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Fundamentals of Electric Circuits 6th Edition Charles
Alexander https://textbookfull.com/product/fundamentals-of-electriccircuits-6th-edition-charles-alexander/
18.6Comparing the Fourier and Laplace Transforms839
18.7 †Applications840
18.7.1Amplitude Modulation
18.7.2Sampling
18.8Summary843
Review Questions844 Problems845
Comprehensive Problems851
Chapter 19 Two-Port Networks853
19.1Introduction854
19.2Impedance Parameters854
19.3Admittance Parameters859
19.4Hybrid Parameters862
19.5Transmission Parameters867
19.6 †Relationships Between Parameters872
19.7Interconnection of Networks875
19.8Computing Two-Port Parameters Using PSpice 881
19.9 †Applications884
19.9.1Transistor Circuits
19.9.2Ladder Network Synthesis
19.10Summary893
Review Questions894
Problems894
Comprehensive Problem905
Appendix A Simultaneous Equations and Matrix InversionA
Appendix B Complex NumbersA-9
Appendix C Mathematical FormulasA-16
Appendix D Answers to Odd-Numbered ProblemsA-21
Selected BibliographyB-1 IndexI-1
Preface
You may be wondering why we chose a photo of NASA’s Mars Rover for the cover. We actually chose it for several reasons. Obviously, it is very exciting; in fact, space represents the most exciting frontier for the entire world! In addition, much of the Rover itself consists of all kinds of circuits. Circuits that must work without needing maintenance! Once you are on Mars, it is hard to find a technician!
The Rover must have a power system that can supply all the power necessary to move it, help it collect samples and analyze them, broadcast the results back to Earth, and receive instructions from Earth. One of the important issues that make the problem of working with the rover is that it takes about 20 minutes for communications to go from the Earth to Mars. So the Rover does not make changes required by NASAquickly. What we find most amazing is that such a sophisticated and complicated electro-mechanical device can operate so accurately and reliably after flying millions of miles and being bounced onto the ground! Here is a link to an absolutely incredible video of what the Rover is all about and how it got to Mars: http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=5UmRx4dEdRI. Enjoy!
Features
New to This Edition
Amodel for magnetic coupling is presented in Chapter 13 that will make analysis easier as well as enhance your ability to find errors. We have successfully used this model for years and felt it was now time to add it to the book. In addition, there are over 600 new end-of-chapter problems, changed end-of-chapter problems, and changed practice problems.
We have also added National Instruments MultisimTM solutions for almost all of the problems solved using PSpice®. There is a Multisim tutorial available on our website. We have added National Instruments Multisim since it is very user-friendly with many more options for analysis than PSpice. In addition, it allows the ability to modify circuits easily in order to see how changing circuit parameters impacts voltages, currents, and power. We have also moved the tutorials for PSpice, MATLAB®, and KCIDE to our website to allow us to keep up with changes in the software.
We have also added 43 new problems to Chapter 16. We did this to enhance using the powerful s-domain analysis techniques to finding voltages and currents in circuits.
Retained from Previous Editions
Acourse in circuit analysis is perhaps the first exposure students have to electrical engineering. This is also a place where we can enhance some of the skills that they will later need as they learn how to design.
An important part of this book is our 121 design a problem problems. These problems were developed to enhance skills that are an important part of the design process. We know it is not possible to fully develop a student’s design skills in a fundamental course like circuits. To fully develop design skills a student needs a design experience normally reserved for their senior year. This does not mean that some of those skills cannot be developed and exercised in a circuits course. The text already included open-ended questions that help students use creativity, which is an important part of learning how to design. We already have some questions that are open-ended but we desired to add much more into our text in this important area and have developed an approach to do just that. When we develop problems for the student to solve our goal is that in solving the problem the student learns more about the theory and the problem solving process. Why not have the students design problems like we do? That is exactly what we do in each chapter. Within the normal problem set, we have a set of problems where we ask the student to design a problem to help other students better understand an important concept. This has two very important results. The first will be a better understanding of the basic theory and the second will be the enhancement of some of the student’s basic design skills. We are making effective use of the principle of learning by teaching. Essentially we all learn better when we teach a subject. Designing effective problems is a key part of the teaching process. Students should also be encouraged to develop problems, when appropriate, which have nice numbers and do not necessarily overemphasize complicated mathematical manipulations.
