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The Kubernetes Book: 2024 Edition

Nigel Poulton

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TheKubernetesBook

NigelPoulton

Thisbookisforsaleat http://leanpub.com/thekubernetesbook

Thisversionwaspublishedon2024-02-03

ISBN9781916585195

Thisisa Leanpub book.LeanpubempowersauthorsandpublisherswiththeLean Publishingprocess. LeanPublishing istheactofpublishinganin-progressebookusing lightweighttoolsandmanyiterationstogetreaderfeedback,pivotuntilyouhavethe rightbookandbuildtractiononceyoudo.

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0:Preface

Kubernetesisdevelopingfast,soIupdatethebookeveryyear.AndwhenIsay update, Imeanrealupdates—Irevieweverywordandeveryconcept,andtesteveryexample againstthelatestversionsofKubernetes.I’m100%committedtomakingthisthebest Kubernetesbookintheworld.

Asanauthor,I’dlovetowriteabookandnevertouchitagainforfiveyears.Unfortunately,atwo-year-oldbookonKubernetescouldbedangerouslyoutofdate.

EditionsPaperbacks,hardbacks,eBooks,audio,and translations

Thefollowingeditionsofthebookareavailable:

• Paperback: English,SimplifiedChinese,Spanish,Portuguese

• Hardback: English

• eBook: English,Russian,Spanish,Portuguese

eBookcopiesareavailableonKindleandfromLeanpub.

Thefollowingcollector’seditionsareavailable.Eachhasathemedfrontcover,butthe contentisexactlythesameastheregularEnglish-languageedition.

• Klingonpaperback

• Borghardback

• Sterfleetpaperback

ThesampleappandGitHubrepo

There’saGitHubrepowithalltheYAMLandcodeusedthroughoutthebook. Youcancloneitwiththefollowingcommand.You’llneed git installed.Thiswillcreate anewfolderinyourcurrentworkingdirectorycalled TheK8sBook withallthefilesyou needtofollowtheexamples.

$gitclonehttps://github.com/nigelpoulton/TheK8sBook.git

Don’tstressifyou’veneverusedgit.Thebookwalksyouthrougheverythingyouneed todo.

Windowsusers

Almostallofthecommandsinthehands-onsectionsworkonLinux,Mac,andWindows.However,asmallnumberrequireslightchangestoworkonWindows.Whenever thisisthecase,IexplainwhatyouneedtodotomakethemworkonWindows.

However,topreventmyselffromrepeatingthesamethingtoooften,Idon’talwaystell Windowsuserstoreplacebackslasheswithbackticksforlinebreaks.Withthisinmind, Windowsusersshoulddooneofthefollowingeverytimethebooksplitsacommand overmultiplelinesusingbackslashes:

• Removethebackslashandrunthecommandonasingleline

• Replacethebackslashwithabacktick

Allotherchangesareexplainedinfulleverytime.

Responsiblelanguage

Thebookfollows InclusiveNamingInitiative (inclusivenaming.org)guidelines,which attempttoavoidharmfultermsandpromoteresponsiblelanguage.

1:Kubernetesprimer

Thischaptergetsyouup-to-speedwiththebasicsandbackgroundofKubernetesandis dividedasfollows:

• ImportantKubernetesbackground

• Kubernetes:theOperatingSystemofthecloud

ImportantKubernetesbackground

Kubernetesisanorchestratorofcontainerizedcloud-nativemicroservicesapps. That’salotofjargon,solet’sexplainthings.

Orchestration

An orchestrator isasystemorplatformthatdeploysapplicationsanddynamically respondstochanges.Forexample,Kubernetescan:

• Deployapplications

• Scalethemupanddownbasedondemand

• Self-healthemwhenthingsbreak

• Performzero-downtimerollingupdatesandrollbacks

• Lotsmore

Thebestpartisthatitdoesallofthiswithout you havingtogetinvolved.Youneedto configureafewthingsinthefirstplace,butonceyou’vedonethat,yousitbackandlet Kubernetesworkitsmagic.

Containerization

Containerization istheprocessofpackaginganapplicationanddependenciesasanimage andthenrunningitasacontainer.

Itcanbeusefultothinkofcontainersasthenextgenerationofvirtualmachines(VM). Botharewaysofpackagingandrunningapplications,butcontainersaresmaller,faster, andmoreportable.

Despitetheseadvantages,containershaven’treplacedVMs,andit’scommonforthemto runside-by-sideinmostcloud-nativeenvironments.However,containersarethefirstchoicesolutionformostnewapplications.

Cloudnative

Cloud-nativeapplications possesscloud-likefeaturessuchas auto-scaling,self-healing, automatedupdates,rollbacks, andmore.

Simplyrunningaregularapplicationinthepubliccloud doesnot makeit cloud-native.

Microservices

Microservicesapplications arebuiltfrommanysmall,specialized,independentpartsthat worktogethertoformausefulapplication.

Considerane-commerceappwiththefollowingsixfeatures:

• Webfront-end

• Catalog

• Shoppingcart

• Authentication

• Logging

• Store

Tomakethisa microservicesapp,youdesign,develop,deploy,andmanageeachfeature asitsownsmallapplication.Wecalleachofthesesmallappsa microservice,meaningthis appwillhavesixmicroservices.

Thisdesignbringshugeflexibilitybyallowingallsixmicroservicestohavetheirown smalldevelopmentteamsandtheirownreleasecycles.Italsoletsyouscaleandupdate eachoneindependently.

Themostcommonpatternistodeployeachmicroserviceasitsowncontainer.This meansoneormorewebfront-endcontainers,oneormorecatalogcontainers,oneor moreshoppingcartcontainers,etc.Scalinganypartoftheappisassimpleasaddingor removingcontainers.

Nowthatwe’veexplainedafewthings,let’sre-writethatjargon-filledsentencefromthe startofthechapter.

Theoriginalsentenceread; “Kubernetesisanorchestratorofcontainerizedcloud-native microservicesapps.” Wenowknowthismeans: Kubernetesdeploysandmanagesapplications thatarepackagedascontainersandcaneasilyscale,self-heal,andbeupdated.

Thatshouldclarifysomeofthemainindustryjargon.Butdon’tworryifsomeofitstill needstobeclarified;we’llcovereverythingagaininmuchmoredetailthroughoutthe book.

