations, crisis and risk communication, corporate social responsibility, and health communication. She has authored numerous books, articles, and book chapters on these areas and presented papers at international conferences.
Ivonne Dekker (PhD) is an education specialist and a senior lecturer at HU University of Applied Sciences Utrecht. She has extensive experience in education and training in both vocational and academic environments. She obtained a PhD at the University of Tilburg. She has authored several research articles and presented papers at local and international conferences.
Ioanna Ferra obtained a PhD at the University of Leicester and recently joined Coventry University as Lecturer in Digital Media (School of Media and Performing Arts). Her research interest focuses on digital media, social movements, and collective actions, especially as these developed in the global recession context. She has a keen interest in working with digital research methods and exploring new data mining techniques and software for semantic and social network analysis.
Konrad Gunesch (PhD) is Associate Professor of International Education and Linguistics at the College of Media and Mass Communication, American University in the Emirates, Dubai. His main research areas, across more than seventy journal, book, and chapter publications, are rooted in international education, cultural identity, language learning, comparative literature, media and film studies, gender studies, environmental economics, and sustainable tourism. He has given over 40 invited international conference keynote presentations at the universities of Harvard, MIT, oxford, Cambridge, London, Lisbon, and the University of Washington in Rome among others, and over 140 conference presentations in 16 languages.
Nicolle Lamerichs (PhD) is a senior lecturer and team lead at Creative Business at HU University of Applied Sciences Utrecht. She holds a PhD in Media Studies from Maastricht University (2014). In her book Productive Fandom (2018), she explores intermediality, affect, costuming, and creativity in fan cultures. Her research focuses on participatory culture and new media, specifically the nexus between popular culture, storytelling, and play.
Rita Mano received a PhD from the Polytechnic Institute of Israel, Faculty of Industrial Engineering and Management, in 1995. She engages in a wide range of studies in mHealth, eHealth, and nonprofit management studies. Her research was funded by Maccabi Health Services (2011) and Israel Society Foundation (2016). She has authored three books on complexity of management in human services; nonprofit organizations in Israel; and eHealth, mHealth, and the self-management of health concerns (forthcoming). Mano serves as Head of Department in Human Services at the University of Haifa.
Gustavo S. Mesch is a professor in the Department of Sociology, University of Haifa. He was the chair of the Information and Communication Section of the American Sociological Association. His main research interests include youth culture, technology and society, online communication, and the interface of online and face-to-face social networks.
Dennis Nguyen (PhD) is a senior lecturer, researcher, and graduation coordinator for the study programmes Data-Driven Design (MA) and Creative Business (BA) at HU University of Applied Sciences Utrecht. In his book Europe, the Crisis and the Internet (2017), he discusses online public spheres and political communication with emphasis placed on transnational political discourses. His research focuses on the impact of digital media and datafication on public discourses and data ecologies.
Sergül Nguyen is a PhD candidate in Media and Communications Studies, Galatasaray University, Istanbul. After receiving an MA in European Studies from Sciences Po Paris, she worked for the news channel CNN Türk as a correspondent covering local and foreign news. Her research interests lie in international news media and journalism ethics. As a researcher, she still keeps her ties to the professional field and contributes to platforms aiming to enhance the quality of journalism practices in Turkey.
Radmila Radojevic (MA, New Media and Digital Culture, University of Amsterdam) is a media and communication lecturer at the Creative Business program at HU University of Applied Sciences Utrecht. Her interest is in Digital Methods Initiative (DMI) for social and cultural research. She participated in art projects dealing with politics of gender exclusion on the Internet (Maids in Cyberspace and Monument du Vide, archived at Rhizome).
Dulce da Rocha Gonçalves has a background in visual arts and cinema and worked as a lecturer in higher education for several years. She holds an MA in Dramaturgy and Directing (Cinematographic Project) from the National School of Theater and Cinema, in Lisbon, and an MA in Film and Photographic Studies from Leiden University, in the Netherlands. Her thesis focused on media archaeology and the archive. She is a PhD researcher at the Institute for Cultural Inquiry at Utrecht University within the NWo funded project ‘Projecting Knowledge—The Magic Lantern as a Tool for Mediated Science Communication in the Netherlands, 1880–1940’.
Dennis Rosenberg obtained a PhD from the University of Haifa, Department of Sociology. His research fields are ethnic affiliation and health-related Internet and social media use, ethnic affiliation and digital government, spatial inequalities in ICT use and health, and sociology of migration. He is a postdoctoral researcher at School of Public Health at University of Haifa and in the Department of Communication Studies at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev in Beer-Sheva.
list of figures
User Tactics and Algorithms: A Digital Humanities Approach to YouTube and Tumblr
Fig. 1 Name network of #Tumblr sorted by modularity in Gephi 44
Fig. 2 Close-up of a #Tumblr discussion on Twitter 45
Combining Qualitative and Digital Methods for Exploratory Framing Analyses: The Case of Alternative Video Coverage of the Syrian War on YouTube
Fig. 1 Comments over time
Fig. 2 Political actors and countries per comment section
Fig. 3 Network of who-mentions-whom in V4
Fig. 4 Network graphs centre of who-replies-to-whom (V4)
Visual Framing and Migrant Discourses in Social Media: The Story of Idomeni on Instagram
Fig. 1 Idomeni hashtag network
121
123
124
125
169
Fig. 2 The network graph illustrates the case of an inflated hashtag use 171
Fig. 3 The humanitarian disaster frame cluster taken from @dshakirov 173
list of tAbles
Combining Qualitative and Digital Methods for Exploratory
Framing Analyses: The Case of Alternative Video Coverage of the Syrian War on YouTube
Table 1 Main category distribution in all comment sections
A Quantitative and Qualitative Approach to Analysing Cyberbullying in Classmates’ WhatsApp groups
Table 1 Frequencies of students by grades (N = 1111)
Table 2 Frequencies of participants’ cyberbullying victimization in classmates’ WhatsApp groups (N = 1101)
Table 3 Cyberbullying victimization by type of cyberbullying expression and schools’ age levels (N = 1101)
Technology Experience, Health Beliefs or Background?