Avery important advantage to our textbook, we have a total of 2,447 Examples, Practice Problems, Review Questions, and End-ofChapter Problems! Answers are provided for all practice problems and the odd numbered end-of-chapter problems.
The main objective of the fifth edition of this book remains the same as the previous editions—to present circuit analysis in a manner that is clearer, more interesting, and easier to understand than other circuit textbooks, and to assist the student in beginning to see the “fun” in engineering. This objective is achieved in the following ways:
• ChapterOpeners and Summaries
Each chapter opens with a discussion about how to enhance skills which contribute to successful problem solving as well as successful careers or a career-oriented talk on a sub-discipline of electrical engineering. This is followed by an introduction that links the chapter with the previous chapters and states the chapter objectives. The chapter ends with a summary of key points and formulas.
• Problem-Solving Methodology
Chapter 1 introduces a six-step method for solving circuit problems which is used consistently throughout the book and media supplements to promote best-practice problem-solving procedures.
• Student-Friendly Writing Style
All principles are presented in a lucid, logical, step-by-step manner. As much as possible, we avoid wordiness and giving too much detail that could hide concepts and impede overall understanding of the material.
• Boxed Formulas and Key Terms
Important formulas are boxed as a means of helping students sort out what is essential from what is not. Also, to ensure that students clearly understand the key elements of the subject matter, key terms are defined and highlighted.
• Margin Notes
Marginal notes are used as a pedagogical aid. They serve multiple uses such as hints, cross-references, more exposition, warnings, reminders not to make some particular common mistakes, and problem-solving insights.
• Worked Examples
Thoroughly worked examples are liberally given at the end of every section. The examples are regarded as a part of the text and are clearly explained without asking the reader to fill in missing steps. Thoroughly worked examples give students a good understanding of the solution process and the confidence to solve problems themselves. Some of the problems are solved in two or three different ways to facilitate a substantial comprehension of the subject material as well as a comparison of different approaches.
• Practice Problems
To give students practice opportunity, each illustrative example is immediately followed by a practice problem with the answer. The student can follow the example step-by-step to aid in the solution of the practice problem without flipping pages or looking at the end of the book for answers. The practice problem is also intended to test a student’s understanding of the preceding example. It will reinforce their grasp of the material before the student can move on to the next section. Complete solutions to the practice problems are available to students on the website.
• Application Sections
The last section in each chapter is devoted to practical application aspects of the concepts covered in the chapter. The material covered in the chapter is applied to at least one or two practical problems or devices. This helps students see how the concepts are applied to real-life situations.
• Review Questions
Ten review questions in the form of multiple-choice objective items are provided at the end of each chapter with answers. The review questions are intended to cover the little “tricks” that the examples and end-of-chapter problems may not cover. They serve as a self test device and help students determine how well they have mastered the chapter.
• ComputerTools
In recognition of the requirements by ABET ® on integrating computer tools, the use of PSpice, Multisim, MATLAB, KCIDEfor Circuits, and developing design skills are encouraged in a studentfriendly manner. PSpice is covered early on in the text so that students can become familiar and use it throughout the text. Tutorials on all of these are available on our website. MATLAB is also introduced early in the book.
• Design a Problem Problems
Finally, design a problem problems are meant to help the student develop skills that will be needed in the design process.
• Historical Tidbits
Historical sketches throughout the text provide profiles of important pioneers and events relevant to the study of electrical engineering.
• Early Op Amp Discussion
The operational amplifier (op amp) as a basic element is introduced early in the text.
• Fourierand Laplace Transforms Coverage
To ease the transition between the circuit course and signals and systems courses, Fourier and Laplace transforms are covered lucidly and thoroughly. The chapters are developed in a manner that the interested instructor can go from solutions of first-order circuits to Chapter 15. This then allows a very natural progression from Laplace to Fourier to AC.
• FourColorArt Program
An interior design and four color art program bring circuit drawings to life and enhance key pedagogical elements throughout the text.
• Extended Examples
Examples worked in detail according to the six-step problem solving method provide a roadmap for students to solve problems in a consistent fashion. At least one example in each chapter is developed in this manner.
