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Serving Military and Veteran Families introduces readers to the unique culture of military families, their resilience, and the challenges of military life. It reviews the latest research, theories, policies, and programs to prepare readers for understanding and working with military and veteran families. It also offers practical knowledge about the challenges that come with military family life and the federal policies, laws, and programs that support military and veteran families.
Boasting a new full-color design and rich with pedagogy, the text also includes several boxed elements in each chapter. “Spotlight on Research” highlights researchers who study military and veteran families with the goal of informing and enriching the work of family support professionals. “Voices from the Frontline” presents the real-life stories of support program leaders, practitioners, researchers, policymakers, and most importantly service members and veterans and their families. “Tips from the Frontline” offers concrete, hands-on suggestions based on the experiences and wisdom of the people featured in the text and the broader research and practice communities.
Third Edition features:
• Streamlined focus on theories and the addition of the contextual model of family stress and life course theory, including an interview with Glen Elder in which he shares his perspective on the development of life course theory and how it can be applied to understand development across individuals and cohorts.
• Personal accounts of over 70 program leaders, practitioners, researchers, policymakers, and, significantly, service members, veterans, and family members who offer insight into their personal experiences, successes, and challenges associated with military life.
• 28 new interviews with service members, veterans, family members, researchers, and clinicians that bring important topics to life.
• Updated demographics and descriptions of service members, veterans, and their families.
• Expanded descriptions of mental health treatment approaches with an emphasis on including family members.
• Updated exercises focused on providing services to military and veteran families.
• New online resources designed to further enrich discourse and discussion.
Serving Military and Veteran Families is designed as a core text for advanced undergraduate or graduate courses on military and veteran families, or as a supplement for related courses taught in family science, human development, family life education, social work, and clinical or counseling psychology programs. Providing a foundation for working with increased sensitivity, knowledge, and respect, the text can also be a useful resource for helping professionals who work with military and veteran families.
Karen Rose Blaisure, PhD, is a certified family life educator and professor of family science at Western Michigan University.
Christina M. Marini, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Gordon F. Derner School of Psychology at Adelphi University.
Tara Saathoff-Wells, PhD, is a certified family life educator and a research and evaluation scientist at the Clearinghouse for Military Family Readiness at The Pennsylvania State University.
Catherine Walker O’Neal, PhD, is an assistant professor of human development and family science at the University of Georgia.
Mallory Lucier-Greer, PhD, LMFT, is a professor of human development and family science at Auburn University.
Amy Laura Dombro, MS, develops resources to assist teachers, family support professionals, and community leaders in making positive changes for children and families.
Colonel Angela Pereira, PhD, U.S. Army, Retired, is a consultant and an educator on psychological health and military life issues, having completed a distinguished career in the military.
Shelley M. MacDermid Wadsworth, PhD, is a distinguished professor in the Department of Human Development and Family Science at Purdue University.
Serving Military and Veteran Families
Theories, Research, and Application
Third Edition
Karen Rose Blaisure
Christina M. Marini
Tara Saathoff-Wells
Catherine Walker O’Neal
Mallory Lucier-Greer
Amy Laura Dombro
Angela Pereira
Shelley M. MacDermid Wadsworth
Designed cover image: Allison Sochinski
Third edition published 2024 by Routledge
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The right of Karen Rose Blaisure, Christina M. Marini, Tara Saathoff-Wells, Catherine Walker O’Neal, Mallory Lucier-Greer, Amy Laura Dombro, Colonel Angela Pereira, and Shelley M. MacDermid Wadsworth to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice : Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
First edition published by Routledge 2012
Second edition published by Routledge 2016
Access the Support Material: www.routledge.com/9780367476991
ISBN: 978-0-367-47698-4 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-367-47699-1 (pbk)
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DOI: 10.4324/9781003035954
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To all members and veterans of the U.S. military and their families for their personal sacrifices, their dedication to duty, and their patriotism, and to all who serve them.
AUTHORS
Karen Rose Blaisure, PhD, a certified family life educator, is a professor of family science in the Department of Family and Consumer Sciences at Western Michigan University in Kalamazoo where she developed Family Life and the Military, a special topics graduate course for students in the helping professions. From 1986 through 1989, she worked as a program specialist and an education services supervisor at the Navy Family Services Center (NFSC) in Norfolk, Virginia (renamed the Naval Station Norfolk Fleet and Family Support Center), facilitating programs on deployment, reunion, and parenting. In 1992, she served as a special project consultant at the NFSC. Dr. Blaisure has presented on military family life to professional groups and has written about the U.S. Navy’s Return and Reunion program.
Christina M. Marini, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Gordon F. Derner School of Psychology at Adelphi University in Garden City, New York. Her research focuses on how individuals and couples cope with stress and transition across the adult life span and related implications for health and well-being. She studies military couples coping with deployment-related stressors, as well as veterans coping with age-related stressors later in life. She co-facilitates the National Council on Family Relations’ Military Families and Children focus group and has served as a scientific reviewer for the Canadian Institute for Military and Veteran Health Research (CIMVHR) and the Congressionally Directed Medical Research Programs (CDMRP). Dr. Marini is an affiliated scientist of both the Military Family Research Institute at Purdue University and The Center for Healthy Aging at The Pennsylvania State University. She is also an active external collaborator of the Stress, Health, and Aging Research Program (SHARP) of the VA Boston Healthcare System.
Tara Saathoff-Wells, PhD, a certified family life educator, is a research and evaluation scientist at the Clearinghouse for Military Family Readiness at Penn State. Her current work focuses on high - needs military families who are eligible for family services, including home visitation, early intervention, and prevention of child maltreatment. She helps develop curricula and evaluate parenting interventions across the DoD. As a doctoral student, she completed an internship with the U.S. Department of State in the Family Liaison Office, the primary family and child resource and support office for U.S. diplomatic families.
Catherine Walker O’Neal, PhD, is an assistant professor of human development and family science at the University of Georgia in Athens, Georgia. Her research focuses on the interplay of risk and resilience among families facing acute or chronic stressors, particularly military families, to inform evidence-based outreach efforts promoting well-being. Currently, she directs the evaluation of the Department of the Air Force’s Personal Financial Readiness program, which provides opportunities to regularly interact with clients of and staff at Military and Family Readiness Centers across the world. Dr. O’Neal is also a Co-Investigator of Military REACH, a partnership project synthesizing military family research to make it accessible and relevant for military families, helping professionals, and policymakers.
Mallory Lucier-Greer, PhD, LMFT, is a professor of human development and family science at Auburn University in Auburn, Alabama. With a clinical background as a Licensed Marriage and Family Therapist and Certified Family Life Educator, her research is focused on the well-being of families, particularly military families. Currently, she is the Principal Investigator of Military REACH, a DoD-USDA Partnership grant that translates military family research into practical and accessible tools and resources for policymakers and service providers. Dr. Lucier-Greer has also served as the Co-Investigator for evaluation projects for the U.S. Army and a current project with the U.S. Air Force focused on evaluating their personal financial readiness program.
Amy Laura Dombro, MS, develops resources to assist teachers, family support professionals, and community leaders in making positive changes for children and families. As former head of the Bank Street Infant and Family Center, Amy has worked with and for organizations, including the Military Family Research Institute, ZERO TO THREE, The What to Expect Foundation, and Families and Work Institute to translate information so that it is engaging and easy to use. In addition, she documents stories of change initiatives to identify successes, challenges, and lessons learned so that readers can benefit from the experiences of others. Amy believes that listening to and learning from educators, community leaders, and family members is a vitally needed ingredient for the success of our shared goal to promote the well-being of young children and families.
Colonel Angela Pereira, PhD, U.S. Army, Retired, is a consultant and an educator on psychological health and military life issues, having completed a distinguished career in the military. She previously served as the U.S. Army’s regional mental health consultant and director of the U.S. Army Europe Regional Medical Command’s Solider and Family Support Services in Heidelberg, Germany; as a member of the Department of Defense Task Force on Mental Health; as the director of the Combat Stress Control/Mental Health Clinic in Abu Ghraib, Iraq; as the director of education and training on health and wellness at the U.S. Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine; and as a division social worker for the Third Armored Division during Operations Desert Shield/Storm. Board certified in clinical social work, she earned her PhD from the University of South Carolina in Columbia and her master’s and bachelor’s degrees from the University of California, Berkeley. Dr. Pereira’s many honors include the Legion of Merit, the Bronze Star Medal, and the Order of Military Medical Merit.
Shelley M. MacDermid Wadsworth, PhD, is a distinguished professor in the Department of Human Development and Family Science at Purdue University in West Lafayette, Indiana, where she directs the Military Family Research Institute. Her research focuses on relationships between job conditions and family life, with a special focus on military families and organizational policies, programs, and practices. Her research has been supported by the National Institutes of Health; the Departments of Defense, Veterans Affairs, and Agriculture; state governments; and numerous private philanthropies. Dr. MacDermid Wadsworth is a fellow of the National Council on Family Relations, a recipient of the Burgess Award for continuous and meritorious contributions to theory and research in the family field, and has been named a “Top Ten Extraordinary Contributor” among work-family researchers worldwide. She has served on federal advisory committees for the National Academies of Science and the Department of Defense and has testified in Congress on multiple occasions regarding military and veteran families.
REVIEWERS
The authors and publisher would like to extend our gratitude to the below individuals who provided feedback on this edition.
Katherine R. Allen, PhD, is Professor Emerita of Human Development and Family Science at Virginia Tech. She is the Editor of Journal of Family Theory & Review. She studies marginalization, vulnerability, and reflexivity over the family life course using feminist, intersectional, and qualitative approaches. Her most recent book is Family Theories Today: A Critical Intersectional Approach (2023; Cognella Academic Publishers).
Col (r) Rick L. Campise, PhD, ABPP, is a retired Air Force Psychologist who deployed to both Iraq and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. During a 28-year military career, Col (r) Campise served as a Group Commander, Squadron Commander, Chief of the Air Force Suicide Prevention Program, Chief of Air Force Deployment Psychology, and Director of the DoD National Center of Excellence for Telehealth and Technology, while also serving many years as a therapist to active duty members and their families.
Julie A. Cederbaum, PhD, MSW, MPH, is an Associate Professor in the Suzanne Dworak-Peck School of Social Work at the University of Southern California in Los Angeles, California. Her work focuses on the impact of childhood adversity and family processes on the well-being of youth. Using a dyad and family systems lens, her research explores the strengths and challenges experienced by diverse families, and ways in which parenting processes and behaviors positively influence mental health, reproductive health, and substance use behaviors in children, adolescents, and young adults.
Ellen DeVoe, is Associate Dean of Academic Affairs at Boston University School of Social Work. She received her BA from Princeton University and PhD (Social Work & Psychology) from the University of Michigan. Her scholarship focuses on trauma and parenting. She served on the NASEM Committee on the Wellbeing of Military Families.