Examining the Factors Affecting the Intention to Use Social Media for Health Purposes
Table 1 Sample statistics (N = 159, if not specified)
Table 2 Results of validity and reliability tests on HBM constructs
Table 3 Spearman correlations between the study variables
Table 4 Coefficients (standard errors) of ordinal regression analysis predicting intention to use social media for health purposes
122
193
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197
216
218
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222
PART I
Challenges and Opportunities in Media and Communication Studies
Introduction: Understanding Media and Society in the Age of Digitalisation
Dennis Nguyen, Ivonne Dekker, and Sergül Nguyen
This book offers insights into diverse research perspectives on highly relevant issues in contemporary media and society, which have been fundamentally transformed by digital technologies. The main goal is to illustrate how different research interests and practical choices lead to a broad spectrum of approaches in media and communication studies. It places emphasis on the following aspects: how different methodological outlooks are combinable within the framework of practical research projects; how research interests and practical choices determine research practices; how media and communication studies inspire and stimulate research in different disciplines; and why it is imperative to have a critical look at the value of data and methods in the age of digitalisation. “Understanding” in this context is an umbrella term for different research perspective and methods that all try to map and examine how digital media change society from small, for example humantech interaction, to large contexts, for example digital public spheres.
D. Nguyen (*) • I. Dekker
HU University of Applied Sciences Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
D. Nguyen et al. (eds.), Understanding Media and Society in the Age of Digitalisation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38577-4_1
D. NGUYEN ET AL.
A strength of this volume is its international scope and its selection of arguments and case studies, ranging from deeper critical reflection on research methodologies to concrete studies on digital communities, political communication, news media coverage, visual communication, media and socialisation, and media usage in the health sector. The book’s chapters are a diverse selection of critical commentary and hands-on research and thus combine theoretical deliberation with empirical studies, to provide a rich “snippet” of how researchers globally, with different specialisations and at different academic career stages, practise media and communication studies.
The wider field of media and communication studies is still relatively young but can nevertheless look back at over 30 years of intense and highly interdisciplinary research in the constantly shifting intersections of sociology, cultural studies, political science, psychology, and, more recently, Internet studies, critical algorithm studies, and the computer sciences. It has distinct sub-fields with strong research traditions such as journalism studies and film studies and is open to the discovery of new ground, by merging with neighbouring disciplines, as, for example in the instance of media psychology. This diversity derives from the fact that media technologies mould and configure all aspects of social life (Couldry and Hepp 2018) that attract attention across the academic landscape. Digital technologies are ubiquitous and challenge a narrow understanding of the term “media” (Bunz and Meikle 2018). The “digital plenitude” (Bolter 2019) of contemporary media culture stimulates research in a variety of distinct sub-disciplines that share a common interest in the relationship between humans, individually and as groups, and the media technologies that they build.
Research on media and communication is by nature extremely dynamic and prone to adopt, but also shape, trends, as theories and methods evolve in close relationship with their manifold research subjects, which themselves change at a rapid pace. As an interdisciplinary field with manifold, often innovative research methods along the qualitative-quantitative spectrum, media and communication studies are constantly being reinvented. Especially in the age of digitalisation, algorithms, and big data, the field is one of the hotspots for trends related to the so-called digital humanities. The assumption is that with new types and large volumes of data, for example, about cultural and social practices in the use of media technology, new methods are needed for analysing inherently digital phenomena (Rogers 2019). However, despite a clear trend towards a digitalisation of
the humanities, practical challenges related to the feasibility of data-driven research designs and an obvious need for more theory-focused research interests do not render “traditional” approaches obsolete.
Quite the contrary, a diversity of methodologies continue to exist in parallel to each other; they cannot be seen in isolation but in sum provide a complementary view on developments and challenges in political, social, and cultural practices that are inherently mediatised and digitalised. The research areas themselves are diverse and highly relevant for understanding culture and society, and the field of media and communication research has the potential to increase the current stock of knowledge considerably: what are communities and how do they form cultures? What is user behaviour and how does it change with new technologies? What is the history of media and how does it shape the present and future? What are current trends in media production and consumption? How do genres emerge and evolve? What is media (and data) literacy and how can it be included in media education? How do we frame groups and issues, that is, what is media representation? What is participation in media culture and public discourse? How do users interact with media technology and how do increasingly autonomous devices look back at users?
In this book, each contribution critically comments on trends in specific, but interrelated sections of media-based interaction. These range from empirical studies driven by digital methods to philosophical reflections on human-machine relationships. The chapters illustrate the variety of angles in the field, which goes much further than the traditional epistemological binarities of quantitative versus qualitative, or normative versus descriptive, research philosophies, as technological, cultural, and political factors also affect the way research is conducted in the (digital) humanities. The main questions the book attempts to find answers for are: what does media studies and communications research look like today? What are examples for digital humanities applied in practice—and to what extent have their expectations been either fulfilled or disappointed?
The book provides a sober and honest summary for why “old-fashioned” research practices still remain highly relevant for a diversity of reasons and why the field is constantly redefining itself. This is of great value for researchers, educators, and students: for researchers, to see how their work fits into current research trends and find inspiration from the examples, arguments, and insights in the book; for educators, to plan their teaching methods in relevant subjects and fill it with examples; and for students, to understand why their discipline is so inherently interdisciplinary and diverse
and to inform them about the routes they can take in their own studies but also what obstacles they need to consider. In each chapter, emphasis is placed on elaborating about methodological choices in order to open them up for a broader audience. Thus, all contributions follow a similar structure in presenting their goals, frameworks, methodologies, and results to increase accessibility and comparability.