• EC 2000 ChapterOpeners
Based on ABET’s skill-based CRITERION 3, these chapter openers are devoted to discussions as to how students can acquire the skills that will lead to a significantly enhanced career as an engineer. Because these skills are so very important to the student while still in college as well after graduation, we use the heading, “Enhancing your Skills and your Career.”
• Homework Problems
There are 468 new or changed end-of-chapter problems which will provide students with plenty of practice as well as reinforce key concepts.
• Homework Problem Icons
Icons are used to highlight problems that relate to engineering design as well as problems that can be solved using PSpice, Multisim, KCIDE, or MATLAB
Organization
This book was written for a two-semester or three-quarter course in linear circuit analysis. The book may also be used for a one-semester course by a proper selection of chapters and sections by the instructor. It is broadly divided into three parts.
•Part 1, consisting of Chapters 1 to 8, is devoted to dc circuits. It covers the fundamental laws and theorems, circuits techniques, and passive and active elements.
•Part 2, which contains Chapter 9 to 14, deals with ac circuits. It introduces phasors, sinusoidal steady-state analysis, ac power, rms values, three-phase systems, and frequency response.
•Part 3, consisting of Chapters 15 to 19, are devoted to advanced techniques for network analysis. It provides students with a solid introduction to the Laplace transform, Fourier series, Fourier transform, and two-port network analysis.
The material in the three parts is more than sufficient for a two-semester course, so the instructor must select which chapters or sections to cover. Sections marked with the dagger sign (†) may be skipped, explained briefly, or assigned as homework. They can be omitted without loss of continuity. Each chapter has plenty of problems grouped according to the sections of the related material and diverse enough that the instructor can choose some as examples and assign some as homework. As stated earlier, we are using three icons with this edition. We are using to denote problems that either require PSpice in the solution process, where the circuit complexity is such that PSpice or Multisim would make the solution process easier, and where PSpice or Multisim makes a good check to see if the problem has been solved correctly. We are using to denote problems where MATLAB is required in the solution process, where MATLAB makes sense because of the problem makeup and its complexity, and where MATLAB makes a good check to see if the problem has been solved correctly. Finally, we use to identify problems that help the student develop skills that are needed for engineering design. More difficult problems are marked with an asterisk (*).
Comprehensive problems follow the end-of-chapter problems. They are mostly applications problems that require skills learned from that particular chapter.
Prerequisites
As with most introductory circuit courses, the main prerequisites, for a course using this textbook, are physics and calculus. Although familiarity with complex numbers is helpful in the later part of the book, it is not required. Avery important asset of this text is that ALLthe mathematical equations and fundamentals of physics needed by the student, are included in the text.
Supplements
McGraw-Hill Connect® Engineering
McGraw-Hill Connect Engineering is a web-based assignment and assessment platform that gives students the means to better connect with their coursework, with their instructors, and with the important concepts that they will need to know for success now and in the future. With Connect Engineering, instructors can deliver assignments, quizzes, and tests easily online. Students can practice important skills at their own pace and on their own schedule. Ask your McGraw-Hill representative for more details and check it out at www.mcgrawhillconnect.com/engineering
Instructor and Student Website
Available at www.mhhe.com/alexander are a number of additional instructor and student resources to accompany the text. These include complete solutions for all practice and end-of-chapter problems, solutions in PSpice and Multisim problems, lecture PowerPoints®, text image files, transition guides to instructors, Network Analysis Tutorials, FE Exam questions, flashcards, and primers for PSpice, Multisim, MATLAB, and KCIDE. The site also features COSMOS, a complete online solutions manual organization system that allows instructors to create custom homework, quizzes, and tests using end-of-chapter problems from the text.
Knowledge Capturing Integrated Design Environment for Circuits(KCIDE for Circuits)
This software, developed at Cleveland State University and funded by NASA, is designed to help the student work through a circuits problem in an organized manner using the six-step problem-solving methodology in the text. KCIDEfor Circuits allows students to work a circuit problem in PSpice and MATLAB, track the evolution of their solution, and save a record of their process for future reference. In addition, the software automatically generates a Word document and/or a PowerPoint presentation. The software package can be downloaded for free. It is hoped that the book and supplemental materials supply the instructor with all the pedagogical tools necessary to effectively present the material.