WheredidKubernetescomefrom

KuberneteswasdevelopedbyagroupofGoogleengineerspartlyinresponsetoAmazon WebServices(AWS)andDocker.

AWSchangedtheworldwhenitinventedmoderncloudcomputing,andeveryone neededtocatchup.

OneofthecompaniescatchingupwasGoogle.They’dbuilttheirowncloudbutneeded awaytoabstractthevalueofAWS and makeitaseasyaspossibleforcustomerstoget offAWSandontotheircloud.Theyalsoranproductionapps,suchas Search and Gmail, onbillionsofcontainersperweek.

Atthesametime,Dockerwastakingtheworldbystorm,andusersneededhelp managingexplosivecontainergrowth.

Whileallthiswashappening,agroupofGoogleengineerstookthelessonsthey’d learnedusingtheirinternalcontainermanagementtoolsandcreatedanewtoolcalled Kubernetes.In2014,theyopen-sourcedKubernetesanddonatedittothenewlyformed CloudNativeComputingFoundation(CNCF)1 .

Atthetimeofwriting,Kubernetesis ∼10yearsoldandhasexperiencedincredible growthandadoption.However,atitscore,itstilldoesthetwothingsGoogleandthe restoftheindustryneed:

1. Itabstractsinfrastructure(suchasAWS)

2. Itsimplifiesmovingapplicationsbetweenclouds

ThesearetwoofthebiggestreasonsKubernetesisimportanttotheindustry.

1https://www.cncf.io

KubernetesandDocker

AlloftheearlyversionsofKubernetesshippedwithDockeranduseditasitsruntime. ThismeansKubernetesusedDockerforlow-leveltaskssuchascreating,starting,and stoppingcontainers.However,twothingshappened:

1. Dockergotbloated

2. PeoplecreatedlotsofDockeralternatives

Asaresult,theKubernetesprojectcreatedthe containerruntimeinterface(CRI) tomake theruntimelayer pluggable.Thismeansyoucanpickandchoosethebestruntimes foryourneeds.Forexample,someruntimesprovidebetterisolation,whereasothers providebetterperformance.

Kubernetes1.24finallyremovedsupportforDockerasaruntimeasitwasbloated andoverkillforwhatKubernetesneeded.Sincethen,mostnewKubernetesclusters shipwith containerd (pronounced “containerdee”)asthedefaultruntime.Fortunately, containerdisastripped-downversionofDockeroptimizedforKubernetes,andit fullysupportsapplicationscontainerizedbyDocker.Infact,Docker,containerd,and Kubernetesallworkwithimagesandcontainersthatimplementthe OpenContainer Initiative(OCI)2 standards.

Figure1.2showsafour-nodeclusterrunningmultiplecontainerruntimes.

Noticehowsomeofthenodeshavemultipleruntimes.Configurationslikethisare fullysupportedandincreasinglycommon.You’llworkwithaconfigurationlikethisin Chapter14whenyoudeployaWebAssembly(Wasm)apptoKubernetes.

2https://opencontainers.org

Figure1.2

WhataboutDockerSwarm

In2016and2017,DockerSwarm,MesosphereDCOS,andKubernetescompetedto becometheindustrystandardcontainerorchestrator.Kuberneteswon.

However,DockerSwarmremainsunderactivedevelopmentandispopularwithsmall companieswantingasimplealternativetoKubernetes.

KubernetesandBorg:Resistanceisfutile!

WealreadysaidthatGooglehasbeenrunningcontainersatmassivescaleforaverylong time.Well,orchestratingthesebillionsofcontainersweretwoin-housetoolscalled Borg and Omega.So,it’seasytomaketheconnectionwithKubernetes—allthreeorchestrate containersatscale,andallthreearerelatedtoGoogle.

However,Kubernetesis not anopen-sourceversionofBorgorOmega.It’smorelike KubernetessharesitsDNAandfamilyhistorywiththem.

Asthingsstand,Kubernetesisanopen-sourceprojectownedbytheCNCF.It’slicensed undertheApache2.0license,version1.0shippedwaybackinJuly2015,andatthetime ofwriting,we’realreadyatversion1.29andaveragingthreenewreleasesperyear. Kubernetes—what’sinthename

MostpeoplepronounceKubernetesas “koo-ber-net-eez”,butthecommunityisvery friendly,andpeoplewon’tmindifyoupronounceitdifferently.

Figure1.3-SharedDNA

ThewordKubernetesoriginatesfromtheGreekwordfor helmsman orthepersonwho steersaship.Youcanseethisinthelogo,whichisaship’swheel.

SomeoftheoriginalengineerswantedtocallKubernetes SevenofNine afterthefamous Borg dronefromtheTVseriesStarTrekVoyager.Copyrightlawswouldn’tallowthis,so theygavethelogo seven spokesasasubtlereferenceto SevenofNine.

Onelastthingaboutthename.You’lloftenseeitshortenedto K8s andpronouncedas “kates”.Thenumber8replacestheeightcharactersbetweenthe“K”andthe“s”.

Kubernetes:theoperatingsystemofthecloud

Kubernetesisthedefactoplatformforcloud-nativeapplications,andwesometimes callit theoperatingsystem(OS)ofthecloud. ThisisbecauseKubernetesabstractsthe differencesbetweencloudplatformsthesamewaythatoperatingsystemslikeLinuxand Windowsabstractthedifferencesbetweenservers:

• LinuxandWindows abstract serverresourcesand schedule applicationprocesses

• Kubernetes abstracts cloudresourcesand schedules applicationmicroservices

Asaquickexample,youcanscheduleapplicationstoKuberneteswithoutcaringifit’s runningonAWS,Azure,CivoCloud,GCP,oryouron-premisesdatacenter.Thismakes Kubernetesakeyenablerfor:

• Hybridcloud

• Multi-cloud

• Cloudmigrations

Insummary,Kubernetesmakesiteasiertodeploytoonecloudtodayandmigrateto anothercloudtomorrow.

Figure1.4-TheKuberneteslogo

Applicationscheduling

OneofthemainthingsanOSdoesissimplifytheschedulingofworktasks.

ComputersarecomplexcollectionsofhardwareresourcessuchasCPU,memory, storage,andnetworking.Thankfully,modernoperatingsystemshidemostofthisand maketheworldofapplicationdevelopmentafarfriendlierplace.Forexample,how manydevelopersneedtocarewhichCPUcore,memoryDIMM,orflashchiptheircode uses?Mostofthetime,weleaveituptotheOS.