Sarah L. Friedman, PhD (https://psychology.columbian.gwu.edu/sarah-friedman) is a Research Professor of Psychological and Brain Sciences at The George Washington University. In 2011 and 2012, she spearheaded two conferences on military children: “The scientific study of military children” and “Promoting the Resilience of Military Children through Effective Programs,” both in collaboration with members of the Scientific Advisory Board of the Military Child Education Coalition and both paid for by the CNA Corporation.
Stacy Ann Hawkins, PhD, is a Behavioral Research Scientist with over 15 years of experience conducting research and evaluation studies. Her work centers around the impact of relationships on health and well-being, particularly among military families. An integral part of her work is the application of theory and research evidence to relevant issues and military leader priorities, bringing science to inform policy, programs, and practice.
Leanne K. Knobloch, PhD, is a Professor in the Department of Communication at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. Her research focuses on the communication of military families across the deployment cycle. She is a fellow of the International Communication Association and the International Association for Relationship Research.
Kyle L. Kostelecky, PhD, CFLE, is an Associate Professor of human development and family science at Auburn University in Auburn, Alabama. As a two-service veteran (enlisted U.S. Navy Chaplain Corps and officer U.S. Army Medical Service Corps) and Certified Family Life Educator, his entire career has been dedicated to serving families. Kyle is the Project Director/Principal Investigator for OneOp, a DoD-USDA Partnership cooperative agreement that is a virtual professional development platform for providers who serve military families.
Patricia Lester, MD, is the Nathanson Family Professor and Executive Vice Chair of the Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences at the UCLA Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior and David Geffen School of Medicine. A board- certified child and adolescent psychiatrist, Dr. Lester’s research, administrative, and clinical work have been dedicated to the development, evaluation, and implementation of family-centered prevention and treatment for families and children facing trauma and adversity within community ecosystems.
Briana S. Nelson Goff, PhD, LCMFT, is a Professor in the Department of Applied Human Sciences at Kansas State University in Manhattan, Kansas. Dr. Nelson Goff’s clinical experience and research focuses on primary and secondary traumatic stress symptoms in couples and families. From 2009 to 2017, she served as the founder and director of the Institute for the Health and Security of Military Families at Kansas State University. Her work with military families led to authoring her first mainstream press book, Bulletproof Vows: Stories of Couples Navigating Military Deployments and Life's Battles (January 2023, New Degree Press).
Daniel F. Perkins, PhD, is a Professor of Family and Youth Resiliency and Policy and also the Director/ Principal Scientist of the Clearinghouse for Military Family Readiness at Penn State, a university-wide applied research center. As director, he leads a team of 50 professionals that facilitate the translation of science into action by conducting robust applied research, identifying comprehensive, science-based programs, and offering proactive technical assistance to professionals working with military service members, veterans, and their families.
Lyndon A. Riviere, PhD, is a sociologist who researches soldier behavioral health, relationship functioning, and military spouse well-being. He is employed as a Research Scientist in the Center for Military Psychiatry & Neuroscience at the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research. He also a member of the WRAIR IRB.
Barbara Thompson, MS, served as Director for Office of Military Family Readiness Policy and was responsible for programs and policies that promote military families’ well-being, readiness, and quality of life, such as the child development and youth programs; military family readiness programs, including spouse well-being and career advancement, military family lifecycle and transition support, community capacity building; and, oversight of the Family Advocacy Program and Exceptional Family Member Program.
Ginny Wescott, MA, CFLE, is an Integrated Prevention Chief (GS-13) for the U.S. Air Force currently stationed at Spangdahlem AB, Germany. Wescott and her team handle all outreach and prevention efforts concerning interpersonal and self-directed violence. She has worked for the Army, Navy, and Marine Corps in addition to her current job with the Air Force. She is also a military spouse and mom with her husband serving 26 years on active duty and her son currently serving in the Army Reserves.
PREFACE
We are delighted to share the third edition of Serving Military and Veteran Families with you. If you are reading this book, you are likely supporting—or hope to support—service members, veterans, and their families in your career. You may be a college student preparing to work with military families, or you may already be established in your career as a social worker, teacher, child care provider, nurse or physician, lawyer, counselor, law enforcement officer, writer, or researcher. You may work in a university setting or a civilian social service agency where you sometimes meet and work with military and veteran family members, perhaps more often than you used to. You may even work for an organization that has a mission to serve military and/or veteran families. Perhaps you are a member of a military or veteran family yourself. When we consider the 18.5 million veterans and 2.1 million service members in the U.S. and their families, the chances are that whatever you do, and wherever you do it, you will end up serving members of military and veteran families.
Writing this new edition has given us the opportunity both to update information that was already included in previous editions and to include new information, such as an expanded focus on veterans and their families. By focusing the conversation more on veterans, we were able to draw from a life course perspective, which acknowledges that implications of military service unfold over time as individuals and families grow older and experience other types of transitions. Conversations with our new authors, Christina M. Marini, Catherine Walker O’Neal, and Mallory Lucier-Greer, were integral to weaving this perspective throughout the book. We were fortunate to be able to interview Glen Elder, the father of life course theory; you will meet him in Chapter 5 where he explains: “A lived life is not over for any of us until we’ve lived through all our years. This is the territory of the life course perspective, with its way of enabling us to see and think about human development in context across the life span.” It is a quote worth repeating and you will find it elsewhere in the book. As you consider what Glen Elder and others have to say about these ideas, we invite you to reflect on your own experiences and how your view of them may change and evolve over time in light of your work with military and veteran families, as well as your own personal experiences coping with transitions and change.
No matter where you are in your life span and career, every day you have an opportunity to make a difference in the lives of those who have sacrificed, or who are currently sacrificing, so much for the rest of us. In her work with aging veterans, Dr. Anica Pless Kaiser (who you will meet in Chapter 7 ) describes the goal of her team’s work as “to support people in coming to the realization that they have a choice about how to move forward, whatever that might mean to an individual.” To do so requires a basic understanding of the culture that is the military and the lives of military and veteran families. Our goal is that this book will get you started with information and research about military and veteran families that you can use to build your knowledge base about their lives and the military culture.
We intentionally threaded aspects of military culture throughout our book in big and small ways. As an example of the latter, we now start each chapter with a BLUF (bottom line up front) statement, which clearly articulates the overarching message of each chapter from the very beginning. This communication practice is embedded within military culture, and the
service members and veterans you work with may therefore be accustomed to—and perhaps even appreciate—this type of communication. You will also learn about how much military and veteran families have in common with civilian families, as well as issues that are more specific to military and veteran families. You will have the chance to meet people who study and work with military and veteran families, as well as those who make policy and design programs, and even those who are family members themselves. You will learn how service members share commonalities and how they differ in their experiences of military service. You will learn how veterans from different eras, fighting different wars, understand one another. You will learn how the implications of serving in the military can vary across the lifespan. You will learn how military life may impact families differently.
In many chapters, you will learn about services that are available to military and veteran families from both the military and civilian sectors. Yet, just because services exist, and individuals and organizations are committed to supporting families, doesn’t necessarily mean that families are receiving the support they need, even when they do connect with a program or service provider. You will often be tasked with finding a good fit between where a family is at (how ready they are to receive support), what kind of support they need, and what kind of support is available to them.
While all of this information is important, it is what you do with it that really matters. After all, you are the one who makes meaning of it and will apply what you learn. In this spirit, we invite you to use this book as an opportunity to pause and reflect on who and how you are as a family support professional. As many of the researchers, policymakers, service providers, and, most significantly, members of military and veteran families have said to us in so many words throughout the now three editions of this book:
No one can ever know it all when it comes to military and veteran families, but if you can listen and ask questions with genuine curiosity and respect and with the intent to serve, families will help fill in the gaps of what you need to know.
Your curiosity, respect, and openness to learning with and from families are instrumental if you are to support people in choosing how to move forward, wherever they are in their lives, and wherever you are in yours. There is no one-size-fits-all approach to supporting families. While it may be referring a family to an organization, it may also be knowing when to listen and ask a question or two so that family members can hear themselves think out loud and reflect upon their situation.
To this end, throughout this book, we offer you a series of features filled with information, voices, and reflective questions to serve as a guide as you get to know and tailor your approach to meet the unique mix of strengths and needs, goals and hopes of the diverse families you work with. These features include the following:
• Spotlight on Research: Here you will find the work of researchers who are focused on learning more about military and veteran families with the goal of informing and enriching the work of family support professionals like you. As you will see, there are many areas with regard to military and veteran families—such as the effects of service across the life course of veterans and family members—that we still have much to learn about. If you are a researcher (or are planning to become one), there is still plenty of work to be done.
• Voices from the Frontline: In this feature, you will find stories of support program leaders, practitioners, researchers, policymakers, and most importantly service members and veterans
and their families. Each has generously shared their personal experiences, successes, challenges, and insights from a moment in time. By the time you are reading this book, their stories will have unfolded further. Like the family members you will (or already) work with—and members of your own family—each is a unique individual in a unique family constellation.
• Tips from the Frontline: In these sections, you will find concrete, hands-on suggestions based on the experiences and wisdom of people you met in this book and the broader research and practice communities.
As you read, we predict that you will not only learn about military and veteran families but also, like some of the people you will meet in the following pages (including some of the authors), you will learn something about yourself and your assumptions about the military and our country.
We think you will be inspired too by the families you meet as Dr. Shelley MacDermid Wadsworth, one of the coauthors of this book, was the day she walked into a small office at the Pentagon: “The walls were covered with sheets filled with writing. I asked a senior-level person what was going on. The Secretary of Defense had given a small team three weeks to figure out how to get every child in Iraq back to school. They were busy solving a problem no one had ever tackled before.” Like these professionals, everyday military and veteran family members are faced with problems they may never have tackled before. You too will likely face problems you have never tackled before. While you will certainly not find every answer in this book, we hope that you can use it as a tool to help you know where to look for answers, both within yourself and beyond yourself to other supports and resources that are available to you.
To help you meet your goal of making a positive difference in the lives of military and veteran families, this third edition includes the following updates and additions:
• Updated demographics and descriptions of service members, veterans, and their families.
• Expanded descriptions of mental health treatment approaches with a focus on including family members.
• Twenty new interviews with service members, veterans, family members, researchers, and clinicians to bring the new topics above to life.
• Updated exercises focused on providing services to military and veteran families.
• New online supplemental material that is meant as a resource to further enrich discourse and discussion.
In Chapter 1, you will be introduced to the role of the military, the mission of each service branch, and the military as a culture with defining characteristics such as a chain of command structure, norms (e.g., language, tradition, and training), and its 24/7/365 mission-first identity. You will meet Colonel Angela Pereira, U.S. Army, Retired, one of the coauthors of this book who grew up in a military family and provided psychological health care to troops in Iraq before retiring.