The book combines contributions from 14 international researchers, and the research is organised in three parts that in sum provide a comprehensive overview of current approaches to epistemological and methodological challenges, cultural analysis of media products, digital media and politics, media technology and human interaction, and the future of media studies and communications research.
Overview Of Chapters
Part I, Challenges and Opportunities in Media and Communication Studies, starts with some fundamental questions about practising research in a highly interdisciplinary and rapidly changing field. Insights come from researchers with a common interest in critically analysing how digital technology shapes society, especially in regard to media technologies, but with diverse backgrounds ranging from digital and data politics (Dennis Nguyen) and fan culture studies (Nicolle Lamerichs) through visual media (Dulce Da Rocha Gonçalves) to environmental communication and tourism studies (Konrad Gunesch). In combination, their contributions map the chances and opportunities of digital media and digital data for both researchers and actors in specific domains (such as fan communities or travelling) and outline challenges, risks, and pitfalls that come with the ever-increasing digitalisation of social life. Despite their clearly distinguishable angles and different examples, the chapters are united by several broader questions about how research can take new directions in the age of digital media and also why it is not an easy feat to conduct valid and reliable research when addressing complex and dynamic social phenomena that involve media technology. However, they also shed light on how to learn from the past and propose new areas for fruitful research.
In his chapter “Media and Communication Studies in the Age of Digitalization and Datafication: How Practical Factors and Research Interests Determine Methodological Choices” Dennis Nguyen starts with outlining the potentials but also very practical limitations of embracing trends associated with the computerisation of research in media and
communication studies as central sites for developing, discussing, and practising digital humanities. While disputes over methodological philosophies are not new to the field, media and communication studies may be the right place to experiment with mixed method designs that also make pragmatic use of digital research strategies. Dennis Nguyen observes that “for practical and research-interested based reasons, different methodologies continue to coexist and should explore when and how to complement each other. This also means that questions of reliability, validity, transparency and ethics stay as relevant as ever.”
Nicolle Lamerichs takes the argument further in the chapter “User Tactics and Algorithms: A Digital Humanities Approach to YouTube and Tumblr”. In her selected empirical cases Lamerichs takes a close look at how users form digital communities that are largely determined by online platforms such as YouTube and Tumblr. She places emphasis on how algorithmic configurations have a tangible impact on online communities and how users try to subvert and negotiate the rules of engagement. The chapter takes a critical look at the limitations of digital data if taken at face value and without contextualisation by raising essential questions: “In terms of methodology, scholars of media and platforms need to stay critical and weary of algorithms and guidelines that shape their data sets. Are there ways to apply digital methods while also being critical of platforms and their interfaces and policies? Considering that platforms filter so heavily, does it still make sense to focus on the content that users engage with the most?”
The next chapter takes a closer look at how the Internet forms a rich archive for records of human cultural activity. In her chapter “Making Sense of the (Internet) Archive: Negotiating Meaning, Memory and History in Artistic Practice”, Dulce da Rocha Gonçalves discusses photographer Daniel Blaufuks’ artistic methodology and exposes how the photographer works within the rules of his medium specificity: by highlighting the inner logic of the Internet and its hyperlinks, Blaufuks builds intensive cartographies of collective memories. This archive is open to critical inquiry from different methodological angles, including decidedly qualitative ones. Da Rocha Gonçalves observes that “Blaufuks is also connecting the atlas, the database device, to the structure of the Internet: the spatial display highlights the potential connections between images; it displays the inner logic of the Internet, as an archive of images in constant movement, separated by and connected by hyperlinks.”
D. NGUYEN ET AL.
Konrad Gunesch’s chapter “Slow Tourism Joining New Media in Global Sustainability and Environmental Communication: Inspiring Individual and Industry Travel Practices and Media Expressions” closes Part I with a critical discussion of the lack of research on the interplay between slow tourism, sustainable travel, environmental communication, and digital media. He outlines how researchers who want to address this research gap can learn from previous work on framing, journalism, and digital media studies. Gunesch indicates that there is a need for a transdisciplinary perspective as different media technologies shape and transform travellers’ behaviour from planning through experiencing and post-processing their journey. He closes with the remark that “most of these recommendations seem to come down to responsible use of new and digital media forms and expressions by individuals and institutions in the travel and tourism industry”. The chapter illustrates how media and communication research keeps pushing boundaries and how insights from these disciplines can stimulate and inspire research in other domains.
The main goals of Part I can be summarised as follows: exploring why research in media and communication studies is not yet and may never be fully digitalised and computerised for practical and epistemological reasons and analysing what methodological problems the field faces and what the implications are for future research in existing and new domains of research.
Part II of the book, Researching Meaning, Representation, and Politics in Digital Media, examines the relationship between digital media and politics; emphasis is placed on the digital transformation of the public sphere and how the Internet has changed the rules for public communication in terms of participation and framing via content. The part brings together four case studies by seven authors from six different countries: South Africa (Ivonne Dekker), Germany (Dennis Nguyen), Turkey (Inci Çınarlı and Sergül Nguyen), Montenegro (Radmila Radojevic), Slovenia (Jan Bajec) and Greece (Ioana Ferra).