Kubernetesdoesasimilarthingwithcloudsanddatacenters.

Atahighlevel,acloudordatacenterisacomplexcollectionofresourcesandservices. Kubernetescanabstractalotoftheseandmakethemeasiertoconsume.Again,how oftendoyouneedtocareaboutwhichcomputenode,whichfailurezone,orwhich storagevolumeyourappuses?Mostofthetime,we’rehappytoletKubernetesdecide.

Chaptersummary

KuberneteswascreatedbyGoogleengineersbasedonlessonslearnedrunningcontainersathyper-scaleformanyyears.Itwasdonatedtothecommunityasanopen-source projectandisnowtheindustrystandardplatformfordeployingandmanagingcloudnativeapplications.Itrunsonanycloudoron-premisesdatacenterandabstractsthe underlyinginfrastructure.Thisallowsyoutobuildhybridclouds,aswellasmigrateon, off,andbetweendifferentclouds.It’sopen-sourcedundertheApache2.0licenseandis ownedandmanagedbytheCloudNativeComputingFoundation(CNCF).

Don’tbeafraidofallthenewterminology.I’mheretohelp,andyoucanreachmeatany ofthefollowing:

• Twitter:@nigelpoulton

• LinkedIn:linkedin.com/in/nigelpoulton/

• Mastodon:@nigelpoulton@hachyderm.io

• Web:nigelpoulton.com

• Email:tkb@nigelpoulton.com

2:Kubernetesprinciplesofoperation

ThischapterintroducesyoutomajorKubernetestechnologiesandpreparesyoufor upcomingchapters.You’renotexpectedtobeanexpertattheendofthischapter.

We’llcoverallofthefollowing:

• Kubernetesfrom40Kfeet

• Controlplanenodesandworkernodes

• PackagingappsforKubernetes

• Thedeclarativemodelanddesiredstate

• Pods

• Deployments

• Services

Kubernetesfrom40Kfeet

Kubernetesisbothofthefollowing:

• Acluster

• Anorchestrator

Kubernetes:Cluster

A Kubernetescluster isoneormore nodes providingCPU,memory,andotherresources forusebyapplications.

Kubernetessupportstwonodetypes:

• Controlplanenodes

• Workernodes

Bothtypescanbephysicalservers,virtualmachines,orcloudinstances,andbothcan runonARMandAMD64/x86-64.ControlplanenodesmustbeLinux,butworker nodescanbeLinuxorWindows.

Controlplanenodes implementtheKubernetesintelligence,andeveryclusterneedsat leastone.However,youshouldhavethreeorfiveforhighavailability(HA).

Everycontrolplanenoderunseverycontrolplaneservice.TheseincludetheAPIserver, thescheduler,andthecontrollersthatimplementcloud-nativefeaturessuchasselfhealing,autoscaling,androllouts.

Workernodes areforrunninguserapplications.

Figure2.1showsaclusterwiththreecontrolplanenodesandthreeworkers.

Figure2.1

It’scommontorunuserapplicationsoncontrolplannodesindevelopmentandtest environments.However,manyproductionenvironmentsrestrictuserapplicationsto workernodessothatcontrolplanenodescanfocusentirelyonclusteroperations.

Controlplanenodescanalsorunuserapplications,butyoushouldprobablyforceuser applicationstorunonworkernodesinproductionenvironments.Doingthisallows controlplanenodestofocusonmanagingthecluster.

Kubernetes:Orchestrator

Orchestrator isjargonforasystemthatdeploysandmanagesapplications.

Kubernetesistheindustry-standardorchestratorandcanintelligentlydeployapplicationsacrossnodesandfailurezonesforoptimalperformanceandavailability.Itcan alsofixthemwhentheybreak,scalethemwhendemandchanges,andmanagezerodowntimerollingupdates.

That’sthebigpicture.Let’sdigabitdeeper.

Controlplaneandworkernodes

WealreadysaidaKubernetesclusterisoneormore controlplanenodes and workernodes. ControlplanenodeshavetobeLinux,butworkerscanbeLinuxorWindows. Almostallcloud-nativeappsareLinuxandwillrunonLinuxworkernodes.However, you’llneedoneormoreworkernodesrunningWindowsifyouhavecloud-native Windowsapps.Fortunately,asingleKubernetesclustercanhaveamixofLinuxand Windowsworkernodes,andKubernetesisintelligentenoughtoscheduleappstothe correctnodes.

Thecontrolplane

The controlplane isacollectionofsystemservicesthatimplementthebrainsofKubernetes.ItexposestheAPI,schedulestasks,implementsself-healing,managesscaling operations,andmore.

Thesimplestsetupsrunasinglecontrolplanenodeandarebestsuitedforlabsand testing.However,aspreviouslymentioned,youshouldrunthreeorfivecontrolplane nodesinproductionenvironmentsandspreadthemacrossavailabilityzonesforhigh availability,asshowninFigure2.2

Aspreviouslymentioned,it’ssometimesconsideredaproductionbestpracticetorun alluserappsonworkernodes,allowingcontrolplanenodestoallocateallresourcesto cluster-relatedoperations.

MostclustersruneverycontrolplaneserviceoneverycontrolplanenodeforHA.

Figure2.2Controlplanehighavailability

Let’stakealookattheservicesthatmakeupthecontrolplane.

TheAPIserver

The APIserver isthefrontendofKubernetes,andallrequeststochangeandquerythe stateoftheclustergothroughit.Eveninternalcontrolplaneservicescommunicatewith eachotherviatheAPIserver.

ItexposesaRESTfulAPIoverHTTPS,andallrequestsaresubjecttoauthenticationand authorization.Forexample,deployingorupdatinganappfollowsthisprocess:

1. DescribetherequirementsinaYAMLconfigurationfile

2. PosttheconfigurationfiletotheAPIserver

3. Therequestwillbeauthenticatedandauthorized

4. Theupdateswillbepersistedintheclusterstore

5. Theupdateswillbescheduledtothecluster

Theclusterstore

Theclusterstoreholdsthedesiredstateofallapplicationsandclustercomponentsand istheonly stateful partofthecontrolplane.