Chapter 2 continues to build foundational knowledge by describing requirements for acceptance into the military and motivating factors that lead people to apply. Demographic details provide broad pictures of active duty and selected reserve service personnel, and Department of Defense recognized family members (spouses, children, and adult dependents).
Chapter 3 focuses on understanding military family life. We explore the research with regard to sense of community, the duty first mission, and expected family transitions (e.g., relocations)
and separations (e.g., deployments), and then we wrestle with action steps and ways that family support professionals can use this information in their work. This chapter now includes a focus on how families cope during deployment by reviewing their need for (1) information, (2) connection to the deployer, (3) emotional supports, and (4) tangible supports.
In Chapter 4, we take a closer look at children and youth in military families. Among the people you will meet are Matthew and Elena, high school seniors who founded BLOOM, a website to empower military teens. Their words help to illustrate chapter content, including insight about what they want family support professionals who work with military kids, teens, and families to know. Updated research provides the latest statistics and findings on topics related to young people’s experiences of military life, such as the most common relocation and school challenges faced by children and youth, as well as resources available to help address these challenges.
Chapter 5 will ground you in theories that can be used to better understand and support military and veteran families in the field. This new edition includes a more streamlined focus on theories that focus on family relationships. Newly discussed theories include the contextual model of family stress and life course theory. Because life course theory is used throughout the book as a lens through which we can understand military and veteran families, we are also excited to have included the voice of Glen Elder, the founder of life course theory, in this chapter. Here, he shares his perspective on the theory’s development and how the theory can be applied to understand development across individuals and cohorts. At the heart of this chapter is a new focus on application. For many theories discussed, a sub-section has been added to explicitly address how family support professionals can use the theory in the field.
Chapter 6 considers common career milestones service members experience during their careers and, for some, family milestones of marriage and parenthood. Noted are military developed support structures and programs to help service and family members through significant life transitions, including separation from the military. The chapter ends with a description of the longitudinal Millennium Cohort Study, with selected findings after 20 years of data collection, and the accompanying Millennium Cohort Family Study.
In Chapter 7, you will learn about short- and long-term effects of wartime service on service members. The chapter is guided by a life course perspective and therefore revisits our interview with Glen Elder. You will also meet Dr. Anica Pless Kaiser, who studies aging veterans and how normative changes that happen later in life (e.g., the transition to retirement) can actually trigger reminiscence of wartime experiences via a process referred to as Later Adulthood Trauma Reengagement. An updated discussion of the physical and psychological effects of war, including discussions of traumatic brain injuries and moral injuries, ends with a newly expanded section about positive effects of wartime service, including a discussion of positive changes in relationships, as well as philosophical, physical, and spiritual growth.
Chapter 8 discusses research focused on risk and resilience experienced in family systems and familial roles in relation to war and deployment experiences. There is a particular focus on marital relationships, combat-injured families, and emerging research with parents of service members. New in this edition, you will meet the Griggs family, whose interviews provide insight into appreciating how families develop shared and unique perspectives on deployment experiences. You will hear voices of dual-service couples, additional service members, family support professionals, and meet researchers who focus on military family relationships. Each of these areas of research addresses assumptions and clarifies strengths and concerns
for military family well-being. In turn, these findings inform policies that are directed toward these families. You will also learn about programs that have been developed in response to military and veteran family needs.
Chapter 9 is focused on veteran families. It is now guided by the life course perspective and highlights how the transition to becoming a veteran family unfolds over time. To help illustrate this point, this chapter will introduce you to four members of the Yeary family, each of whom shares their initial perspective on their family’s transition from military to civilian life, as well as updated thoughts and feelings nearly six years later. These updated interviews highlight how perspectives may change as family members gain distance from the separation both as they age and as they experience other life changes and transitions. You will also learn about the current veteran population and veteran family experiences within and between generations of combat. Other new additions include a focus on the Veterans Metrics Initiative, which is the first longitudinal study of the military-to-civilian transition, as well as an interview with Dr. Daniel F. Perkins [the Principal Scientist (and founder) of the Clearinghouse for Military Family Readiness] about this initiative. This chapter now ends with advice from the Yeary family about working with military and veteran families.
Chapter 10 considers women in the military and this new edition gives substantially increased attention to women veterans, as well as women who are members of racial, ethnic, and sexual minority groups. In this chapter, you will meet Captain Emily Spencer, U.S. Army, who shares insights into the many roles of her life, including serving as an active duty Explosives Ordinances Disposal Specialist and being the mother of two young children. You will also meet Colonel Kristi Brawley (Ret.), Air National Guard, who discusses her career path and journey to becoming a pilot and to transitioning out of military service and starting a family. You will learn about the changing role of women in our country’s Armed Forces and gain insight into some of their concerns, including sexual assault, homelessness, combatrelated psychological disorders, and the evolving relationship between women veterans and the Department of Veterans Affairs. This chapter has been meticulously updated to include new research about women and deployment, as well as updated demographic data and statistics about mental health and sexual assault.
Chapter 11 discusses federal policies, laws, and programs, and Department of Defense policies and programs that support military families. You will learn about the different ways that the Department of Defense supports Active and Reserve Component families and laws and policies that respond to unique situations faced by military members and their families. The chapter closes with a discussion about how the Department of Defense continues its work to improve the view of psychological health and support in the military and programs that the Department has developed to respond to the increased challenges and stresses that military families experience as a result of recent sustained military operations around the world.
In Chapter 12 , we discuss civilian organizations that support military families and how these organizations advocate for, assist, and increase our knowledge about military families. Insights about how collaborative efforts can improve life for military families may inspire your thinking and practice around collaboration. Newly covered programs in this edition include a recently formed and grass-roots military youth organization, BLOOM; civilian organizations that support underrepresented service members and veterans, including the Service Women’s Action Network (SWAN) and Modern Military Association of America (MMAA); and the Elizabeth Dole Foundation, dedicated to caregivers of injured and aging service members and veterans.
Chapter 13 discusses innovations in family-focused systems of care; direction for working with those who have experienced traumatic events and injuries, such as TBI and PTSD, and their families; and information pertaining both to caregivers and to families who have experienced the death of their service member. This new edition now prominently includes the voice of Dr. Lynda Davis, Chief Veterans Experience Officer for the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (January 2017–January 2021). Dr. Davis emphasizes the importance of incorporating families and caregivers into veterans’ care. She offers important lessons learned and raises key questions for family support professionals to think about when working with veterans and their families.
Finally, Chapter 14 looks ahead with you to serving military families by reviewing the types of positions available in the service branches, the Department of Veterans Affairs, and the Department of Defense Education Activity and noting online sites where positions are listed. Career paths, obvious and not-so-obvious, are illustrated through stories shared by working professionals. We invite you to take what you have learned about military and veteran families with you on your path and to continue to reflect on who you are and what you bring to life.
We want to conclude by featuring a statement by Senator Elizabeth Dole, Founder and Chair of the Elizabeth Dole Foundation, who later in this book describes the compassion and strength of military and veteran caregivers, including children, and challenges caregivers experience. We’re sharing here her appreciation of you, the readers, who are learning about military and veteran families:
I am so grateful you have chosen to devote your future to supporting America’s military families. Helping those who serve is one of the most rewarding and urgent causes you can take-on in life. Our military families all made extraordinary sacrifices on our behalf. They do not deserve to struggle with the consequences of those sacrifices alone.
We also recognize and thank you for making an intentional decision to serve those individuals and families who serve or have served our country. We think that you will (or perhaps already do) find that working with the military and veteran population comes with not only unique challenges but also unique rewards, including a profound sense of camaraderie and purpose. We wish you the best on your journey throughout your professional career and hope that one day you are able to weave your own voice and experiences into what you take away from this book as you work with military and veteran families in the years and decades to come.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We owe thanks to the many individuals and organizations who made this book possible. We would like to recognize the pivotal role of the Military Family Research Institute (MFRI) at Purdue University in the development of this book. MFRI staff and students helped with this effort in a myriad of ways, including answering many questions, designing the cover, and providing many materials in addition to doing the high-quality work they complete every day. We especially thank Allison Sochinski for her contribution to cover art.
Stories form the heart of this book. These stories come from over 70 military family members, service members, veterans, researchers, clinicians, writers, students, university staff, and experts and leaders from military and civilian family support organizations who agreed to share their experiences and reflections. We are grateful, as we know readers will be, for their generosity. We would like to thank the following students and staff members for their assistance: Carly Lawrence, a Research Assistant at Adelphi University, for her assistance with references and for scheduling our monthly meetings. Emily Hanson, a Research Assistant at Auburn University, for her assistance with the glossary and defining terms in a way that was both precise and easy to understand. We would also like to thank Cheryl Wellman for her assistance in manuscript preparation and our colleagues, friends, and family for their encouragement.
In the spirit of the larger purpose of this book (to aid in professional growth), we first want to express gratitude to those who have used previous editions of this book, especially those who provided constructive (and anonymous) critiques to our publisher. These critiques provided us with thoughtful improvements that guided our strategy for this new edition from the outset. For example, their calls for improved readability led us to re-vamp the book design and formatting, and even inspired us to include photos depicting a variety of military and veteran families at the beginning of each chapter. This book has grown and adapted as policies, programs, demographic trends, among other things, all change. We value our readers’ perspectives and experiences as they use this book and are grateful that their feedback could be incorporated into this new edition. We also want to thank our panel of expert, external reviewers (whose biographies are included prior to this preface) for their thoughtful feedback and contributions. These reviewers were sought for their perspectives as service members, veterans, family members, support professionals, researchers, program developers, educators, clinicians, among others who both influenced—and were influenced by—policies affecting military and veteran families. This panel encompasses an impressive array of (busy!) individuals who were patient with us as drafts of chapters took longer than expected to produce in light of personal and global circumstances. We thank them for the work that they do to serve military and veteran families.
We would also like to acknowledge the team at Routledge, Taylor & Francis for their support and direction. Our thanks to Georgette Enriquez, our initial editor, who accompanied us through a multi-year writing effort. With special gratitude we also acknowledge Ceri McLardy, publisher, Alison Macfarlane, senior production editor, and Leah Burton, editor, who shared the editorial mantle during the production stage. Thank you for your reassurance and guidance. To Eve Malakoff-Klein, Randy Baldini, and the copyediting team at KnowledgeWorks Global: we appreciate your patience and accessibility.