In their chapter “Combining Qualitative and Digital Methods for Exploratory Framing Analyses: The Case of Alternative Video Coverage of the Syrian War on YouTube”, Dekker and Dennis Nguyen provide an exploratory study that combines digital methods with a qualitative framing analysis in political non-mainstream YouTube content. They show how automatised tools for collecting and analysing digital data in the form of, for example, user comments can help with efficiently mapping essential parts of online discourses in a manner that saves time and how a deeper
critical analysis of especially visual content can benefit from qualitative research methods to reveal layers of meaning in complex media texts. The authors observe that YouTubers “tend to make much stronger ideological statements in their coverage and commentary on conflicts such as the Syrian War and thus reframe issues by linking them to different political discussions that go beyond the immediate context.”
Çınarlı and Sergül Nguyen take a critical look at how news media and digital platforms contribute to the construction of a culture of fear in which highly accelerated, hectic, and dramatised breaking news coverage plays a central role. In their chapter “Mediating Fear by Breaking News: A Case Study of CNN Türk and NTV”, they examine two of Turkey’s most important TV news channels’ usage of the breaking news concept in their broadcasting routine and Twitter feeds for a week of activity in March 2017, right before a crucial referendum in the country. With a combination of content analysis and critical discourse analysis, the researchers show how Turkish TV news seems to be in the danger of overusing breaking news and similar labels in framing their stories in the race for views and clicks in the attention economy. They conclude: “instead of being the first to break the news, media outlets should strive for the truth and public interest which is in fact the raison d’être of journalism.”
Radojevic, Dennis Nguyen, Bajec, and Ferra close the part with a digital methods-inspired study on Instagram usage in the Idomeni refugee camp in Greece during the height of the so-called migration crisis in 2016. Their chapter “Visual Framing and Migrant Discourses in Social Media: The Story of Idomeni on Instagram” shows that social media platforms such as Instagram are important sites for political discourses but that they also shape how interactions take place and in which form. This has important implications for understanding the role of digital media in (transnational) public discourses and for applying new, digital research strategies: “Instagram allows non-media communicators and independent journalists to enter the stage. This platform expands and shapes the imagery associated with the refugee crisis and through real-time uploads from the ground serves as an alternative (or supplementary) source of news. However, the platform has significant limitations and lacks any means of quality control; therefore, each contributor needs to be closely scrutinised in terms of intentions and practices.”
The main goals of Part II are to critically discuss and show with concrete examples how studies combine methodologies from “traditional” and digital research approaches in the field of political online communication; to weigh potentials and benefits for participation and public
D. NGUYEN ET AL.
discourse against downsides that contradict normative expectations in the form of conflict, misinformation, and undermining trust; and to explore why research on political online communication is prone to embrace digital methods and how accessibility to (the right) data poses a considerable limitation.
Finally, Part III, Analysing How Digital Media Changes Interaction, explores how to research the relationship between media technology and social (and anti-social) interactions and the treatment of the human mind and body that all rely on continuously changing modes of communication. More specifically, the chapters investigate how social media apps shape social and anti-social behaviour, how users seek health information, and how the emerging field of medical humanities connects to (critical) media studies. The part comprises three chapters from researchers with strong backgrounds in mixed methods, quantitative and qualitative research.
In “A Quantitative and Qualitative Approach to Analysing Cyberbullying in Classmates’ WhatsApp Groups”, Dana Aizenkot analyses with a mixed methods design how the app has become essential for socialisation processes among school children and how the medium’s affordance is instrumentalised for digital forms of abuse, coercion, intimidation, and domination. She collected data from a representative sample of Israeli pupils (N = 1111) for a survey with open and closed questions on their experience with the app and forms of cyberbullying. While it is important to understand the extent of a problem such as cyberbullying, the way it is performed and becomes manifest depends on the technological framework, which inevitably, through its affordances, will shape and transform behaviour, which implies that research designs must embrace flexibility. As Aizenkot explains: “Yet, given the constant upgrading of social networks, the expressions of cyberbullying may change in the future. Therefore, a mixed methods approach is advisable.”
Dennis Rosenberg, Rita Mano, and Gustavo S. Mesch take a similar route in their chapter “Technology Experience, Health Beliefs or Background? Examining the Factors Affecting the Intention to Use Social Media for Health Purposes”. Here, qualitative research prepared the ground for a larger quantitative survey among social media users. The research interest is to better understand when, how, and why users seek advice and information about health issues on the Web. The way individuals seek, access, and make use of information has drastically changed with the digital transformation and encompasses virtually all domains of private
and public life. By looking at the case of health information, the researchers are able to examine the connection between technology, beliefs, personal background, and the intention to use social media as a source for information about health issues. While seeking and consuming such health information online, it is a very subjective experience for a large number of users. The authors thus plead for a combined approach and conclude: “we propose conducting mixed methods research in order to address healthrelated social media use in future studies. Nevertheless, before implementing such approach, researchers should consider its possible high cost [...] as well as various potential research obstacles.”
The final chapter of this part is “Constructing 24/7 Madness. The Pathology Behind Schizophrenia in Western Urban Screen Cultures” by Bjorn Beijnon. He connects critical media studies and philosophy with the emerging field of medical humanities by providing a qualitative analysis of the cultural construction of normal and pathological behaviour in modern digital society with schizophrenia as the case study. The ubiquity of screen technology in many media-dense urban contexts affects the concept of attention not only on a psychological but also on a cultural level. Medical practice may lag behind the swiftly changing nature of attention in a techdriven environment, which may lead to exclusion and mis-categorisation. Through the use of media theory and philosophy Beijnon aims to show, how and why schizophrenic patients are not being disciplined into subjects of the twenty-first century. The chapter demonstrates the strength of qualitative research especially in exploring new territory for interdisciplinary research.
The main goals of Part III are to illustrate how media technology transforms different forms of communication and how this shapes interactions between individuals and also between humans and machines and to show that specific research interests cannot be fully addressed with digital data and that more conventional forms of research continue to display great flexibility in understanding different aspects of media usage and its effects.