It’sbasedonthe etcd distributeddatabase,andmostKubernetesclustersrunanetcd replicaoneverycontrolplanenodeforHA.However,largeclustersthatexperiencea highrateofchangemayrunaseparateetcdclusterforbetterperformance.

Beawarethatahighlyavailableclusterstoreisnotasubstituteforbackupandrecovery. Youstillneedadequatewaystorecovertheclusterstorewhenthingsgowrong.

Regarding availability,etcdprefersanoddnumberofreplicastohelpavoid splitbrain conditions.Thisiswherereplicasexperiencecommunicationissuesandcannotbesure iftheyhaveaquorum(majority).

Figure2.3showstwoetcdconfigurationsexperiencinganetworkpartition.Thecluster onthelefthasfournodesandisexperiencingasplitbrainwithtwonodesoneitherside andneitherhavingamajority.Theclusterontherightonlyhasthreenodesbutisnot experiencingasplit-brainas NodeA knowsitdoesnothaveamajority,whereas NodeB and NodeC knowtheydo.

Ifasplit-brainoccurs,etcdgoesintoread-onlymodepreventingupdatestothecluster. Userapplicationswillcontinueworking,youjustwon’tbeabletomakeclusterupdates, suchasaddingormodifyingappsandservices.

Aswithalldistributeddatabases,consistencyofwritesisvital.Forexample,multiple writestothesamevaluefromdifferentsourcesneedtobehandled.etcdusesthe RAFT consensusalgorithmforthis.

Controllersandthecontrollermanager

Kubernetesuses controllers toimplementalotoftheclusterintelligence.Theyallrunon thecontrolplane,andsomeofthemorecommononesinclude:

• TheDeploymentcontroller

• TheStatefulSetcontroller

• TheReplicaSetcontroller

Othersexist,andwe’llcoversomeofthemlaterinthebook.However,theyallrunas backgroundwatchloops,reconcilingobservedstatewithdesiredstate.

That’salotofjargon,andwe’llcoveritindetaillaterinthechapter.Butfornow,it meanscontrollersensuretheclusterrunswhatyouaskedittorun.Forexample,if youaskforthreereplicasofanapp,acontrollerwillensurethreehealthyreplicasare runningandtakeappropriateactionsiftheyaren’t.

Kubernetesalsorunsa controllermanager thatisresponsibleforspawningandmanaging theindividualcontrollers.

Figure2.4givesahigh-leveloverviewofthecontrollermanagerandcontrollers.

Figure2.3.HAandsplitbrainconditions

Thescheduler

The scheduler watchestheAPIserverfornewworktasksandassignsthemtohealthy workernodes.

Itimplementsthefollowingprocess:

1. WatchtheAPIserverfornewtasks

2. Identifycapablenodes

3. Assigntaskstonodes

Identifyingcapablenodesinvolvespredicatechecks,filtering,andarankingalgorithm. Itchecksfortaints,affinityandanti-affinityrules,networkportavailability,and availableCPUandmemory.Itignoresnodesincapableofrunningthetasksandranks theremainingonesaccordingtofactorssuchaswhetheritalreadyhastherequired image,theamountofavailableCPUandmemory,andnumberoftasksit’scurrently running.Eachisworthpoints,andthenodeswiththemostpointsareselectedtorun thetasks.

Theschedulermarkstasksaspendingifitcan’tfindasuitablenode.

Iftheclusterisconfiguredfor nodeautoscaling,thependingtaskkicksoffacluster autoscalingeventthataddsanewnodeandschedulesthetasktothenewnode.

Figure2.4.Controllermanagerandcontrollers

Thecloudcontrollermanager

Ifyourclusterisonapubliccloud,suchasAWS,Azure,GCP,orCivoCloud,itwillrun a cloudcontrollermanager thatintegratestheclusterwithcloudservices,suchasinstances, loadbalancers,andstorage.Forexample,ifyou’reonacloudandanapplication requestsaloadbalancer,thecloudcontrollermanagerprovisionsoneofthecloud’sload balancersandconnectsittoyourapp.

ControlPlanesummary

ThecontrolplaneimplementsthebrainsofKubernetes,includingtheAPIServer,the scheduler,andtheclusterstore.Italsoimplementscontrollersthatensurethecluster runswhatweaskedittorun.

Figure2.5showsahigh-levelviewofaKubernetescontrolplanenode.

Youshouldrunthreeorfivecontrolplanenodesforhighavailability,andlargebusy clustersmightrunaseparateetcdclusterforbetterclusterstoreperformance.

TheAPIserveristheKubernetesfrontend,and all communicationpassesthroughit.

Workernodes

Workernodes areforrunninguserapplicationsandlooklikeFigure2.6.

Figure2.5-Controlplanenode

Let’slookatthemajorworkernodecomponents.

Kubelet

The kubelet isthemainKubernetesagentandhandlesallcommunicationwiththe cluster.

Itperformsthefollowingkeytasks:

• WatchestheAPIserverfornewtasks

• Instructstheappropriateruntimetoexecutetasks

• ReportsthestatusoftaskstotheAPIserver

Ifataskwon’trun,thekubeletreportstheproblemtotheAPIserverandletsthecontrol planedecidewhatactionstotake.

Runtime

Everyworkernodehasoneormore runtimes forexecutingtasks.

MostnewKubernetesclusterspre-installthe containerd runtimeanduseittoexecute tasks.Thesetasksinclude:

• Pullingcontainerimages

• Managinglifecycleoperationssuchasstartingandstoppingcontainers

Figure2.6-Workernode

OlderclustersshippedwiththeDockerruntime,butthisisnolongersupported.RedHat OpenShiftclustersusetheCRI-Oruntime.Lotsofothersexist,andeachhasitspros andcons.

We’llusesomedifferentruntimesintheWasmchapter.

Kube-proxy

Everyworkernoderunsa kube-proxy servicethatimplementsclusternetworkingand loadbalancestraffictotasksrunningonthenode.

Nowthatyouunderstandthefundamentalsofthecontrolplaneandworkernodes,let’s switchgearsandseehowtopackageapplicationstorunonKubernetes.

PackagingappsforKubernetes

Kubernetesrunscontainers,VMs,Wasmapps,andmore.However,theyallhavetobe wrappedinPodstorunonKubernetes.

We’llcoverPodsshortly,butfornow,thinkofthemasathinwrapperthatabstracts differenttypesoftaskssotheycanrunonKubernetes.Thefollowingcourieranalogy mighthelp.