McGraw-Hill Create™
Craft your teaching resources to match the way you teach! With McGraw-Hill Create, www.mcgrawhillcreate.com, you can easily rearrange chapters, combine material from other content sources, and quickly upload content you have written like your course syllabus or teaching notes. Find the content you need in Create by searching through thousands of leading McGraw-Hill textbooks. Arrange your book to fit your teaching style. Create even allows you to personalize your book’s appearance by selecting the cover and adding your name, school, and course information. Order a Create book and you’ll receive a complimentary print review copy in three to five business days or a complimentary electronic review copy (eComp) via e-mail in minutes. Go to www.mcgrawhillcreate.com today and register to experience how McGraw-Hill Create empowers you to teach your students your way.
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our appreciation for the loving support we have received from our wives (Hannah and Kikelomo), daughters (Christina, Tamara, Jennifer, Motunrayo, Ann, and Joyce), son (Baixi), and our extended family members. We would like to additionally thank Baixi (now Dr. Baixi Su Alexander) for his assistance in checking problems for clarity and accuracy.
The fifth edition has benefited greatly from the many outstanding reviewers and symposium attendees who contributed to the success of the first four editions! In addition, the following have made important contributions to this edition (in alphabetical order):
Alok Berry, George Mason University
Vahe Caliskan, University of Illinois-Chicago
Archie Holmes, University of Virginia
Anton Kruger, University of Iowa
Arnost Neugroschel, University of Florida
Arun Ravindran, University of North Carolina-Charlotte
Finally, we appreciate the feedback received from instructors and students who used the previous editions. We want this to continue, so please keep sending us e-mails or direct them to the publisher. We can be reachedat c.alexander@ieee.org for Charles Alexander and sadiku@ieee.org for Matthew Sadiku.
C. K. Alexander and M. N. O. Sadiku
A Note to the Student
This may be your first course in electrical engineering. Although electrical engineering is an exciting and challenging discipline, the course may intimidate you. This book was written to prevent that. Agood textbook and a good professor are an advantage—but you are the one who does the learning. If you keep the following ideas in mind, you will do very well in this course.
•This course is the foundation on which most other courses in the electrical engineering curriculum rest. For this reason, put in as much effort as you can. Study the course regularly.
•Problem solving is an essential part of the learning process. Solve as many problems as you can. Begin by solving the practice problem following each example, and then proceed to the end-of-chapter problems. The best way to learn is to solve a lot of problems. An asterisk in front of a problem indicates a challenging problem.
• Spice and Multisim, computer circuit analysis programs, are used throughout the textbook. PSpice, the personal computer version of Spice, is the popular standard circuit analysis program at most universities. PSpicefor Windows and Multisim are described on our website. Make an effort to learn PSpice and/or Multisim, because you can check any circuit problem with them and be sure you are handing in a correct problem solution.
• MATLAB is another software that is very useful in circuit analysis and other courses you will be taking. Abrief tutorial on MATLAB can be found on our website. The best way to learn MATLAB is to start working with it once you know a few commands.
•Each chapter ends with a section on how the material covered in the chapter can be applied to real-life situations. The concepts in this section may be new and advanced to you. No doubt, you will learn more of the details in other courses. We are mainly interested in gaining a general familiarity with these ideas.
•Attempt the review questions at the end of each chapter. They will help you discover some “tricks” not revealed in class or in the textbook.
•Clearly a lot of effort has gone into making the technical details in this book easy to understand. It also contains all the mathematics and physics necessary to understand the theory and will be very useful in your other engineering courses. However, we have also focused on creating a reference for you to use both in school as well as when working in industry or seeking a graduate degree.
•It is very tempting to sell your book after you have completed your classroom experience; however, our advice to you is DO NOTSELL YOUR ENGINEERING BOOKS! Books have always been expensive; however, the cost of this book is virtually the same as I paid for my circuits text back in the early 60s in terms of real dollars. In
fact, it is actually cheaper. In addition, engineering books of the past are nowhere near as complete as what is available now.
When I was a student, I did not sell any of my engineering textbooks and was very glad I did not! I found that I needed most of them throughout my career.