The main line of reasoning and central motif of this volume is to show how media and communication studies focus on diverse subject matters that each come with various methodological challenges and also how digitalisation provides a plethora of issues to investigate and at the same time broadens the horizon for conducting research. It achieves this through a combination of theorisation, critical reflection, and empirical examples. This book takes a comparative look at the field from an international perspective and discusses trends in research practices. While broad and diverse
in its scope, the present volume cannot be deemed as exhaustive and may only offer another set of arguments in a long and ongoing discussion about methodological differences and when and how to bridge them. However, it aims to contribute to an emerging body of knowledge and reflection on current research in a highly diversified field that tackles the issue of digitalisation in media and communication studies from a critical perspective and considers both practical and epistemological questions. It provides a sober and honest summary for why “old-fashioned” research practices still remain highly relevant for a multitude of reasons and why the field is constantly redefining itself.
referenCes
Bolter, J. (2019). Digital Plenitude. The Decline of Elite Culture and the Rise of New Media. Cambridge and London: MIT Press. Bunz, M., & Meikle, G. (2018). The Internet of Things. London: Polity. Couldry, N., & Hepp, A. (2018). The Mediated Construction of Reality. London: Polity. Rogers, R. (2019). Doing Digital Methods. London: Sage. D.
Media and Communication Studies in the Age of Digitalization and Datafication: How Practical Factors and Research Interests
Determine Methodological Choices
Dennis Nguyen
IntroductIon
The terms “digital humanities” and “computational turn” have been a buzz in academia for well over a decade. Their premise is to fundamentally transform how research is conducted in the wider field of the humanities and social sciences, including the interdisciplinary area of media and communication studies. With the rise of a data-focused research mindset that sees digital technologies not only as subjects but more increasingly as research tools, one may assume that there will be an accelerated blending of the “soft” humanities and social sciences with the “hard” data-driven natural sciences. Thanks to more powerful computing devices that can process large amounts of—seemingly—widely available data in the form of, for example, cultural analytics and computational social sciences
D. Nguyen (*)
HU University of Applied Sciences Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands e-mail: dennis.nguyen@hu.nl
D. Nguyen et al. (eds.), Understanding Media and Society in the Age of Digitalisation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38577-4_2
(Manovich 2018), scholars could overcome the biases and limitations of small samples and move beyond theorization. Eventually, the humanities could explain social reality in almost the same way as the natural sciences do for physical reality.
On one hand, there is an unprecedented volume of data available about cultural activity and social interactions; the never-ending streams of images, videos, memes, and comments that exploded with the emergence of the Web 2.0 one and a half decades ago speak for themselves. Global digital society experiences an era of “digital plentitude” (Bolter 2019): the emergence of multi-focal media culture that defies modernist, normative assumptions about the same and asks critical observers to rethink concepts of culture, public value, pluralism, and democracy. On the other hand, with the emergence of digital culture and digital society run on digital technology, both inevitably became complex assemblages of data that can be subjected to software tools designed for specific research purposes (Rogers 2019). It is widely recognized that global digital society experiences a continuing and accelerating datafication that seems to reach into every corner of private and public spheres. While the cultural, social, political, and legal contexts of national spaces matter in the manifestation of these transformations, they indeed happen on a global scale as they are triggered by tech-entrepreneurs from Silicon Valley, USA, to Shenzhen, China.
The surge of data generation over the past decade is the most obvious indicator for this development. The enormous volume of cultural and social data paired with computational methods may allow academics to overcome the gap between the quantitative and qualitative research traditions and completely change the outlook on how researchers study culture—not least since they have now access to cultural and social data about interactions, relationships, and artefacts that may have been invisible in the past (Manovich 2018). However, whether this potential can be fully realized and, more fundamentally, if it is desirable to turn the qualitative into the quantitative in the context of datafication and digitalization are open to critical debate.
Not to mention that vast volumes of these data are in the hands of private platforms.
The present chapter reviews the discussion about computerizing and digitalizing media and communication studies. It provides an overview of relevant developments, what these developments mean for research practices in a transforming academic environment, and the very practical
implications that arise. The author’s main goals are to (a) briefly outline the rise of data-driven approaches as a foundation of digital humanities and computational social sciences; (b) identify what the main challenges are for actually implementing computational methods in the field of media and communication studies (this includes a brief review of the quantitativequalitative dilemma plaguing, especially, the interdisciplinary area of media and communication studies); and (c) examine what these challenges mean for practising media and communication studies on the fundamentally subjective human experiences in the age of digitalization. The main questions are: how should researchers in media and communication studies justify their methodological choices and how will traditional and new methods coexist? What practical actions can they take to underline the relevance and validity of their approaches?
Here, media and communication studies are defined as the collection of disciplines with a focus on media technology, media formats, media consumption, media content, media effects, media economy, media culture, media ecology, media recognition, media politics and political communication, and media psychology. They have their roots in cultural studies, including film and theatre studies, the social sciences, cognitive psychology, and linguistics (Hansen and Machin 2013). Media and communication studies have diverse roots and research interests as well as different preferences when it comes to what are commonly designated as quantitative and qualitative research methods. While media studies is usually more “qualitative” due to their strong links to the traditional humanities, communication studies more willingly embrace the “quantitative” methods due to their links to the empirical social sciences. However, both areas focus on similar research subjects from different angles and have a propensity to stimulate work within mixed methods research designs, not least due to the obscure borders between media and communication studies.
In considering the relationship between humanities and datafication, Manovich basically reframes both humanities and social sciences, seen here as the parent disciplines of media and communication studies, by separating digital humanities, represented by media studies, from social computing, represented by communication studies (Manovich 2018). The broader field of media and communications studies is profoundly affected by the rise of computerized methods and thus is a primary example for trends and challenges in the emerging fields of social computing and digital humanities. Furthermore, to ensure consistency, the term “method”
designates actual tools and instruments for data collection and analysis, while “methodology” defines more of a philosophical stance for how to view the world, what data say about it, and how to create knowledge.