Couriersallowyoutoshipbooks,clothes,food,electricalitems,andmore,solongas youusetheirapprovedpackagingandlabels.Onceyou’vepackagedandlabeledyour goods,youhandthemtothecourierfordelivery.Thecourierthenhandlesthecomplex logisticsofwhichplanesandtruckstouse,securehand-offstolocaldeliveryhubs,and eventualdeliverytothecustomer.Theyalsoprovideservicesfortrackingpackages, changingdeliverydetails,andattestingsuccessfuldelivery.All you havetodoispackage andlabelthegoods.

RunningappsonKubernetesissimilar.Kubernetescanruncontainers,VMs,Wasm appsandmore,solongasyouwraptheminPods.OncewrappedinaPod,yougivethe apptoKubernetes,andKubernetesrunsit.Thisincludesthecomplexlogisticsofchoosingappropriatenodes,joiningnetworks,attachingvolumes,andmore.Kuberneteseven letsyouqueryappsandmakechanges.

Consideraquickexample.

Youwriteanappinyourfavoritelanguage,containerizeit,pushittoaregistry,and wrapitinaPod.Atthispoint,youcangivethePodtoKubernetes,andKubernetes willrunit.However,mostofthetimeyou’lluseahigher-levelcontrollertodeploy andmanagePods.Todothis,youwrapthePodinsideacontrollerobjectsuchasa Deployment.

Don’tworryaboutthedetailsyet,we’llcovereverythinginalotmoredepthandwith lotsofexampleslaterinthebook.Rightnow,youonlyneedtoknowtwothings:

1. AppsneedtobewrappedinPodstorunonKubernetes

2. Podsarenormallywrappedinhigher-levelcontrollersforadvancedfeatures

Let’squicklygobacktothecourieranalogytohelpexplaintheroleofcontrollers.

Mostcouriersofferadditionalservicessuchasinsuranceforthegoodsyou’reshipping, signatureandphotographicproofofdelivery,expressdeliveryservices,andmore.Allof theseaddvaluetotheservice.

Again,Kubernetesissimilar.Itimplementscontrollersthataddvalue,suchasensuring thehealthofapps,automaticallyscalingwhendemandincreases,andmore.

Figure2.7showsacontainerwrappedinaPod,which,inturn,iswrappedinaDeployment.Don’tworryabouttheYAMLconfigurationyet,it’sjusttheretoseedtheidea.

Figure2.7-Objectnesting

Theimportantthingtounderstandisthateachlayerofwrappingaddssomething:

• Thecontainerwrapstheappandprovidesdependencies

• ThePodwrapsthecontainersoitcanrunonKubernetes

• TheDeploymentwrapsthePodandaddsself-healing,scaling,andmore

YouposttheDeployment(YAMLfile)totheAPIserverasthe desiredstate ofthe application,andKubernetesimplementsit.

Speakingofdesiredstate…

Thedeclarativemodelanddesiredstate

The declarativemodel and desiredstate areatthecoreofhowKubernetesoperates.They operateonthreebasicprinciples:

• Observedstate

• Desiredstate

• Reconciliation

Observedstate iswhatyouhave, desiredstate iswhatyouwant,and reconciliation isthe processofkeepingobservedstateinsyncwithdesiredstate.

Terminology: Weusetheterms actualstate,currentstate,and observedstate to meanthesamething—themostup-to-dateviewofthecluster.

InKubernetes,thedeclarativemodelworkslikethis:

1. YoudescribethedesiredstateofanapplicationinaYAMLmanifestfile

2. YouposttheYAMLfiletotheAPIserver

3. Itgetsrecordedintheclusterstoreasarecordofintent

4. Acontrollernoticestheobservedstateoftheclusterdoesn’tmatchthenew desiredstate

5. Thecontrollermakesthenecessarychangestoreconcilethedifferences

6. Thecontrollerkeepsrunninginthebackground,ensuringobservedstatematches desiredstate

Let’shaveacloserlook.

YouwritemanifestfilesinYAMLthattellKuberneteswhatanapplicationshouldlook like.Wecallthisdesiredstate,anditusuallyincludesthingssuchaswhichimagestouse, howmanyreplicas,andwhichnetworkports.

Onceyou’vecreatedthemanifest,youpostittotheAPIserverwhereit’sauthenticated andauthorized.ThemostcommonwayofpostingYAMLfilestoKubernetesiswiththe kubectl command-lineutility.

Onceauthenticatedandauthorized,theconfigurationispersistedtotheclusterstoreas arecordofintent.

Atthispoint,theobservedstateoftheclusterdoesn’tmatchyournewdesiredstate. Acontrollerwillnoticethisandbegintheprocessofreconciliation.Thiswillinvolve makingallthechangesdescribedintheYAMLfileandislikelytoincludescheduling

newPods,pullingimages,startingcontainers,attachingthemtonetworks,andstarting applicationprocesses.

Oncereconciliationiscompleted,observedstatewillmatchdesiredstate,andeverythingwillbeOK.However,thecontrollerskeeprunninginthebackground,readyto reconcileanyfuturedifferences.

It’simportanttounderstandthatwhatwe’vedescribedisverydifferentfromthe traditional imperativemodel:

• The imperativemodel requirescomplexscriptsofplatform-specificcommandsto achieveanend-state

• The declarativemodel isasimpleplatform-agnosticwayof describing anendstate

Kubernetessupportsbothbutprefersthe declarativemodel.Thisisbecausethedeclarativemodelintegrateswithversioncontrolsystemsandenablesself-healing,autoscaling, androllingupdates.

Consideracoupleofsimpledeclarativeexamples.

Assumeyou’vedeployedanappfromaYAMLfilerequestingtenreplicas.Ifanode runningtwoofthereplicasfails,theobservedstatewilldropto8replicasandno longermatchthedesiredstateof10.That’sOK,acontrollerwillseethedifferenceand schedule2newreplicastobringthetotalbackupto10.

Thesamewillhappenforanappupdate.Forexample,ifyouupdatetheYAML,telling theapptouseanupdatedimageandpostthechangetoKubernetes,therelevant controllerwillnoticethedifferenceandreplacethereplicasrunningtheoldversion withnewreplicasrunningthenewversion.