Credit: Jacob Lund/Shutterstock.com
CHAPTER
An Introduction to the Military and Military Culture
Family- and military-readiness are linked. That is, the mission of the military shapes family life and families play a vital role in the readiness of an all-volunteer force. Family support professionals therefore can support both families and the mission of the military more broadly by building their knowledge and appreciation of military service and culture, and honing their skills to serve families. bottom line up front
BLUF
MEET: COAUTHOR ANGELA PEREIRA, COLONEL, U.S. ARMY, RETIRED
People join the military for many different reasons: education benefits, the camaraderie and sense of belonging, the travel, the challenge, following a family member’s footsteps. My father was in the Army for 27 years. When I was growing up, we moved every three years in the United States and Germany. I went to eight different schools between the first and twelfth grades. After graduating college, I realized how much I wanted to join those doing the important work of watching over our nation. Recently retired, I was an Army social worker for 25 years. I did just about every kind of job a social worker can do in the Army. I worked in community mental health and in the exceptional family member program with families who have children with special needs. I worked in corrections. I provided services on the ground to soldiers of an armored division during the Gulf War. I’ve been a policymaker and worked on program development. And I’ve been in management roles— first serving as a regional chief of domestic violence for one-third of the Army family advocacy programs in Europe and later as the consultant and program director for mental health services for Army soldiers and families in Europe. During my Army career, I served in Fort Riley, Kansas; San Antonio, Texas; Frankfurt, Germany; Saudi Arabia; Iraq (twice); Kuwait; Fort Jackson, South Carolina; Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland; and Heidelberg, Germany (twice). In 15 years of marriage, my husband, who also served in the Army, and I were apart for a total of six years due to our work.
INTRODUCTION
Like Colonel Pereira, you may have grown up in a military family. Perhaps you are a service member, planning to become one, or a veteran. Or maybe you have never thought much about the military and could never see yourself signing up. Perhaps someone very dear to you is serving in the military or has served. You may be a student considering entering a helping profession. Perhaps you are already out in the field working with children and families. You may be a first responder, a law enforcement agent, or a public health worker. You may be working with military or veteran families. Whatever your journey, this book is for you.
We, the authors, bring to this book a range of experience and knowledge about the military and veteran populations and their families. As you will see, some of us were born into the military and made it our life’s work. Some of us worked as civilians with a branch of the military or have family members who are serving or have recently served. Others of us did not have a personal or professional connection until our research brought us into the military space, and we had to confront and lay aside misconceptions as we got to know service members, veterans, and their families and learn more about military life. Throughout this book, we look forward to sharing some of our experiences, questions, and lessons learned about the military and military and veteran families.
WHY FOCUS ON MILITARY AND VETERAN FAMILIES?
Service members, veterans, and their loved ones are woven into your communities and neighborhoods in many ways, as noted by Joyce Wessel Raezer in Box 1.1. They are your work colleagues, schoolmates, little league coaches, teachers, firefighters, bank tellers, and insurance agents. They are parents, children, uncles, aunts, and grandparents —people you have known
BOX 1.1
T IPS FROM THE FRONTLINE
Military families want what every family wants. Just as all Americans are concerned about quality education for their children and work and career opportunities for both spouses, so are military families. Families bring issues from the civilian world with them, such as issues around money, parenting, caring for elderly parents, and raising children.
Today many military families are living out in their communities and may never live or work on a military installation. They are learning what a military family is while their service member is serving in a war zone. They need a targeted support system that includes support from their families, friends, and community. We are all in this together.
Joyce Wessel Raezer, Military Family Advocate Executive Director, National Military Family Association (2007–2019)
all your life as well as people you have never met. The journey through this book offers you, as a community member or a family support professional, opportunities to learn how to support individuals and families, each with their unique blend of capacities, strengths, and challenges, embedded within distinctive cultural contexts. The military is often described as having a culture of its own, and we will consider how this culture emerges in both work and family life. For example, as a workplace organization, the military has no rival among other career paths in terms of the number of individuals and families who are systematically affected by U.S. international diplomatic relations and policy.
Since 1973, U.S. military engagements have been conducted with an all-volunteer military, meaning that members of our military choose to serve, and they join in both times of relative peace and war. Major engagements during this time have been Persian Gulf War I (August 1990 to April 1991), Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF; the name given to the U.S. military actions in Afghanistan from October 2001 to December 2014), Operation Freedom Sentinel (OFS; the name given to the U.S. military coalition mission in Iraq from January 2015 to August 2021), Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF; the name given to the U.S. military actions in Iraq from March 2003 to September 2010), Operation New Dawn (OND; the name given to the U.S. military action in Iraq from September 2010 to December 2011), and counterterrorism operations in multiple countries in the Arabian Peninsula region and Africa (Biden, 2021; Defense Casualty Analysis System, n.d.).
If you are a college student or young professional between 18 and 24, the U.S. military operations against terrorism have been ongoing for your whole life or nearly your whole life. If you are older, you may remember other conflicts and/or peacekeeping missions involving U.S. military personnel. At the time of finalizing this book, Russia’s invasion of Ukraine was well into its second year. As a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization ( NATO ), the U.S. had deployed additional troops to member nations of NATO such as Germany, Lithuania, Poland, and Romania in support of Ukraine. Regardless of your age, however, you, your friends, family, colleagues, and clients will be affected directly or indirectly by military engagements and the impact of them for the foreseeable future. Thus, a ready and prepared cohort of family support professionals is needed to serve alongside military and veteran families.
UNDERSTANDING THE ROLE OF THE MILITARY
This section addresses the historical roots of the U.S. Armed Forces, the civilian control of the military, the use of an all-volunteer force, the concept of total—both active and reserve—force, and the branches of the military. It is unlikely that in your role as a family support professional or as a person interested in learning about military and veteran families that anyone will ever quiz you about the history of the military or this fiscal year’s budget or even the mission of each branch of service. Rather, this information is intended to promote greater understanding of the structure and function of the military, clarify misconceptions, and lay the foundation of what it means to be a military-connected family.
History
The roots of today’s U.S. Armed Forces extend from the early 1600s when English colonists brought with them the tradition of forming militias of local able-bodied men (Doubler, 2016). This tradition of the “citizen-soldier” is continued today by the National Guard whose beginning is recognized as December 13, 1636, when the Massachusetts General Court established “the first militia regiments in North America” (Doubler, 2016, p. 26; National Guard, n.d.b). Approximately a century and a half later, in 1775, the Second Continental Congress, facing the power of the British Army, recognized the need to supplement the militia system and established the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, and the Continental Marines. Both Continentals and militiamen (many who became Continentals) fought for independence from Great Britain (Cooper, 1999; Doubler, 2016).
From Revolution to Constitution
The Revolutionary War ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1783. With ratification of the Treaty the following year, Congress disbanded the Continental Navy, the Continental Marines, and the Continental Army although it did maintain soldiers at a few critical forts. Congress established the War Department in 1789 and the Department of the Navy in 1798 to defend the country and protect the merchant fleet at sea (Cooper, 1999; Goodspeed, 2003).
The writers of the U.S. Constitution grappled with the need to protect the security of the nation with the risk of having a strong standing (i.e., full-time) army that could be used to dismantle the new democratic Republic (McInnis, 2020). Their solution is now considered a central feature of democracy: civilian control of the military. Civilian control of the military in a democracy stands in contrast to an authoritarian government ruled by: a civilian leader(s) (e.g., a dictator with control of the military); a military leader who may be from the military or who assumes military rank once in power; or a military junta, a government led by a group of military leaders. An authoritarian government rules without constitutional accountability and through coercive and oppressive means, taking action it deems appropriate without the input from the citizens of that nation (Beliakova, 2021; Morlino et al., 2017).
In the United States, civilian control of the military is established in the U.S. Constitution and is divided between the U.S. President (see Article II of the U.S. Constitution) and members of Congress (see Article 1 of the U.S. Constitution), who are elected by U.S. citizens. The military follows civilian leadership and carries out the policies as directed by the President while Congress has the power to declare war, collect taxes to fund the military, raise armies, and
determine rules and regulations for the military (McInnis, 2020). The military is one of many tools used to carry out U.S. policy. Another tool is the U.S. State Department’s Diplomatic Corps whose mission is, in part, to promote peace and prosperity while advancing the interests of the U.S. abroad (National Museum of American Diplomacy, 2022).
From Conscription to All-Volunteer Force
Between the end of the War of American Independence and 1973, the United States relied periodically on conscription or a draft to acquire the service personnel needed to engage in wars or conflicts. In 1973, the era of the all-volunteer force began when the Selective Service Act (extended by Congress in 1971) expired, ending the draft. In 1980 and with Congress approving the funds, President Jimmy Carter reinstated required registration with the Selective Service System for most male U.S. citizens and male aliens and non-citizen nationals between 18 and 25 living in the United States. Women do not register with the Selective Service System and are not drafted (Kamarck, 2021).
An all-volunteer force means that the military relies on volunteers to join; no one is required to join. Registration with the Selective Service does not mean a man will be inducted into the military. If a draft were instituted “men would be called in sequence determined by random lottery number and year of birth [and] examined for mental, physical and moral fitness by the military before being deferred or exempted from military service or inducted into the Armed Forces” (Selective Service System, n.d., para. 1).
To Total Force Policy
Along with an all-volunteer force, another important shift emerged in the 1970s with the implementation of the “total force” policy. With this policy, which guides the mobilization of service personnel, the total force is considered to be the combination of
• the Active Component (U.S. military forces who work full time on active duty in the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, Air Force, Space Force, and the Department of Homeland Security’s Coast Guard),
• the Reserve Component (U.S. military forces, who augment active-duty military personnel, in the Ready Reserve, the Retired Reserve, and Standby Reserve), and
• government civilian employees (employees who carry out the mission of the U.S. Department of Defense [DoD] in a variety of capacities but are not required to be members of the military, although some may be veterans and/or serve in the Reserve Component; Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Military Community and Family Policy [DASD MC&FP], 2022).
It was not until the beginning of the Gulf War in 1990 when Americans began to feel the practical implications of a total force policy. At that time, the total force policy, coupled with the downsizing of the Active Component, meant large numbers of reservists and members of the National Guard were called to active service (Knox & Price, 1999).
Armed Forces and Uniformed Services
The term Armed Forces of the United States refers to the Active and Reserve Components of the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, Air Force, Space Force (Space Force does not have a Reserve Component), and Coast Guard, when it augments the Navy. Uniformed Services include the
Armed Forces of the United States and the two Noncombatant Uniformed Services, which are the Public Health Service Commissioned Corps and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Officer Corps.
U.S. Department of Defense Organization
The DoD, the federal department tasked with national security and supervising the U.S. Armed Forces, is one of 15 executive departments in the U.S. government. The DoD is led by the Secretary of Defense, a cabinet post, who is assisted by a deputy secretary and secretaries of a number of DoD offices, such as the Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Military Community and Family Policy (see https://prhome.defense.gov/ Home/Organization/MRA / ). The Secretary of Defense, a civilian, oversees national security agencies and the Department of the Army, the Department of the Navy which includes the Marine Corps, and the Department of the Air Force which includes the Space Force. Each military department is responsible for organizing, training, and equipping its personnel (Ott, 2023). As of 2021, the total number of DoD personnel was nearly 3.5 million, which included approximately 900,000 civilian personnel who support the mission of each service branch by working in, for example, logistics, budget, management, administration, child development centers, and youth programs (DASD MC&FP, 2022).