In essence, disciplines associated with the humanities and social sciences in the early twenty-first century find themselves at multiple crossroads concerning their ontological and epistemological foundations, their perceived value by the scientific community and public at large, and a potential fragmentation into very different research programmes within these general fields. This fragmentation is primarily driven by political and economic factors that determine how research, and teaching, is conducted at many academic institutions. Furthermore, the Internet and the Web are both subjects in virtually all academic disciplines and not restricted to just one and studying them demands an inherently interdisciplinary outlook. Since both change the way society produces, uses, and consumes media, questions related to studying them are of heightened relevance for the field of media and communication studies. Schäfer and van Es argue that:
Datafication and computerization will come to affect all research agendas and inform the skill sets of students and scholars alike. We predict that the term ‘digital humanities’ will sound increasingly pleonastic and will eventually disappear—it will lead not to the replacement of established methods in the humanities, but rather to an expansion in the curricula we study and the methods we use. (2017, 15)
Methods associated with this trend rely mainly on digital data native to the Web (Rogers 2019) and the development and application of software tools to computerize data collection and analysis, that is, using computer code on digital data about human social and cultural activity. This chapter looks at some of the implications of these trends for media and communication studies. The goal is not to discredit the value of digital data and digital methods; to the contrary, it is the author’s firm belief that digital data-focused approaches offer new perspectives beyond traditional research methods, both qualitative and quantitative, and can broaden our understanding of culture and society. However, it is an essential and legitimate question to ask what is actually doable for many researchers in the area and when computational methods based on innovative digital research strategies and/or large data sets hit their limitations for understanding how humans interact with each other, and with technology, in contexts relevant for media and communication studies.
The discussion begins with a review of the rise of data-driven, digital research strategies before the chapter addresses the main challenges in implementing them. It closes with some general recommendations for pragmatic research agendas in media and communication studies.
rIse of data-drIven approaches
The “digital” has always been an important subject of media and communication studies. Early critical research in the late 1980s and 1990s explored what the rise of networked computer-based communication could mean for the very nature of democracy and societal organization. Media studies scholars theorized and investigated how digital communication technology may transform the performance of identity and the formation of communities, change the power play of politics, and reconfigure how society “does” culture.
Examples are plentiful: a key text in early cyberculture studies is Donna Haraway’s Cyborg Manifesto (1984), which continues to influence views on human-tech interaction to this day. Critical researchers in the field of political communication built robust theoretical frameworks to explain cyberconflicts (Karatzogianni 2006) based on previous scholarship on power, networks, and social organization in sociology, philosophy, and cultural studies. Derrida, Foucault, Deleuze, Guattari, and the like retain their influence and relevance in the still somewhat nascent and evolving field of Internet Studies. For example, Benjamin Bratton’s The Stack (2015) is virtually inaccessible without solid knowledge about previous work on power, structure, and sovereignty as conceptualized by thinkers such as Foucault. Jodi Dean (2010) and Geert Lovink (2008, 2019) provided some of the most profound critiques on digital culture and continue to offer equally insightful and provocative analyses. Henry Jenkins (2006) and Jenkins et al. (2015) built a career on theorizing and analysing how digital technology led to the emergence of conversion culture and participatory culture. Research also explored the digital transformation of journalism and public discourse (Papacharissi 2014; Bruns 2017; Nguyen 2017; Ferra 2019). Other studies explore how trends in decentralization, artificial intelligence, and increasing datafication change our culture and society (e.g. Bunz and Meikle 2018; McStay 2018).
Since digital culture relies on digital media, it was only logical that anything related to the Internet and Web became a research subject from a media and communication studies perspective. When conducting their
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HEATING.
STEAM AND WARM AIR COMBINED.
I once knew a church building committee who planned and built quite a large church, and when I was called in to arrange for heating the building with a large furnace, the furnace committee were astonished when told that the building committee had forgotten the fact that the hot-air furnace required a chimney.
The construction of many houses suggests that houses built in the hot months of summer needed no special provision for heating. This is an important subject, and should be carefully considered in the construction of the plainest house. Always take climate, location and fuel into consideration. The open fire place, with fire on the hearth, is without doubt the most cheerful and healthful. This is the favorite and best mode for plain country homes. But in all instances, for churches and public halls, the open fire-place is not to be depended upon. There is a variety of good steam-heaters and hot-air furnaces to choose from. Consult the parties from whom you buy as to the size of heater required; its location, size of cold-air duct, register, pipe, etc.
For small rural churches that have no basement, construct a small room under the front entrance or vestibule; eight feet square, inside measure, is sufficient. Near its floor have a cold-air entrance leading to the furnace. Cover the opening with wire netting to prevent the
entrance of mice. Use brick for the room, building the walls eight inches thick; leave openings 2½ × 4 inches, about one foot apart all around the bottom next to the floor. Carry the wall close to the ceiling, and make it tight by plastering carefully inside and out where it joins the ceiling. Cover the ceiling, by nailing to joists, with bright sheets of tin, and white-wash the brick-work inside. For entrance make a door 6 × 3 feet. A plain wooden one will answer. In the aisle of the church, immediately over this room, put a large grating, such as your furnace-men will suggest. In this room place your furnace, and have it large enough to heat the room above during the coldest weather without excessive firing. With a larger capacity than necessary, the furnace will last longer, burn less coal, and give better results in every respect. As the furnace will radiate considerable heat, this can be utilized by running a pipe of proper size from the room to the vestibule or some other room. The objection to using this heat in the church is the noise of firing up, which would be annoying during church service. However, a furnace properly attended will not need firing during church service. Remember, a large volume of warm air is what you want, and not a small volume of hot air. Never cover the grating or close the cold-air duct to cool off while there is fire in the furnace, but open the doors or windows of the church and check the fire. The closing of the grating or cold-air duct will injure the castings of the furnace by overheating them.