Ifyoutrytoperformanupdatelikethisimperatively,you’llneedtowritecomplex scriptstomanage,monitor,andheath-checktheentireupdateprocess.Todoitdeclaratively,youonlyneedtochangeasinglelineofYAMLandKubernetesdoeseverything else.

ThisisextremelypowerfulandfundamentaltothewayKubernetesworks.

Pods

TheatomicunitofschedulingintheVMwareworldisthevirtualmachine(VM).Inthe Dockerworld,it’sthecontainer.InKubernetes,it’sthe Pod

Yes,Kubernetesrunscontainers,VMs,Wasmapps,andmore.Buttheyallneedtobe wrappedinPods.

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Grant, Alexander, 298

Graves, Admiral, 107, 127, 200, 273.

Greek Colonies, 42-3, 45 n., 205.

Green Bay, Fort, 17, 25.

Green Mountain Boys, 101, 191

Greene, Nathaniel, 128, 198, 199.

Greenville Treaty. See Treaty.

Grenada, 1, 88.

Grenville, George, 53, 54 and n.

Grenville, Lord, 240 n., 246-55, 265, 285

Guildford Court House, 198.

Habeas Corpus, 74, 88 and n., 95, 193, 195, 241, 242-3, 244

Haldimand County, 234.

Haldimand, Sir Frederick, 63, 88 n., 143, 147, 150, 185, 188-95, 189 n., 190 n., 220, 224, 225, 233, 236, 239, 241, 246.

Half Moon, 174.

Halifax, 114, 188, 213, 221.

Hamilton, Alexander, 227, 282, 285

Hamilton, Lieutenant-Governor, 187, 236 n.

Hampshire Grants, 167.

Hastings, Warren, 160.

Havana, 1, 68

Hawke, Admiral, 127.

Herkimer, General Nicholas, 154-7.

Hessians.

See German Regiments.

Hey, Chief Justice, 103 and n., 104, 105 n., 106, 141

Highlanders, 20, 22, 28, 229, 230.

Hillsborough, Lord, 92, 135.

Hobkirk’s Hill, 199.

Hood, Sir Samuel, 127, 200

Hoosick river, 168, 170.

Hope, Colonel, 236 n.

Hope, Mount, 173.

Howe, Admiral, 127, 129, 130, 132, 133, 139, 196

Howe, General, 107, 125, 126, 129 and n., 130-4, 138, 139, 145, 146, 167, 168, 172, 175, 195, 213, 221, 222

Huberton, 164.

Hudson Bay, 257.

Hudson Bay Company’s Territories, 6, 7, 70, 80, 82, 210, 292.

Hudson river, 131, 132, 134, 146, 165-7, 170, 173-83, 196, 200, 203.

Hudson Straits, 3, 80.

Hunter, General, 292, 298.

Huron, Lake, 2, 5, 9, 13, 232 n., 233, 275.

Illinois, 4, 27, 84, 187.

Illinois Indians. See Indians.

Independence, Mount, 162, 163-5, 175.

Independence, War of, 90-207 et passim. Causes, 30-63, &c.

Effects, 204-7.

Indians, 5-29, 53, 57-9, 96-7, 97 n., 119-21, 124, 147-59, 153 n., 168, 185-7, 281-6.

Delawares, 23-6

Illinois, 9, 27.

Iroquois.

See Six Nations.

Mississaugas, 233.

Mohawks, 148-50, 148-9 n., 152, 232-5, 235 n.

Ojibwas, 16.

Oneidas, 58, 147.

Ottawas, 12, 16.

Pontiac’s War, 10-29, 99

Senecas, 10, 22, 24, 148, 152.

Shawanoes, 24, 27.

Six Nations, 10, 22, 58 and n., 59, 83, 147-59, 150 n., 187, 2325.

Tuscaroras, 147-8.

War with United States, 281-6.

Wyandots, 25.

Indian Territory, 5-7, 58-9, 83, 233-4.

Inglis, Bishop, 267

Isle aux Noix, 106, 123, 124, 185.

Isle Royale. See Cape Breton.

James river, 199 Jay, John, 227, 282, 284-5.

Jay’s Treaty. See Treaty.

Jefferson, Thomas, 282, 284, 289.

Jews, exclusion from Quebec Assembly, 305-6.

Johnson, Colonel Guy, 98 n., 149-51

Johnson, Sir John, 149, 152, 155, and n., 156, 242.

Johnson, Sir William, 24, 27, 28, 57, 58 and n., 59, 71, 97 and n., 102, 147, 149, 151.

Johnson’s Royal Greens, 152

Judges, exclusion from Quebec Assembly, 305-6.

Justice, Administration of, 73, 77, 79, 92, 248, 265, 272.

Kalm, Peter, 30, 31 and n.

Kaskaskia, 187.

Kaskaskia river, 9, 187.

Kempt, Sir James, 309

Kennebec river, 109.

King’s Mountain, 198.

Kingston, 9, 225, 232, 233, 242, 272.

Kirkland, Samuel, 148

Labrador, 2, 3, 80, 81, 80-1 n.

Lachine, 120

Lafayette, 184, 187, 199, 200, 250.

La Mothe Cadillac, 9.

Land Tenure, 59, 95, 243, 247, 267, 290, 291, 293.

Language Question, 248, 297

La Prairie, 123.

La Salle, 8, 9.

La Tranche river. See Thames.

Le Bœuf, Fort, 9, 11-12, 17, 20.

Le Canadien, 297, 305, 307, 311

Lecky, Professor, 38, 48, 128.

Lee, General Charles, 132, 196

Legislative Council. See Council.

Levis, 114.

Levis, Point, 110, 113.

Lexington, 90, 101, 125.

Ligonier, Fort, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21

Lincoln, Benjamin, 173 and n., 175, 197.

Liverpool, Lord, 310, 313, 315.

Liverpool Regiment, the 8th Regiment, 152, 153.

Livius, Peter, 140-4, 143 n., 194 and n., 195 and n., 237, 248, 255, 280.

Loftus, Major, 28.

Logs Town, 83.

London, Ontario, 275.

Long Sault Rapids, 2.

Loudoun, General, 126.

Loughborough, Lord, 215.

Louis XIV, 64, 230, 247.

Louisbourg, 41, 49, 50, 51, 52 n., 61, 117, 289.

Louisiana, 1, 10, 37, 50, 230, 282, 283, 302.