Also located in the DoD is the National Guard Bureau, a joint activity of the Army National Guard and the Air National Guard. The Chief of the National Guard Bureau serves as the communication link between the DoD and the Governor and the State Adjutant General (the senior military officer) of each state (National Guard, n.d.a).
Each service branch, including the National Guard Bureau, has a Chief of Staff, the most senior ranking officer, who is responsible for the readiness of personnel, among numerous other responsibilities, and who serves on the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS), an advisory body to the President and the Secretary of Defense. The operational chain of command begins with the President of the United States and continues down to the Secretary of Defense and then to the commanders of the combatant commands (McInnis, 2021). Within and between military units, the chain of command is “the line of authority and responsibility along which orders are passed … from higher ranked military personnel to lower ranked military personnel until those orders are received by those who implement the orders” (U.S. Department of Veteran Affairs, 2021, para. 2).
Budget
The DoD’s annual budget request is included in the President’s comprehensive budget that is submitted to Congress early in the calendar year. In response, Congress passes its own budget resolution (i.e., a revenue and spending plan) and appropriation bills to authorize funding of discretionary programs, including defense, under the jurisdiction of Congressional Appropriation Committees. This process to determine the amount and to allow discretionary spending is separate from mandatory spending, which is required by law. Common examples of mandatory funding are Social Security and Medicare. Of the federal government’s annual spending, approximately one-third is discretionary spending and two-thirds is mandatory spending. Supplemental spending can occur when urgent matters arise after the appropriations have been enacted (Fiscal Data, 2022).
The federal government’s fiscal year runs from October 1 to September 30. If the budget for a fiscal year is not passed by October 1, continuing resolutions are typically passed by Congress, funding the work of the federal government—a situation which occurred in Fall 2022. After two continuing resolutions in the fall of 2022, the James M. Inhofe National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year (FY) 2023 and the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2023, were passed by Congress and signed into law by President Biden in December 2022. Included, among other appropriation acts, was the DoD Appropriations Act, 2023, which provided the federal government $1.7 trillion in discretionary resources divided between defense and non-defense funding (House Committee on Appropriations, 2022). According to the House Committee on Appropriations, examples of FY 2023 funding areas included:
• $172.7 billion for military personnel which included a 4.6% pay raise, increases in basic allowance for subsistence and housing, a basic needs supplement for eligible service members with dependents, increases in dislocation allowance and expanded coverage for temporary lodging expenses while finding housing, suicide prevention and sexual assault programs and funding to implement Independent Review Commission on Sexual Assault recommendations and Special Victims’ Counsel programs;
• $278.1 billion for operations and maintenance such as sustaining and modernizing facilities, maintenance of weapons, and environmental restoration activities;
• $162.2 billion for procurement items such as weapons, shipbuilding, and vehicles;
• $136.7 billion for research, development, test, and evaluation of, for example, new technology, equipment;
• $1.7 billion for Revolving and Management Funds for base funding and Defense Commissary Agency);
• $41.8 billion for other DoD programs ($39.2 billion for medical and healthcare programs and cancer research; destruction of chemical agents and munitions; overseas humanitarian, disaster, and civic aid; drug interdiction and counter-drug activities; security cooperation program).
The DoD budget covers programs and services for military families, such as family support centers and support services for active duty and select reserve and families; child and youth programming; Morale, Welfare, and Recreation (MWR); and DoD Education Activity Schools. The DoD’s FY 2023 budget included specific funding for child care fee assistance, family housing, and construction of medical facilities.
Among the nations of the world, the United States has the largest military budget. In 2020, its spending was 39% of the total military spending globally (Lopes da Silva et al., 2021). The United States is also the world’s largest exporter of arms (e.g., missiles, bombers, fighter jets, tanks, Perlo Freeman, 2018) and, from 2016 to 2020, accounted for 37% of the worldwide exports of major arms (Wezeman et al., 2021).
Downsize in Active Force and Increase in Military Operational Tempo
At the end of the 1980s, after the fall of the communist system in the Soviet Union and its satellite Eastern European nations, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (the U.S.S.R. or Soviet Union, for short) was no longer seen as a threat to the United States. By 1991, the Soviet Union had collapsed into independent nations. The Cold War —the ongoing political, military,
and economic tension between the Soviet Union and its satellites and the United States and other powers of the Western world that had existed since the end of World War II—was over. Because the largest threat against the United States no longer existed, military planners and Congress reduced the size of the U.S. military, both the number of military combat divisions and the total number of active-duty military members. The downsizing continued after the Persian Gulf War (Bruner, 2005).
Throughout the Cold War, U.S. active-duty forces alone numbered over 2 million personnel, with over 3.5 million serving during the Korean and Vietnam Wars (Bruner, 2005). From 1990 to 2000, the active-duty force decreased by 32% from 2,029,300 million service members to 1,370,678 million (Office of the Deputy Under Secretary of Defense [Military Community and Family Policy], 2010).
Today, the size of the military continues to be smaller than in 1990. In 2021, active-duty (1.3 million) and selected reserve (800,064) forces numbered over 2.1 million service members (DASD MC&FP, 2022). Compared to 2005, each service branch declined in numbers of activeduty members in FY 2021: Air Force ( 5.9%), Navy ( 4.1%), Army ( 0.8%), and Marine Corps ( 0.1%). The Space Force was established in 2019; thus, at the writing of this book, this branch was still growing to reach its intended endstrength.
During this same time, the total size of the Selected Reserve (which consists of reservists in the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, Air Force, and Coast Guard; and members of each state’s Army and Air National Guard) overall decreased by 3.5%, although the Air National Guard and Army National Guard increased by 1.9% and 1.3%, respectively (DASD MC&FP, 2022).
Since the beginning of the all-volunteer force in 1973, the military operational tempo or OPTEMPO (i.e., the frequency and intensity of military operations or missions) has varied. For example, during 1989–1997, OPTEMPO increased 300%, while the size of the four service branches was reduced: Army and Air Force by 45%, Navy by 38%, and Marines by 12% (Ryan, 1998). Of course, OPTEMPO greatly increased following September 11, 2001. In addition to combat deployments (moving people and material to an area of military operation), thousands of U.S. military personnel continue to be deployed in peacekeeping operations throughout the world, although the number of U.S. military members serving in United Nations peacekeeping missions has decreased dramatically since the mid-1990s (Serafino, 2004). Peacekeeping missions have included those in Kuwait, Bosnia, the Balkans, Kosovo, South Korea, the Sinai, Haiti, Georgia, Ethiopia/Eritrea, and Liberia.
The right size and structure for the military depends primarily on the kinds of missions that it will be given. Since the early 1990s, many defense analysts, military leaders, and policymakers have debated the appropriate size and structure of the military and whether the United States should continue to participate in so many peacekeeping missions, especially during periods when it is also heavily involved in armed conflicts (Bruner, 2005). More than three decades after the end of the Cold War, U.S. policymakers are still trying to determine how best to configure the U.S. military force (Kapp et al., 2016).
Branches and Components of the U.S. Armed Forces
Branches
The branches of the Armed Forces depend upon one another, yet their missions and traditions make each unique. The Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and Air Force each have a long
military history and distinct customs that differ from their sister services. The newest branch of the Armed Forces is the Space Force, which is organized under the Department of the Air Force just as the Marine Corps is organized under the Department of the Navy (U.S. Space Force, n.d.a,b). Each branch of the military has its own language, character, and terminology. For example, the Navy and Air Force call their military installations (i.e., facilities owned or leased and operated by the military) “bases,” the Army refers to them as “posts” or “garrisons,” and the Marine Corps uses the term “camps.” Even rank structures are not completely consistent from branch to branch. The differences in character, customs, and language are often the basis of much banter and competition between the services. However, what stays constant across the services is a commitment to the country and to the other members of the greater military community, as illustrated by their core values (U.S. Air Force, n.d.; U.S. Army, n.d.; U.S. Coast Guard, n.d.; U.S. Marine Corps, n.d.; U.S. Navy, 2021; U.S. Space Force, n.d.a).
Army—loyalty, duty, respect, selfless service, honor, integrity, and personal courage
Navy—honor, courage, and commitment
Marine Corps—honor, courage, and commitment
Air Force—integrity first, service before self, and excellence in all we do
Space Force—character, connection, commitment, and courage Coast Guard—honor, respect, and devotion to duty
Their Missions
Collectively the U.S. Armed Forces, under the direction of the Commander-in-Chief, engage in fighting wars, humanitarian efforts, peacekeeping, evacuations, and protecting the security of the United States. Each force has its specific mission.
The Army defends the United States, its territories, commonwealths, and possessions. Army units are deployed to combat zones and to locations such as South Korea to help secure borders or to Kosovo to participate in peacekeeping (U.S. Army, 2018).
The Navy provides combat-ready naval forces. Navy carrier groups and vessels are stationed around the world to provide a deterrent and a quick response to crises and humanitarian emergencies (U.S. Navy, 2021).
The Marine Corps, under the authority of the Navy, maintains a ready expeditionary force and aircraft units. Along with the Army, the Marine Corps provides ground troops in combat and humanitarian efforts (Department of Defense [DoD], n.d., “Marine Corps”).
The Air Force provides air defense and is involved in peacekeeping, humanitarian, and aeromedical evacuation missions. It provides air cover for ground troops, gathers intelligence, and conducts surveillance and reconnaissance (U.S. Air Force, n.d., “Mission and Vision”).
The Space Force, formed in December 2019, “organizes, trains, and equips space forces in order to protect U.S. and allied interests in space and to provide space capabilities to the joint force. USSF responsibilities will include developing Guardians, acquiring military space systems, maturing the military doctrine for space power, and organizing space forces to present to our Combatant Commands” (U.S. Space Force, n.d.b, “What is the mission of the U.S. Space Force?”).
The Coast Guard’s main missions are maritime law enforcement, search and rescue, safe and environmentally sound waterways, maritime prevention, homeland security, and defense operations (U.S. Coast Guard, n.d.). It normally operates under the Department of Homeland
Security but can be transferred to the Department of the Navy during time of war or national emergencies to provide naval support.
Generally, we think of the services in terms of their missions to defend separate domains: air space by the Air Force, ground by the Army and Marine Corps, seas by the Navy and Coast Guard, and space by Space Force. Despite the distinct missions of each of the services, they may use similar processes or equipment to accomplish their missions. Both the Army and the Marine Corps are equipped with tanks and are trained in close-range and hand-to-hand combat; and the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, Air Force, and Space Force all use aircraft and satellites to accomplish their missions.
The Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and Air Force each have their own Special Operations Command (SOC) that can deploy highly trained members rapidly for special operations missions such as reconnaissance, rescue, infiltration, and raids. Such forces are often the first sent into combat situations and work behind enemy lines. Some units might sound familiar: Army Special Forces and the 75th Ranger Regiment, Air Force Special Tactics Squadrons, Navy SEALS, and Marine Corps Reconnaissance. Special operation units undergo the most demanding training offered by the Armed Forces. Although training is limited to the most highly qualified candidates, attrition rates are high.
Active and Reserve Components
As previously mentioned, the U.S. Armed Forces have two components: the Active Component and the Reserve Component. The Active Component consists of service members who are in the military full-time, that is, they are on active duty. Active-duty members work in the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, Air Force, Space Force, and Coast Guard.
Members of Reserve Component serve in the military part-time or have served; however, they may be ordered to full-time service. The Reserve Component “provides trained units and qualified persons available for active duty in the armed forces, in time of war or national emergency, and at such other times as national security may require” (Title 10 U.S.C § 10102). The Reserve Components include Army Reserve, Navy Reserve, Marine Corps Reserve, Air Force Reserve, Coast Guard Reserve, Army National Guard, and Air National Guard.
Categories of Reservists
The Reserve Component contains three categories: the Ready Reserve, the Standby Reserve, and the Retired Reserve. The Ready Reserve consists of the selected reserve, the Individual Ready Reserve (personnel who have served on active duty or in the selected reserve and still have time remaining on their military service obligation), and the Inactive National Guard (required only to muster once a year with their unit; Kapp, 2023).
The selected reserve consists primarily of the following: the Reserves of the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, Air Force, and Department of Homeland Security’s Coast Guard, collectively a federal force under the control of the President; and the Army and Air National Guard, a state force under the control of a state’s Governor unless released by the Governor to the President at the latter’s request. The National Guard has limited law enforcement power during crises. Reservists and National Guard members of the selected reserve typically drill one weekend a month and two weeks or more a year (see Table 1.1 for more details).
For decades, individuals in the selected reserve were known as “weekend warriors,” typically responding to natural disasters within the United States. Many families needed to know very little about the military culture to support their loved one as a member of the National
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Thrips on corn that he investigated in Russia. Uzel suggests that injuries due to other causes are sometimes ascribed to Thrips.[460] In hot-houses these Insects are well known, and sometimes occasion considerable damage to foliage. The German horticulturalists call them black-fly, in distinction from Aphidae or green-fly. Some Thysanoptera live under bark, and even in fungi, and in Australia they form galls on the leaves of trees. This observation is due to Mr Froggatt, and is confirmed by specimens he sent to the writer. Vesicular bodies in the leaves of Acacia saligna were traversed on one side by a longitudinal slit, and on a section being made, nothing but Thrips, in various stages of growth, was found inside them. A second kind of gall, forming masses of considerable size on the twigs of Callistemon, is said by Mr Froggatt to be also due to Thrips, as is a third kind on Bursaria spinosa. It is curious that Thrips' galls have not been observed in other parts of the world.
Thysanoptera are devoured by small bugs of the genus Triphleps, as well as by beetles; a small Acarid attacks them by fixing itself to the body of the Thrips. Nematode worms and their eggs were found by Uzel in the body-cavity. He found no less than 200 Nematodes in one Thrips, and noticed that they had entirely destroyed the ovaries. Woodpeckers, according to him, tear off the bark of trees and eat the Thysanoptera that are concealed thereunder, though one would have surmised that these minute Insects are too small to be game for such birds. They have, it appears, no special protection, except that one species (a larva of Phloeothrips sp.) is said to emit a protective fluid.
Parthenogenesis seems to be frequent amongst Thysanoptera, and is found in concurrence with diversity as to winged and wingless females of the same species, so as to have given rise to the idea that the phenomena in this respect are parallel with those that are more widely known as occurring in Aphidae. Under certain circumstances few or no males are produced (one of the circumstances, according to Jordan, being season of the year), and the females continue the species parthenogenetically. In other
cases, though males are produced they are in very small numbers. Some species of Thysanoptera are never winged; in others the individuals are winged or wingless according to sex. But there are other cases in which the female is usually wingless, and is exceptionally winged. The winged specimens in this case are, it is thought, of special use in disseminating the species. Jordan has suggested that these phenomena may be of a regular nature, but Uzel does not take this view. Another condition may be mentioned, in which the species is usually wingless, but winged individuals of the male as well as of the female sex occasionally appear Thrips lini apparently makes regular migrations, feeding at one time underground on the roots of flax, and then changing to a life in the open air on other plants.
Numerous forms of Thysanoptera, belonging to both of the great divisions of the Order, have been found fossil in Europe and North America, but all are confined to deposits of the Tertiary epoch.
Of the 135 species known to Uzel, 117 are European; they are divided into two Sub-Orders. 1, Terebrantia, in which the females are provided with an external toothed ovipositor, of two valves; 2, Tubulifera, in which there is no ovipositor, and the extremity of the body is tubular in both sexes. The British species are about 50 in number, and were described by Haliday about 60 years ago;[461] of late they have been very little studied.
The name Physopoda or Physapoda is used for this Order, instead of Thysanoptera, by several naturalists.
CHAPTER VIII
HEMIPTERA OR BUGS
Order IX. Hemiptera.
Mouth consisting of a proboscis or mobile beak (usually concealed by being bent under the body), appearing as a transversly-jointed rod or grooved sheath, in which are enclosed long slender setae (like horse-hairs). Wings (nearly always) four; the anterior frequently more horny than the posterior pair, and folding flat on the back, their apical portions usually more membranous than the base (Heteroptera); or the four wings may cover the abdomen in a roof-like manner, and those of the anterior pair may not have the basal and apical parts of different consistences (Homoptera); sometimes all four of the wings are transparent. The young resembles the adult in general form; the wings are developed outside the body, by growth, at the moults, of the sides of the hinder portions of the meso- and meta-notum; the metanotal prolongations being more or less concealed by the mesonotal.
The Hemiptera or Bugs are perhaps more widely known as Rhynchota. In deciding whether an Insect belongs to this Order the student will do well to examine in the first place the beak, treating the wings as subordinate in importance, their condition being much more variable than that of the beak. The above definition includes no reference to the degraded Anoplura or Lice. These are separately dealt with on p. 599; they are absolutely wingless, and have an unjointed proboscis not placed beneath the body, the greater part of it being usually withdrawn inside the body of the Insect.
The Hemiptera are without exception sucking Insects, and the mouth-organs of the individual are of one form throughout its life. In
this latter fact, coupled with another, that the young are not definitely different in form from the adult, Bugs differ widely from all other Insects with sucking-mouth. They agree with the Orthoptera in the facts that the mouth does not change its structure during the individual life, and that the development of the individual is gradual, its form, as a rule, changing but little. In respect of the structure of the mouth, Orthoptera and Hemiptera are the most different of all the Orders. Hence, Hemiptera is really the most isolated of all the Orders of Insects. We shall subsequently see that, like Orthoptera, the Order appeared in the Palaeozoic epoch. Although a very extensive Order, Hemiptera have for some incomprehensible reason never been favourite objects of study. Sixty years ago Dufour pointed out that they were the most neglected of all the great Orders of Insects, and this is still true; our acquaintance with their life-histories and morphology especially being very limited.
Fig. 255 Eusthenes pratti (Pentatomidae). China. A, Nymph: a, case of anterior, b, of posterior wing; c, orifices of stink-glands; B, the adult Insect
There is probably no Order of Insects that is so directly connected with the welfare of the human race as the Hemiptera; indeed, if anything were to exterminate the enemies of Hemiptera, we ourselves should probably be starved in the course of a few months. The operations of Hemiptera, however, to a large extent escape observation, as their mouth-setae make merely pricks that do not attract notice in plants; hence, it is probable that injuries really due to Hemiptera are frequently attributed to other causes.
In the course of the following brief sketch of the anatomy and development of Hemiptera, we shall frequently have to use the terms Heteroptera and Homoptera; we may therefore here mention that there are two great divisions of Hemiptera having but little connection, and known by the above names: the members of these two Sub-Orders may in most cases be distinguished by the condition of the wings, as mentioned in the definition at the commencement of this chapter.
External structure.—The mouth-parts consist of an anterior or upper and a posterior or lower enwrapping part, and of the organs proper, which are four hair-like bodies, dilated at their bases and resting on a complex chitinous framework. The lower part forms by far the larger portion of the sheath and is of very diverse lengths, and from one to four-jointed: it is as it were an enwrapping organ, and a groove may be seen running along it, in addition to the evident cross-segmentation. The upper covering part is much smaller, and only fills a gap at the base of the sheath; it can readily be lifted so as to disclose the setae; these latter organs are fine, flexible, closely connected, rods, four in number, though often seeming to be only three, owing to the intimate union of the components of one of the two pairs; at their base the setae become broader, and are closely connected with some of the loops of the chitinous framework that is contained within the head. Sometimes the setae are much longer than the sheath; they are capable of protrusion. Although varying considerably in minor points, such as the lengths of the sheath and setae, and the number of cross-joints of the sheath, these structures are so far as is known constant throughout the Order. There are no palpi, and the only additions exceptionally present are a pair of small plates that in certain forms (aquatic family Belostomidae) lie on the front of the proboscis near the tip, overlapping, in fact, the last of the cross-articulations.
Simple as is this system of trophi its morphology is uncertain, and has given rise to much difference of interpretation. It may be granted that the two portions of the sheath are respectively upper lip, and
labium; but as to the other parts wide difference of opinion still prevails. On the whole the view most generally accepted, to the effect that the inner pair of the setae correspond in a broad sense with maxillae of mandibulate Insects, and the outer pair with mandibles, is probably correct. Mecznikow, who studied the embryology,[462] supports this view for Heteroptera, but he says (t.c. p. 462), that in Homoptera the parts of the embryo corresponding with rudimentary maxillae and mandibles disappear, and that the setae are subsequently produced from peculiar special bodies that are at first of a retort-shaped form; the neck of the retort becoming afterwards more elongate to form the seta; also that in the Heteropterous genus Gerris the embryology in general resembles that of Homoptera, but the development of the setae is like that of other Heteroptera (t.c. p. 478). This discontinuity in the development of the Homopterous mouth has since been refuted by Witlaczil,[463] who found that the retort-shaped bodies really arise from the primary segmental appendages after they have sunk into the head. We are therefore justified in concluding that the mouth-parts are at first similarly developed in all Hemiptera, and that this development is of a very peculiar nature.