CLOSE SHEATHING THE BEST.
While a rain-proof roof can be made with our shingles, our system, as well as all metal or slate roofing should not be put upon open sheathing. If walked upon the metal will not support the weight, and bends out of shape, and the roof is blamed. In high latitudes where we have driving storms of fine snow or “blizzards,” we specify close sheathing covered by paper (using same rules as for laying slate). We will then guarantee a perfect roof.
THE NATIONAL SHEET METAL ROOFING CO., 510 to 520 East 20th Street, New York City.
THE CISTERN.
Three things are all that are necessary to supply any family with the purest and best water in the world for drinking, cooking and washing purposes: a well-constructed cistern, a clean roof and a rain-fall.
CUT-OFF ATTACHMENT
A To connect with down pipe
B. Outlet for waste water.
C Leads to filter or cistern
D. Is adjustable to fit box C.
E Fastenings to wall of house
F. Side view of D.
These are within the reach of every one able to own a home. By a cistern we mean an excavation in the earth from twelve to twentyfive feet deep. Dig deep if you want cold water all the year round. From eighteen to twenty-five feet will produce it. If your cistern is dug in a clayey soil, there is no use of brick lining; but if in gravel, sandy or rocky soil, line the inside with hard, well burnt brick, and do the work well; using for mortar equal parts of hydraulic lime and clean, sharp sand. When completed, plaster the inside carefully with the same mortar. If the walls are clay plaster immediately on the sides and bottom, without lining with brick.
No roofing material is better for collecting chemically pure water than tin, and none so bad as wood shingles. They hold dirt which no ordinary shower will wash off, and furnish organic matter which is disagreeable to the taste and
G. Handle to adjust D.
(Not patented; can be made by any tinsmith.)
smell; the porous nature of wood makes it the home of myriads of insects, the remains of which are eventually deposited in the cistern and poison its waters.
No such objections can be urged against tin roofing. A short shower cleanses it thoroughly. Water-pipes leading into the cistern in every case should have a cut-off attachment within easy reach.
There are several on the market, but those having no inside arrangement to get out of order, or obstruct the direct passage of water into either the cistern or waste-pipe, are the best. The water should be strained before entering the cistern. This can be built of brick and be underground, or a cask can be used above ground. A strong, iron-bound linseed oil barrel answers the purpose. Its construction is very simple. Take out one end of the cask and perforate it with a sufficient number of one-inch auger holes; lay four brick on edge in the bottom of the cask, and let the perforated cask head rest upon them. Then fill the cask three-quarters full of charcoal, pounding it down on top pretty hard. Put on top of the charcoal clean, coarse gravel to within three inches of the top of cask; make a covering with an opening to receive the water which flows from the roof, and convey the water from the bottom of cask to the cistern. At least once a year this filter should be emptied and cleansed, putting in new charcoal and washing the gravel carefully. Let no summer months’ water run into the cistern. See that the first rain of a shower is used to wash the dust and soot from your roof before it is turned into the cistern, and you will have an abundance of water not equaled by any well or spring.
BUILDING PAPERS.
NEPONSET PAPER is absolutely waterproof and air-tight, is clean to handle, not tarred felt, but far more durable. Its resistance to air and dampness renders it unsurpassed under clapboards, iron roofing and wood or tin shingles.
CLIMAX is a light, clean, pink, colored paper; useful for any purpose where building paper is required; is much cheaper than Neponset, but not water-proof. The use of building paper under roofing or clapboards adds greatly to the ease of warming a building. By its use you save fuel and your house is more comfortable. Its cost is nominal compared with its advantages. We keep a large stock and fill orders promptly.
COLORS AND HOW TO MAKE THEM.
Blue and yellow makes green.
White and yellow makes buff.
White, yellow and black makes drab.
White and black makes lead.
White and black makes gray.
White, black and blue makes pearl.
White and lake makes pink.
White, blue and black makes slate.
Red, black and blue makes brown.
Red, black and yellow makes maroon.
Red and yellow makes orange.
Blue and lake makes purple.
U. S. M B , N Y , P , F ., October 22d, 1887.
S :—In compliance with your request, I have to say that about a year ago I was called upon to decide which of several kinds of roofing material to select for two barrack buildings, which I was constructing for the Government at this place. Owing to the heat and moisture of the climate, very destructive to wood, and the proximity of the Gulf of Mexico, which makes what is known as a salt atmosphere, very injurious to iron roofing, I was induced to try your system, and ordered the 14 × 20 size, I. C. Standard, some painted and some galvanized. As it was previously almost unknown to me, I had to assume the risk of its success, and have since watched it very closely; the more so, as it was laid by soldiers entirely unfamiliar with it.
After the first rain a close inspection failed to reveal a single leak. I have had it inspected after every heavy rain since then with the same result. On the 20th inst. we had the severest gale for many years, and
the roofs not only resisted it in every way, but there was no rattle, which could not be said of our other tin roofs (old system).
You can refer any one to me for commendation of these points which are established; also of its architectural beauty, and I have little doubt as to the rest, for we painted it very carefully on both sides.
I am, Sirs, very respectfully yours,
HENRY CLAY COCHRANE, Captain U. S. Marine Corps, Commanding Post.
The combination of cherry and light oak proves an excellent one for overmantels, for, in addition to contrast of grain, and figure, and hue, is that of the high polish of which cherry is susceptible with the somewhat ridgy surface of the oak.