Loyalhannon, 19.

Loyalists, 36, 61, 106, 130, 135, 152, 169, 170, 171, 185, 191, 196, 197, 198, 208-35, 218 n., 236, 238 and n., 239, 242, 290, 292.

Loyalist Corps, 220-1, 273.

Lumber Trade, 308.

Luttrell, Captain, 237

Lymburner, Adam, 243, 247, 262.

Macartney, Lord, 304

Macdonells, the, 229, 230 and n.

Maclane, 289.

Maclean, Colonel, 108, 111, 188.

Madelaine Island, 3

Madison, President, 319.

Mahan, Captain, 130.

Maine, 84, 209.

Maitland, Sir Peregrine, 278

Marion, General, 227.

Masères, 79.

Massachusetts, 37, 52 n., 81, 85, 86, 188, 209, 221.

Maumee river, 9, 13, 16, 284, 286

McCrae, Jane, 168.

Megantic, Lake, 109.

Melville, Lord. See Dundas.

Miami, 9, 13, 16, 25, 281, 284, 286.

Michigan, Lake, 5, 9, 16

Michigan Peninsula, 286.

Michillimackinac, Fort, 9, 13, 16, 25, 239.

Militia, Canadian, 114, 294-5, 303.

Miller, Fort, 175

Milnes, Robert Shore, 292-6, 298, 316.

Mississaugas. See Indians.

Mississippi, 1, 4, 5, 9, 27, 28, 32, 51, 80, 83, 84, 187, 302

Mohawk river, 24, 145-58, 168, 169, 174.

Mohawks. See Indians.

Molson, John, 308.

Monckton, General, 12

Monmouth, Battle of, 196.

Monongahela river, 14.

Montcalm, 31 and n., 41, 42 n., 102, 147, 153.

Montgomery, Robert, 60, 106-13, 110 n., 114, 116-18, 118 n., 185

Montreal, 11, 12, 17, 63, 65, 67, 70, 73, 80, 91, 97, 102, 105, 10610, 119, 120, 122, 157, 189, 238, 239, 245, 247, 270, 276, 308.

Moreau, 300.

Morgan, Daniel, 113, 175, 198.

Morris, Captain, 25.

Morse, Colonel Robert, 223-4.

Mulgrave, Lord, 216.

Murray, General James, 4, 61 and n., 63-8, 67 n., 72, 73, 74, 75, 77, 78, 93, 100, 109, 114, 193, 296 n.

Muskingum river, 26.

Napoleon, 302, 308, 311, 317.

Native Question, 56-9.

Navigation Laws, 41, 47.

Navy Hall, 272.

Newark, 272, 275 and n.

New Brunswick, 80, 84, 209, 223, 224, 237, 238 n., 263, 264, 292

New England, 24, 39, 40, 41, 43, 49, 50, 52 and n., 53, 56, 62, 81, 104, 166-7, 169, 174, 196, 197, 221, 223

Newfoundland, 1, 3, 50, 69, 80, 81, 114.

New Hampshire, 101.

New Jersey, 59, 132, 186 n., 198, 200, 212, 213.

New Orleans, 1, 28, 282, 302

Newport, 133, 200.

New York, 13, 24, 40, 50, 59, 63, 69, 90, 101, 129, 130, 132, 133, 174, 175, 181, 185, 186 n., 189, 191, 195, 196, 197, 199, 200, 221, 222, 223, 224, 229, 236.

New Zealand, 45, 57.

Niagara, Fort, 9, 11, 15, 16, 22, 23, 24, 25, 185, 239, 275 and n.

Niagara river, 9, 15, 24, 82, 225, 233, 272.

Nipissim or Nipissing, Lake, 2.

Non-intercourse Acts, 308.

Nootka Sound Convention, 261.

Norfolk, 221.

North, Lord, 83, 136, 139, 192, 193, 201, 215, 216, 217, 219, 226, 227.

North-west Company, 292.

Nova Scotia, 3, 80, 209, 219, 220 n., 223, 224, 236, 236-7 n., 238 n., 267, 292, 315.

Ogdensburg, 119, 239.

Ohio, 9, 13, 18, 20, 23, 24, 28, 41, 51, 58, 59, 80, 83, 84, 239, 281, 282, 283, 284, 286.

Ojibwas. See Indians.

Oneida, 234

Oneida County, 59.

Oneida, Lake, 147.

Oneidas.

See Indians.

Onondaga, 234, and see Oswego.

Ontario, 3, 5, 6, 11, 223, 224, 229, 238, and see Upper Canada.

Ontario, Lake, 5, 9, 11, 45, 80, 83, 146, 147, 185, 225, 233, 272.

Oriskany, 148, 155-7, 157 n.

Osgoode, Chief Justice, 280, 291, 296.

Oswald, Richard, 201, 202, 217, 227

Oswegatchie.

See Ogdensburg.

Oswego, 24, 28, 146, 147, 153, 157, 158, 189, 239.

Ottawa river, 2, 3.

Ottawas.

See Indians.

Ouatanon, Fort, 9, 16, 28.

Ours or Ouse, River. See Grand river.

Palliser, Sir Hugh, 80.

Panet, M., 305, 306.

Parents Creek, 17, 18.

Peace of Paris. See Treaty.

Peel, Sir Robert, 310.

Penns, the, 83, 220.

Pennsylvania, 18, 19, 20, 26, 27, 53, 56, 57, 59, 83, 84, 85, 172, 186 and n., 218, 220, 222.

Penobscot river, 188

Pepperell, Sir W., 62.

Pepperell, Sir W., 212.

Percival, 310, 313.

Philadelphia, 13, 20, 26, 95, 129-34, 146, 175, 195, 196, 200, 213, 222.

Phillips, General, 199.

Piquet, Abbé, 119.

Pitt, the elder, 32, 37, 51, 81, 89, 126, 128, 136 n., 183.

Pitt, the younger, 201, 220, 237, 244, 245, 248, 252, 261, 262, 267, 268, 273, 287.

Pittsburg, 9, 12, 17-22, 23, 26, 51, 59, 83.

Plattsburg, 123, 124.

Plymouth Settlement, 43.

Point au Fer, 162, 239.

Pointe aux Trembles, 110.

Point Levis. See Levis, Point.

Pontiac, 10, 12, 14, 18, 23, 25, 27, 28, 99, 150, 151.