Fig. 256 Mouth-parts of Hemiptera. (After Wedde.) A, Section of the head and proboscis of Pyrrhocoris apterus: dr, gland; i.g, infraoesophageal ganglion; lb, labium; lr, labrum; m, muscles; m1 muscle (depressor of labium); m2 , muscle of syringe; ph, pharynx; s, setae; s g, supra-oesophageal ganglion; sp dr, salivary gland; spr, syringe: B, transverse section of proboscis of Pentatoma rufipes, at third joint of sheath: m, m, muscles; md, mandibular seta; mx, maxillary setae; n, nerve; p, the sheath or labium; tr, trachea
Smith is convinced that there are no traces of mandibular structure in any Hemiptera.[464] On the other hand, numerous entomologists have supposed they could homologise satisfactorily various parts of the Hemipterous trophi with special parts of the maxillae and labium of mandibulate Insects. This point has recently been discussed by Marlatt[465] and by Heymons.[466] From the latter we gather that the mode of growth is peculiar by the extension backwards of some of the sclerites, and their becoming confounded with parts of the wall of the head. From all this it appears that at present we cannot correctly go farther than saying that the trophi of Hemiptera are the appendages of three head-segments, like those of other Insects. The views of Savigny, Léon,[467] and others to the effect that labial palpi, and even other parts of the labium of Mandibulata can be satisfactorily identified are not confirmed by Heymons.
Underneath the pharynx, in the head, there is a peculiar structure for which we have as yet no English term. It was apparently discovered by Landois and Paul Mayer,[468] and has been called "Wanzenspritze," which we translate as syringe. It may be briefly described as a chamber, into which the salivary ducts open, prolonged in front to the neighbourhood of the grooves of the setae in the rostrum; behind, it is connected with muscles; it has no direct connection with the pharynx, and though it was formerly supposed to be an organ of suction, it seems more probable that it is of the nature of a force-pump, to propel the products of some of the bug's glands towards the tips of the setae.
The rostrum being extended from its position of repose, the tip of the sheath is brought into contact with the object to be pierced, the surface of which is probably examined by means of sensitive hairs at the extremity of the sheath; these therefore functionally replace to some extent the palpi of other Insects. As a rule the sheath does not penetrate (though there is reason for believing that in various of the animal-feeding bugs it does so), but the setae are brought into action for piercing the skin of the plant; they are extremely sharp, and the outer pair are usually barbed, so that when once introduced a hold is
easily maintained. This being established it is thought that the salivary pump comes into play, and that a fluid is injected into the object pierced so as to give rise to irritation or congestion, and thus keep up a supply of fluid at the point operated on: this fluid extends along the grooved setae by capillary attraction, and the rapidity of the current is increased by a pumping action of the pharynx, and possibly by movements of the setae themselves. Though the setae are often extremely elongate—sometimes several times the length of the body—they are nearly always slender, and there is no reason to suppose that a perfect, or air-tight, tube is formed; hence it is probable that capillary attraction is really the chief agent in the ingestion of the fluid. The slight diversity of structure of the Hemipterous trophi is in very striking contrast with what we find in mandibulate Insects, and in the less purely suctorial Insects, such as Diptera and some divisions of Hymenoptera. Schiödte in commenting on this has suggested that it is probably due to the small variety of actions the rostrum is put to.[469]
Fig 257—
Gray Brazil
) (Antennae absent in the specimen represented.)
The head exhibits great variety of form; in the Homoptera the front part is deflexed and inflexed, so that it is placed on the under surface, and its anterior margin is directed backwards; it is often peculiarly inflated; in the Lantern-flies or Fulgoridae (Fig. 282) to an incomprehensible extent. In the great Water-bugs, Belostomidae, there is on the under surface a deep pocket for each antenna, beautifully adapted to the shape of the curiously-formed appendage
Saccoderes tuberculatus
(Fam Reduviidae
(Fig. 279). The prothorax is always very distinct, frequently large, and in many of the Heteroptera (Fig. 257), as well as in the Homopterous family, Membracidae (Fig. 283), assumes the most extraordinary shapes. Both meso- and meta-thorax are well developed. The former is remarkable for the great size of the scutellum; in some cases (Plataspides, Scutellerides) this forms a large process, that entirely covers and conceals the alar organs, so that the Insect has all the appearance of being apterous. The exact composition of the abdomen has not been satisfactorily determined, opinions varying as to whether the segments are nine, ten, or eleven in number. The difficulty of determining the point is due to two facts: viz. the extreme modification of the terminal segments in connection with the genital appendages, and the prominence of the extremity of the alimentary canal. If this terminal projection is to be treated as a segment, it would appear that eleven segments exist, at any rate in some cases; as the writer has counted ten distinct segments in a young Coreid bug, in addition to the terminal tube. This tube in some of the male Heteroptera is very subject to curious modifications, and has been called the rectal cauda. Verhoeff considers that ten segments were invariably present in the females examined by him in various families of Heteroptera and Homoptera.[470] In Aphidae (a division of Homoptera), Balbiani considers there are eleven abdominal segments present; but he treats as a segment a projection, called the cauda, situate over the anus; this structure does not appear to be homologous with the rectal cauda we have just mentioned. In Coccidae the number of abdominal segments is apparently reduced. Schiödte states[471] that the older authorities are correct in respect of the stigmata; there are, he says, in Heteroptera invariably ten pairs; one for each thoracic segment; and seven abdominal, placed on the ventral face of the pleural fold of the abdomen. In some cases there are additional orifices on the external surface that have been taken for stigmata, though they are really orifices of odoriferous glands; these openings may exist on the metasterna or on the dorsal surface of the abdomen. The lateral margins of the abdomen are frequently greatly developed in Heteroptera, and are called "connexivum;" the upper and lower surfaces of the body meeting together far within the marginal outline.
Dr Anton Dohrn many years ago[472] called attention to the extremely remarkable structure of the terminal segments in many male Hemiptera; and the subject has been subsequently very imperfectly treated by the present writer and other entomologists, but it has never received the attention it deserves.
In the females of numerous Heteroptera and Homoptera (Capsidae, Cicadidae, etc.) there is a well-developed ovipositor, that serves both as a cutting instrument to make slits in the stems of plants, and as a director to introduce the eggs therein. Verhoeff considers that it always consists of two pairs of processes (though one pair may be very small), one from the eighth abdominal segment, the other from the ninth.[473]
The antennae usually have very few joints, often as few as four or five, their maximum number of about twenty-five being attained in the males of some Coccidae, this condition being, however, present in but few of even this family In Belostoma (Fig. 279) they assume extremely curious forms, analogous to what we find in the Coleopterous genus Hydrophilus. In addition to the compound eyes, there are usually ocelli, either two or three in number, but wanting in many cases. The usual number of joints of the tarsi is three, but in Coccidae there is only one joint.
Fig 258 Alar organs of a Capsid bug (Capsus laniarius) A, Elytron: A, clavus; B, corium; C, cuneus; D, membrane; E, E, cell of the membrane; B, hind-wing
The wings (Fig. 258) exhibit much diversity The anterior pair usually differ greatly from the posterior; they are called elytra, hemi-elytra or
tegmina. This difference in the two pairs is the rule in the first of the great divisions of the Order, and the name Heteroptera is derived from the fact. In this Sub-Order the front wings close over the back, and are more or less horny, the apical part being, however, membranous. Systematists make use of the wings for the purpose of classification in Heteroptera, and distinguish the following parts, "clavus," "corium," "membrane," the corium being the larger horny division, the clavus the part lying next the scutellum and frequently very sharply distinguished from the corium; the membrane is the apical part. The outer or costal part of the wing is also often sharply delimited, and is called the "embolium;" in the great family Capsidae and a few others, the outer apical part of the corium is differentiated from the rest of the surface, and is termed the "cuneus." In Plataspides, one of the divisions in which the alar organs are entirely covered by the scutellum, they are modified in a very remarkable manner. In the Homoptera the divisions named above do not exist, and the wings in repose are placed in a different position, as stated in our definition of the Order. It is said to be very difficult to homologise the wing-nervures of Hemiptera, and nothing appears to be known as to the mode of their development.
The alar organs in Hemiptera exhibit a very frequent form of variation within the limits of the same species; this has not yet been elucidated.[474] In some cases in the Heteroptera nearly all the individuals of a generation may have the wings aborted; sometimes this occurs as a local variation. In Aphidae the occurrence of winged and wingless individuals is very common, and has even become an important factor in their extraordinary life cycles. (See Chermes, etc., subsequently.)
Internal anatomy.—The alimentary canal presents considerable diversity and some remarkable features. There is a slender tube-like oesophagus and a large crop. It is difficult to assign any of the parts posterior to this to the divisions usual in other Insects, and it is said that the distinction of parts histologically is as vague as it is anatomically. In the Heteroptera the Malpighian tubes open into two
(or one) vesicular dilatations seated immediately in front of the short rectum: between this point and the crop there may be a very elongate, slender portion with one or more dilatations, these parts apparently replacing the true or chylific stomach. There is no gizzard. In the Homoptera the relations of the divisions of the alimentary canal are even more puzzling; the canal is elongated and forms coils, and these are connected with tissues and tunics so as to make their dissection extremely difficult. List says that there are great differences in the alimentary canal among the members of the one family Coccidae. There are usually four Malpighian tubes, but in Coccidae there is only one pair, and in Aphidae none. The excretory cells of these tubes are in Hemiptera of remarkably large size. There is a large development of salivary glands, at least two pairs existing. There can be little doubt that some of their products are used for purposes of injection, as already described, though Künckel came to the conclusion that the saliva when placed in living plants is totally innocuous.[475]
The ganglia of the nervous system are all concentrated in the thorax and head. In some cases (in various Homoptera) the infraoesophageal ganglion is placed at a distance from the supraoesophageal ganglion, and may even be united with the thoracic mass of ganglia (Orthezia, etc.); in this case the chitinous framework of the mouth-parts is interposed between the supra- and the infraoesophageal ganglia. In Pentatoma all the three ganglionic masses are brought into close proximity, but in Nepa the thoracic mass of ganglia and the infra-oesophageal ganglion are widely separated.
The ovarian tubes vary greatly in number: according to List in Orthezia cataphracta the number differs considerably in different individuals, and even in the two ovaries of the same individual, the number being usually two. The testes are not placed in a common tunic, though they are frequently approximated or even contiguous. [476]
The smell of bugs is notorious. In many species it is not unpleasant, though as a rule it is decidedly offensive. It is a remarkable fact that the structures connected with the production of this odour are different in many cases in the young and in the adult. The odour emitted by the latter proceeds from a sac seated at the base of the abdomen, and opening exteriorly by means of an orifice on each side of the metasternum; while in the young there are two glands situated more dorsally and a little more backwards, and opening on two of the dorsal plates of the abdomen (Fig. 255, A).[477] In the young the dorsum of the abdomen, where the stink-glands open, is exposed, but this part in the adult is covered by the wings. The odorific apparatus is specially characteristic of Heteroptera, and Künckel states that there is so much variety that generic and even specific characters might be drawn from conditions of the stinkglands. As a rule they are most constantly present in the plantfeeding forms; in some essentially carnivorous forms (Reduviidae, Nepidae, Notonectidae) they are entirely absent. The offensive matter emitted by Notonecta is of a different nature, and is probably anal in origin.