One coat of paint takes 20 lbs. of lead and 4 gals. of oil per 100 square yards. The second coat, 40 lbs. lead, 4 gals. oil; the third, the same as the second—say 100 lbs. lead, 12 gals. oil per 100 square yards, for three coats.
gallon priming colors covers
square yards.
COMPARATIVE PITCH OF ROOFS.
Design J Front Elevation
EIGHT-ROOM, TWO-STORY HOUSE.
OUR GUARANTEE.
We guarantee our shingles as follows: If you will use them, and they are properly put on in accordance with our instructions, and if they do not then give satisfaction, we agree to replace your roof, free of expense to you, with equally expensive material, any time within two years from the time you put them on. In addition to this, we may be able to give you a local reference, as our goods are in use in every State and Territory. We call your attention to the price list, and we will be pleased to make you discounts on application.
THE NATIONAL SHEET METAL ROOFING CO., 510 to 520 East 20th St., New York City.
Design J Side Elevation
Cover roof with No. 1 Standard 10 × 14 Tin Shingles; use attic vents (see page 73) on main roof, and cover belt courses with 7 × 10 Tin Shingles, same quality as those for main roof.
The plans and elevations of cottages presented in this book have each been specially prepared for some individual by an eminent architect, and the proportions and details can be relied upon.
Second Floor
First Floor
Design J (Elevations, pages 51 and 52 )
SHOWING APPLICATION OF OUR RIDGE OR HIP COPING.
Plain Ridge. Manner of Fastening Climax Ridge to Roof Boards.
Showing Climax Ridge and Gable Finish.
These cuts are good illustrations of our Ridge Finish, which is also used as Hip Coping. It is secured to the roof comb by nailing through the flange, which rests on each side of the comb. It makes a durable and neat finish; is of great assistance to workmen not skilled in metal roofing, and its cost is no more than the labor and material necessary in making the regular standing seam used by roofers in finishing the comb of sheet metal roofs.
F R -C —Use our Roofing; no other has the conveniences for rapid laying.
VENTILATION.
The “Attic” Sky-light and Ventilator (See page 78 )
As you value health, study well this important subject, which is oftener neglected in constructing dwellings than any other detail. An experienced and observant man can pick from those whom he meets on the street men or women who habitually sleep in badly ventilated rooms. The florist will study and practice the best means to ventilate his propagating house, and ignore the necessity of the same principle for himself and family. Everything that breathes—and what living thing does not?— needs a change of air to remain in a healthy condition. Leaves are the lungs of plants, and, deprived of this change, soon assume a delicate, sickly hue.
Why should the human family, in full possession of reasoning powers, ignore the lesson that is every day before them? By ventilation we mean a system that will constantly supply the dwelling with fresh air; at the same time it draws the vitiated atmosphere from each hall and room in the house. This can be done during the process of erection in a simple, effectual and inexpensive manner Even if it should cost more than you feel inclined to pay, the result will justify the expense.
There is no better way of creating upward draught than the open fire-place, or a flue built with an opening near the floor. Such flues should not be less than 8 × 8 inches for an ordinary size bedroom, and should, if possible, be built alongside of the chimney flue, and extend through the house-top without openings, except the one nearest the floor in the room it starts from.
As vitiated air is heavier than pure air, and is always nearest the floor, the artificial draught caused by a long, upright flue is constantly at work carrying the lower atmosphere from each room in which these upward and outward draught flues are built. To supply the rooms with fresh air, corresponding flues must be built similar in size and construction to the above. Commence them with outside openings about on a level with the first floor joists, extending upward, and end with openings inward near the ceiling. Each of these openings outside and inside the house should be covered with coarse wire cloth. That made from tinned or galvanized No. 16 wire, with one-half in. meshes, is the best. Care should be taken in building these flues to have them smoothly plastered on the inside. An ornamental finish can be used at each end if desired. By this arrangement a steady flow of fresh air, both night and day, is secured without the ill effects of strong draughts.
Do not try to economize by using one flue for two or more rooms. Good results are only secured by using a set of flues for each room or hall. I have seen ventilating flues built to open through the cornice. That is a bad plan, for even a slight wind will check the draught while blowing against that side. If the flues are properly finished after passing through the roof the wind will increase the draught. The above suggestions answer equally as well for frame houses. It is easy to construct wood flues between the weatherboarding and lath.
COOPER’S CONDUCTOR OR LEADER PIPE.
The object of this invention is to supply the builder with a conductor-pipe that will not burst after freezing, which all pipes without provision for expansion are liable when water is frozen solid in them. The peculiarity of the joint lies in the wedge principle, applied in a manner which forces the rim of the inside lap hard against the overlapping end with strength sufficient to do without soldering the joints. Besides this, each joint is provided with a fastening which prevents the pipe from settling. This fastening may or may not be used, but if used in connection with the ordinary pipe hook (which does not prevent the pipe from settling) makes a very superior fastening.
The V-shaped corrugation prevents bursting, as it allows the pipe to expand when frozen, thus preventing its bursting. We make two sizes, three and four inches in diameter, twenty-eight inches long, using tin plate, which we galvanize with zinc after it is formed, making a pipe superior to any galvanized iron pipe of equal weight. We make the same not galvanized, but painted one coat inside and out with linseed oil and oxide of iron paint.
COOPER’S CONDUCTOR OR LEADER PIPE
AMPLE PROVISION FOR EXPANSION.
Design B Front and Side Elevation
SEVEN-ROOM, TWO-STORY HOUSE.
Estimated Cost, $1,200 to $1,500.
Cover main roof with No. 2 14 × 20 Metal Shingles; gables with same, and porches with 7 × 10, same quality. Attic ventilators will improve the appearance and give additional light to the rooms under roof (see page 73).