Pontiac’s War. See Indians.

Portland, Duke of, 219, 231, 240 n., 278, 285, 286, 292.

Port Royal, 41, 50.

Powys, 242, 243.

Prescott, Robert, 286-92, 296, 303, 305.

Prés de Ville, 112.

Presque Isle, 9, 11, 16, 17, 20, 25, 83, 239

Preston, Major, 107 and n., 108.

Prevost, Sir George, 196, 289 n. 309, 314, 319.

Prideaux, 147.

Prince Edward Island, 3, 80, 236-7 n., 292

Proclamation of 1763, 1-8, 58, 66, 70, 79, 82, 83, 140.

Protestant Clergy, 265-7.

Protestants, 68, 74-8, 89, 95 n., 100, 229, &c.

Quebec, Province of, 1-4, 70, 79-82, 82 n., 84, 86, 88 n., 225, 236, 238, 241, 242, 245, 246-64, 270, &c.

Quebec, Town of, 3, 41, 52 n., 60, 63, 65, 67, 69, 90, 91, 92, 95, 97, 105, 106-19, 124, 131, 185, 236, 237, 238, 247, 267, 270, 287, 289, 308, &c.

Quebec Act of 1774, 8, 37, 60, 68-89, 87 n., 93, 95, 96, 98, 100, 103-6, 140, 141, 195, 240, 242, 243-4.

Quebec Revenue Act, 87 n., 269 n.

Quiberon Bay, 127, 230.

Quinté, Bay of, 225, 233, 235 n.

Raestown. See Bedford.

Rahl, General, 133, 134.

Randolph, 282, 284.

Rawdon, Lord, 199.

Religion, 72, 74, 76-9, 86, 95 n., 248, 265-9, 294, 296-7, 310-11.

See also Protestants and Roman Catholics.

Rhode Island, 133, 167, 196, 197, 198, 200.

Richelieu river, 71, 108, 114, 122, 123, 185, 224, 239.

Riedesel, Baron, 122, 162, 164, 167, 169, 176, 177

Robertson, Colonel, 19.

Rockingham, Lord, 160, 201.

Rodney, Admiral, 127, 200, 201.

Rogers, Major Robert, 11-13, 11 n., 12 n., 13 n., 17, 18, 102

Roman Catholics, 61, 72 and n., 74, 76-9, 85-9, 95 n., 265, 266, 294, 296, 311, 312, 314, 318

Rosieres, Cape, 2.

Ross, Major, 188.

Roubaud, 31 n.

Rouillé, Fort.

See Toronto.

Royal American Regiment, 13, 20, 52 n.

Royal Highland Emigrants, 111.

Russell, Peter, 286-7.

Ryland, 309-14, 310 n.

Sabine, 227.

Sackville, Lord George. See Germain.

Saguenay river, 2 and n.

St. Charles river, 110, 112.

St. Clair, General, 163, 281, 283.

St. Clair, Lake, 9, 14, 275.

St. Domingo, 273, 302.

St. Francis, Lake, 119, 225, 239.

St. Francis river, 185.

St. Jean or St. John’s Island.

See Prince Edward Island.

St. John, Lake, 2.

St. John river, 2 and n., 3, 80, 223.

St. John’s, Fort, 102, 105, 106-8, 107 n., 122, 123, 124, 239.

St. Joseph, Fort, 16

St. Lawrence, River and Gulf, 2, 5, 9, 11, 71, 80, 83, 84, 109, 119, 120, 122, 174, 185, 225, 239, 264, 270, 308

St. Leger, Colonel, 138, 145, 146-58, 157 n., 168, 169, 172, 174, 187, 236 n.

St. Louis, Lake, 120, 239.

St. Luc de la Corne, 189.

St. Roch, 110, 112.

Saints, Battle of the, 201.

Sancoick Mill, 170, 174.

Sandusky, Fort, 9, 16, 25, 27.

Sandy Hook, 196.

Saratoga, 116, 131, 160, 168, 170, 180-4, 201, 304.

Sault au Matelot, 112.

Sault St. Marie, 25.

Saunders, Admiral, 127, 273.

Savannah, 196, 201, 222.

Savile, Sir George, 87.

Schenectady, 149.

Schuyler, Fort.

See Stanwix, Fort.

Schuyler, General Philip, 106, 107, 153, 174-5.

Secretary of State for American Department, 135, 240 n.

Senecas. See Indians.

Seven Years’ War, 9, 41, 69, 99, 127, 207

Shawanoes. See Indians.

Shelburne, Lord, 74, 91, 94, 201, 214, 216, 217, 219, 220.

Shelburne, Township, 223-4.

Sherbrooke, Sir John, 188.

Sheridan, 216, 243, 244.

Simcoe, John Graves, 232 n., 234, 271-6, 273-4 n., 275 n., 284, 286-7.

Simcoe, Lake, 232 and n., 273, 274.

Six Nations. See Indians.

Skenesborough, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 173.

Smith, Adam, 43, 44, 45, 47, 48, 51 n., 53, 107 n.

Smith, Chief Justice, William, 255-61, 276, 280.

Sorel, 108, 114, 185, 224.

Spain, 1, 2, 282, 283, 302.

Spanish America, 38, 39, 48.

Springfield, 185.

Stamp Act, 41, 54 and n., 55.

Stanwix, Fort, 59, 147, 152-8, 157 n., 169, 172, 174, 175.

Stanwix, Fort, Agreement. See Treaty.

Stanwix, General, 18, 153.

Stark, John, 171.

Staten Island, 132.

Stillwater, 168, 170 n., 174

Stopford, Major, 107, 108 n.

Stormont, Lord, 215.

Stuart, Colonel, 199.

Stuart, James, 316

Suffolk, 95.

Sugar Hill, 163, 173.

Sullivan, General John, 187, 196.

Sulpician Seminary, 312, 314

Sumter, General, 197.

Superior, Lake, 5.

Susquehanna, 59, 151, 185.

Sydney, Lord, 240 and n., 243, 245, 246

Talon, 64, 71.

Tarleton, 197, 198

Taxation, 41, 42, 267-9, 267-8 and n., 269 n.

Tea duty, 267-8.

Tecumseh, 150.

Telegraphs, 203-4

Thames, 274, 275 and n.

Thayandenegea, 148.