Metamorphosis or postembryonic development.—In the language of the systematists of metamorphosis, Hemiptera are said to be Homomorpha Paurometabola—that is, the young differ but little from the adult. According to Brauer's generalisations they are Menorhynchous, Oligonephrous, Pterygogenea, i.e. they have a sucking mouth that does not change during life, few Malpighian tubes, and are winged in the adult state. It is generally admitted that the Homoptera do not completely agree with Heteroptera in respect of the metamorphosis, it being more marked in the former, and in Coccidae attaining (as we shall mention when discussing that family) nearly if not quite the condition of complete metamorphosis of a peculiar kind. Unfortunately we are in almost complete ignorance as to the details of the life-histories and development of Heteroptera, so that we can form no generalised opinion as to what the postembryonic development really is in them, but there are grounds for supposing that considerable changes take place, and that these are chiefly concentrated on the last ecdysis. The young of some bugs
bear but little resemblance to the adult; the magnificently-coloured species of Eusthenes (Fig. 255), before they attain the adult condition are flat, colourless objects, almost as thin as a playingcard; it is well known that the extraordinary structures that cover and conceal the body in Plataspides, Scutellerides, Membracides, etc., are developed almost entirely at the last moult: it is not so well known that some of these changes occur with much rapidity. A very interesting account of the processes of colour-change, as occurring in Poecilocapsus lineatus at the last ecdysis, has been given by Lintner,[478] and from this it appears that the characteristic coloration of the imago is entirely developed in the course of about two hours, forming a parallel in this respect with Odonata. When we come to deal with Aphidae we shall describe the most complex examples of cycles of generations that exist in the whole of the animal kingdom.
Fossil Hemiptera.
—Hemiptera are believed to have existed in the Palaeozoic epoch, but the fossils are not numerous, and opinions differ concerning them. Eugereon hockingi, a Permian fossil, was formerly supposed to be a Homopterous Insect, but it is very anomalous, and its claim to a position in Hemiptera is denied by Brauer,[479] who considers it to be Orthopterous. It is now generally recognised that this fossil requires complete reconsideration. Another Permian fossil, Fulgorina, is admitted to be Homopterous by Scudder, Brauer and Brongniart. Scudder thinks the Carboniferous Phthanocoris was an Archaic Heteropterous Insect, and if correct this would demonstrate that both of the two great Sub-Orders of Hemiptera existed in Palaeozoic times. Brauer, however, is inclined to refer this fossil to Homoptera, and Brongniart[480] speaks of it as being without doubt a Fulgorid. Dictyocicada, Rhipidioptera and Meganostoma, from the Carboniferous shales of Commentry, have also been referred to Fulgoridae by Brongniart, but the evidence of their alliance with this group is far from satisfactory. In the Secondary epoch numerous Hemiptera existed, and are referred to several of the existing families. They come chiefly from the Oolite. In the Eocene of the Isle of Wight a fossil has been discovered that is referred to the existing Homopterous genus Triecphora.
We are not entitled to conclude more from these facts than that Homoptera probably appeared before Heteroptera, and date back as far as the Carboniferous epoch.
Classification and families.—No complete catalogue of Hemiptera exists, but one by M. Severin is in course of publication. It is probable that there are about 18,000 species at present described, two-thirds of this number being Heteroptera. In Britain we have about 430 species of Heteroptera and 600 of Homoptera. The classification of the Order is not in a very advanced condition. The following table exhibits the views of Schiödte[481] in a modified form:—
Front of head not touching the coxae. .......... I. Heteroptera.
Front of head much inflexed so as to be in contact with the coxae II Homoptera
Sub-Order I. Heteroptera.
Posterior coxae nearly globose, partly embedded in cavities, and having a rotatory movement Mostly terrestrial forms 1 Trochalopoda
Posterior coxae not globose, larger, and not embedded; their articulation with sternum almost hinge-like. Posterior aspect of hind femur usually more or less modified for the reception of the tibia when closed on it: mostly aquatic forms. .......... 2. Pagiopoda.
Division 1. Trochalopoda.
This division includes the majority of the families of Heteroptera viz. the whole of the terrestrial families except Saldidae, and it also includes Nepidae, a family of water-bugs
Division 2. Pagiopoda.
This includes the six purely aquatic families of Heteroptera, except Nepidae, which appear to have very little connection with the other aquatic bugs. The only terrestrial Insects included in the family are the Saldidae; in these the femora are not modified as they are in the aquatic forms Hemiptera that live on the surface of water, not in the water, are classed with the terrestrial species With these exceptions this arrangement agrees with that of Gymnocerata and Cryptocerata as usually adopted,[482] and therefore followed in the following pages. Schiödte's characters, moreover, do not divide his two divisions at all sharply.
Sub-Order II. Homoptera.
Tarsi usually three-jointed Series Trimera. " " two-jointed " Dimera. " " of one joint " Monomera.
The classification of Homoptera is in a most unsatisfactory state;[483] no two authors are agreed as to the families to be adopted in the series Trimera We have recognised only five—viz Cicadidae, Fulgoridae, Membracidae, Cercopidae, and Jassidae The Dimera consists of Psyllidae, Aphidae, Aleurodidae; and the Monomera of Coccidae only. It is usual to associate the Dimera and Monomera together under the name of either Phytophthires or Sternorhyncha, but no satisfactory definition can be given of these larger groups, though it seems probable that the families of which they are composed are natural and distinct.
Sub-Order I. H .
Series 1. Gymnocerata.
The majority of the terrestrial families of Heteroptera form the series Gymnocerata, in which the antennae are conspicuous, and can be moved about freely in front of the head, while in Cryptocerata they are hidden. The series Gymnocerata includes all the terrestrial Heteroptera, and the two families, Hebridae and Hydrometridae,
which live on the surface of the water or in very damp places; while Cryptocerata includes all the forms that live under water.
Fam. 1. Pentatomidae. Scutellum very large, at least half as long as the abdomen, often covering the whole of the after-body and alar appendages. Antennae often five-jointed. Proboscis-sheath fourjointed. Ocelli two. Each tarsal claw with an appendage.—This, the largest and most important family of the Heteroptera, includes upwards of 4000 species, and an immense variety of forms. It is divided into no less than fourteen sub-families. The species of one of these, Plataspides, are remarkable for their short, broad forms, and the peculiar condition of the alar organs, which are so completely concealed by the great scutellum that it is difficult to believe the Insects are not entirely apterous. The head is usually inconspicuous though broad, but in a few forms it is armed with horns. Though this sub-family includes upwards of 200 species, and is very widely distributed in the Old World, it has no representatives in America. The Scutellerides also have the body covered by the scutellum, but their organs of flight are less peculiar than they are in the Plataspides; the Insects of this sub-family are highly remarkable on account of their varied and frequently vivid coloration; some of them are metallic, and the colour of their integuments differs greatly in some cases, according to whether the specimen is wet or dry; hence the appearance after death is often very different from that of the living specimen. These Insects are extremely numerous in species. The sub-family Phloeides (Fig. 259), on the contrary, includes only three or four South American species: they have no resemblance at all to other Pentatomidae; they are flat, about an inch long, and look like scales of bark, in this respect agreeing with Ledra and some
Fig 259 Phloea corticata South America
other Homoptera. The South American sub-family Cyrtocorides (Fig. 260) is of equally small extent; the species are of strange irregular shapes, for which we can find no reason. The Tessaratomides includes many of the largest Hemiptera-Heteroptera, some of its members attaining two inches in length.
The great family Pentatomidae, containing about 400 species, is represented in Britain by about 36 native species, the most interesting of which are perhaps those of the genus Acanthosoma. De Geer noticed long ago that the female of A. griseum exhibits great solicitude for its young, and his statement has since been confirmed by Mr. Parfitt and the Rev. J. Hellins, who found that the mother not only protects the eggs but also the young, and that for a considerable time after hatching.[484]
Fig 260 Cyrtocoris monstrosus South America, × 3
Very little is known as to the life-histories of Pentatomidae. In some cases the young are very different in appearance from the adults. The peculiar great scutellum is not developed till the mature condition is reached. But little attention has been given to the habits of Pentatomidae; it is generally considered that they draw their nutriment from plants; the American Euthyrhynchus floridanus has, however, been noticed to suck the honey-bee, and we think it probable that a good many Pentatomids will be found to attack Insects.
The term Pentatomidae as applied to this family is of modern origin: in most books the equivalent group is called Scutata, or Scutati, and the term Pentatomidae is restricted in these works to the sub-family called Pentatomides in the system we adopt.
Fam. 2. Coreidae. Scutellum not reaching to the middle of the body; proboscis-sheath four-jointed; ocelli present; antennae generally elongate and four-jointed, inserted on the upper parts of the sides of the head; femora not knobbed at the tip.—The members of this great family are easily recognised by the above characters; formerly it was called Supericornia in connection with the characteristic position of the antennae. About 1500 species are known, and they are arranged in no less than twenty-nine subfamilies. Many of them are Insects of large size, and they frequently have a conspicuous disc, or dilatation, on one of the joints of the antennae.
Fig. 261. Diactor bilineatus. South America. × 3⁄2.
Fig 262 Phyllomorpha laciniata, carrying some of its eggs Spain
Another very curious and, as yet, inexplicable peculiarity very commonly met with among them, is that the hind legs may be of great size and deformed; either the femora or the tibiae, or both, being very much distorted or armed with projections. Brilliant colour is here comparatively rare, the general tone being indefinite tints of browns, greys, or smoky colours. The South American genus Holymenia (Copius of older authors) consists of slender forms, having the elytra transparent even on the basal part like Homoptera; this and some other peculiarities give the species of this genus a certain resemblance to Insects of other Orders; Westwood says that Diateina holymenoides (Diptera) greatly resembles a bug of the genus Holymenia. The tropical American genus Diactor consists of a few species of elegant colour having the hind legs very peculiarly shaped, the tibiae being flattened and expanded in a sail-like manner, and ornamented with agreeable colours different from those on the rest of the body; they are made more conspicuous by the femora being remarkably long and thin; it is probable that they are used as ornaments. The subfamily Phyllomorphides consists of about a dozen species, and is found in several of the western parts of the Eastern hemisphere, one species, P. laciniata, occurring in Southern Europe. This Insect is of very delicate texture, and the sides of the body are directed upwards and deeply divided so that a sort of basin is formed, of which the dorsum of the body is the floor; the Insect is very spinose, and is thus enabled to carry its eggs, the