Ashort review on finding determinants is covered in Appendix A, complex numbers in Appendix B, and mathematical formulas in Appendix C. Answers to odd-numbered problems are given in Appendix D. Have fun!
C. K. A. and M. N. O. S.
About the Authors
Charles K. Alexander is professor of electrical and computer engineering in the Fenn College of Engineering at Cleveland State University, Cleveland, Ohio. He is also the Director of The Center for Research in Electronics and Aerospace Technology (CREATE). From 2002 until 2006 he was Dean of the Fenn College of Engineering. From 2004 until 2007, he was Director of Ohio ICE, a research center in instrumentation, controls, electronics, and sensors (a coalition of CSU, Case, the University of Akron, and a number of Ohio industries). From 1998 until 2002, he was interim director (2000 and 2001) of the Institute for Corrosion and Multiphase Technologies and Stocker Visiting Professor of electrical engineering and computer science at Ohio University. From 1994–1996 he was dean of engineering and computer science at California State University, Northridge.
From 1989–1994 he was acting dean of the college of engineering at Temple University, and from 1986–1989 he was professor and chairman of the department of electrical engineering at Temple. From 1980–1986 he held the same positions at Tennessee Technological University. He was an associate professor and a professor of electrical engineering at Youngstown State University from 1972–1980, where he was named Distinguished Professor in 1977 in recognition of “outstanding teaching and research.” He was assistant professor of electrical engineering at Ohio University in 1971–1972. He received honorary Dr. Eng. from Ohio Northern University (2009), the PhD (1971) and M.S.E.E. (1967) from Ohio University and the B.S.E.E. (1965) from Ohio Northern University.
Dr. Alexander has been a consultant to 23 companies and governmental organizations, including the Air Force and Navy and several law firms. He has received over $85 million in research and development funds for projects ranging from solar energy to software engineering. He has authored 40 publications, including a workbook and a videotape lecture series, and is coauthor of Fundamentals of Electric Circuits, Problem Solving Made Almost Easy, and the fifth edition of the Standard Handbook of Electronic Engineering , with McGraw-Hill. He has made more than 500 paper, professional, and technical presentations.
Dr. Alexander is a fellow of the IEEE and served as its president and CEO in 1997. In 1993 and 1994 he was IEEE vice president, professional activities, and chair of the United States Activities Board (USAB). In 1991–1992 he was region 2 director, serving on the Regional Activities Board (RAB) and USAB. He has also been a member of the Educational Activities Board. He served as chair of the USAB Member Activities Council and vice chair of the USAB Professional Activities Council for Engineers, and he chaired the RAB Student Activities Committee and the USAB Student Professional Awareness Committee.
Charles K. Alexander
In 1998 he received the Distinguished Engineering Education Achievement Award from the Engineering Council, and in 1996 he received the Distinguished Engineering Education Leadership Award from the same group. When he became a fellow of the IEEE in 1994, the citation read “for leadership in the field of engineering education and the professional development of engineering students.” In 1984 he received the IEEE Centennial Medal, and in 1983 he received the IEEE/RAB Innovation Award, given to the IEEE member who best contributes to RAB’s goals and objectives.
Matthew N. O. Sadiku is presently a professor at Prairie View A&M University. Prior to joining Prairie View, he taught at Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, and Temple University, Philadelphia. He has also worked for Lucent/Avaya and Boeing Satellite Systems.
Dr. Sadiku is the author of over 170 professional papers and almost 30 books including Elements of Electromagnetics (Oxford University Press, 3rd ed., 2001), Numerical Techniques in Electromagnetics (2nd ed., CRC Press, 2000), Simulation of Local Area Networks (with M. IIyas, CRC Press, 1994), Metropolitan Area Networks (CRC Press, 1994), and Fundamentals of Electric Circuits (with C. K. Alexander, McGraw-Hill). His books are used worldwide, and some of them have been translated into Korean, Chinese, Italian, and Spanish. He was the recipient of the 2000 McGraw-Hill/Jacob Millman Award for outstanding contributions in the field of electrical engineering. He was the IEEE region 2 Student Activities Committee chairman and is an associate editor for IEEE “Transactions on Education.” He received his PhD at Tennessee Technological University, Cookeville.
Matthew N. O. Sadiku
Fundamentals of Electric Circuits
DC Circuits
OUTLINE
1Basic Concepts
2Basic Laws
3Methods of Analysis
4Circuit Theorems
5Operational Amplifiers
6Capacitors and Inductors
7First-Order Circuits
8Second-Order Circuits
Basic Concepts
Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested.
—Francis Bacon
Enhancing Your Skills and Your Career
ABET EC 2000 criteria (3.a), “an ability to apply knowledge of mathematics, science, and engineering.”
As students, you are required to study mathematics, science, and engineering with the purpose of being able to apply that knowledge to the solution of engineering problems. The skill here is the ability to apply the fundamentals of these areas in the solution of a problem. So how do you develop and enhance this skill?
The best approach is to work as many problems as possible in all of your courses. However, if you are really going to be successful with this, you must spend time analyzing where and when and why you have difficulty in easily arriving at successful solutions. You may be surprised to learn that most of your problem-solving problems are with mathematics rather than your understanding of theory. You may also learn that you start working the problem too soon. Taking time to think about the problem and how you should solve it will always save you time and frustration in the end.
What I have found that works best for me is to apply our sixstepproblem-solving technique. Then I carefully identify the areas where I have difficulty solving the problem. Many times, my actual deficiencies are in my understanding and ability to use correctly certain mathematical principles. I then return to my fundamental math texts and carefully review the appropriate sections, and in some cases, work some example problems in that text. This brings me to another important thing you should always do: Keep nearby all your basic mathematics, science, and engineering textbooks.
This process of continually looking up material you thought you had acquired in earlier courses may seem very tedious at first; however, as your skills develop and your knowledge increases, this process will become easier and easier. On a personal note, it is this very process that led me from being a much less than average student to someone who could earn a Ph.D. and become a successful researcher.
Photo by Charles Alexander
Introduction
Electric circuit theory and electromagnetic theory are the two fundamental theories upon which all branches of electrical engineering are built. Many branches of electrical engineering, such as power, electric machines, control, electronics, communications, and instrumentation, are based on electric circuit theory. Therefore, the basic electric circuit theory course is the most important course for an electrical engineering student, and always an excellent starting point for a beginning student in electrical engineering education. Circuit theory is also valuable to students specializing in other branches of the physical sciences because circuits are a good model for the study of energy systems in general, and because of the applied mathematics, physics, and topology involved.
In electrical engineering, we are often interested in communicating or transferring energy from one point to another. To do this requires an interconnection of electrical devices. Such interconnection is referred to as an electric circuit, and each component of the circuit is known as an element.
An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements.
Asimple electric circuit is shown in Fig. 1.1. It consists of three basic elements: a battery, a lamp, and connecting wires. Such a simple circuit can exist by itself; it has several applications, such as a flashlight, a search light, and so forth.
Acomplicated real circuit is displayed in Fig. 1.2, representing the schematic diagram for a radio receiver. Although it seems complicated, this circuit can be analyzed using the techniques we cover in this book. Our goal in this text is to learn various analytical techniques and computer software applications for describing the behavior of a circuit like this.
Figure 1.1
Asimple electric circuit.
Figure 1.2
Electric circuits are used in numerous electrical systems to accomplish different tasks. Our objective in this book is not the study of various uses and applications of circuits. Rather, our major concern is the analysis of the circuits. By the analysis of a circuit, we mean a study of the behavior of the circuit: How does it respond to a given input? How do the interconnected elements and devices in the circuit interact?
We commence our study by defining some basic concepts. These concepts include charge, current, voltage, circuit elements, power, and energy. Before defining these concepts, we must first establish a system of units that we will use throughout the text.
1.2
Systems of Units
As electrical engineers, we deal with measurable quantities. Our measurement, however, must be communicated in a standard language that virtually all professionals can understand, irrespective of the country where the measurement is conducted. Such an international measurement language is the International System of Units (SI), adopted by the General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1960. In this system, there are seven principal units from which the units of all other physical quantities can be derived. Table 1.1 shows the six units and one derived unit that are relevant to this text. The SI units are used throughout this text.
One great advantage of the SI unit is that it uses prefixes based on the power of 10 to relate larger and smaller units to the basic unit. Table1.2 shows the SI prefixes and their symbols. For example, the following are expressions of the same distance in meters (m):
mm
1.3
m 600 km
Charge and Current
The concept of electric charge is the underlying principle for explaining all electrical phenomena. Also, the most basic quantity in an electric circuit is the electric charge. We all experience the effect of electric
TABLE 1.1
Six basic SI units and one derived unit relevant to this text.
TABLE 1.2
The SI prefixes.
Battery I +
Figure 1.3
Electric current due to flow of electronic charge in a conductor.
A convention is a standard way of describing something so that others in the profession can understand what we mean. We will be using IEEE conventions throughout this book.
charge when we try to remove our wool sweater and have it stick to our body or walk across a carpet and receive a shock.
Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter consists, measured in coulombs (C).
We know from elementary physics that all matter is made of fundamental building blocks known as atoms and that each atom consists of electrons, protons, and neutrons. We also know that the charge e on an electron is negative and equal in magnitude to C, while a proton carries a positive charge of the same magnitude as the electron.Thepresenceofequalnumbersofprotonsandelectronsleavesan atom neutrally charged.
The following points should be noted about electric charge:
1.The coulomb is a large unit for charges. In 1 C of charge, there are electrons. Thus realistic or laboratory values of charges are on the order of pC, nC, or C.1
2.According to experimental observations, the only charges that occur in nature are integral multiples of the electronic charge
3.The law of conservation of charge states that charge can neither be created nor destroyed, only transferred. Thus the algebraic sum of the electric charges in a system does not change.
We now consider the flow of electric charges. Aunique feature of electric charge or electricity is the fact that it is mobile; that is, it can be transferred from one place to another, where it can be converted to another form of energy.
When a conducting wire (consisting of several atoms) is connected to a battery (a source of electromotive force), the charges are compelled to move; positive charges move in one direction while negative charges move in the opposite direction. This motion of charges creates electric current. It is conventional to take the current flow as the movement of positive charges. That is, opposite to the flow of negative charges, as Fig. 1.3 illustrates. This convention was introduced by Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790), the American scientist and inventor. Although we now know that current in metallic conductors is due to negatively charged electrons, we will follow the universally accepted convention that current is the net flow of positive charges. Thus,
Electric current is the time rate of change of charge, measured in amperes (A).
Mathematically, the
1 However, a large power supply capacitor can store up to 0.5 C of charge.
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Kayéli. Those five days passed, but no steamer appeared. Again and again I watched by the hour, hoping, almost expecting, to be able to discern smoke on the horizon, and soon see the Telegraph coming into the harbor. Thus a week passed, then ten days, and by this time all, like myself, had come to the conviction that some unexpected and unfortunate event must have happened. But what was it? No one could tell. Fifteen days of such uncertainty and solicitude passed, when a large prau was seen coming in from the sea. It brought me a letter from Governor Arriens, stating that just as he was on the point of coming to take me, as proposed, news came that a great revolt had broken out in Ceram. Immediately he accompanied the captain of a large man-of-war, whose duty it was to put down all insurrections. When they arrived off the village, the captain, contrary to the advice of all, landed with a small force, hoping to be able to treat with the rebels, but he had scarcely touched the shore when a party of them in ambush poured a volley into his boat, wounding him twice severely, but not fatally. I now found myself really banished, for the yacht was needed too much to come and take me away. I therefore resigned myself quietly to my fate, and determined to profit by the opportunity to make a collection of the beautiful birds of the island. My first excursion was to a cliff on the southeast side of the bay, near its mouth, which I found was composed of metamorphic schists, that were very much fissured by joints and seams, and fell apart in cubical blocks. Another place I frequently visited was the low morass on the southwest side of the bay, through which flows out a stream of such size that a large canoe can ascend it for three days. Along the canals in this morass is a thick forest, the high branches of which meet above, forming for a considerable distance grand covered avenues. Here the kingfishers delight to gather, and, perching on the lower boughs, occasionally dart downward, like falling arrows, into the quiet water. It was most delightful, during the heat of the day, to glide along in these cool and shady canals, which wind to and fro, and in such an endless series of curves and angles, that no one could weary of the rich, almost oppressive, vegetation that continually surrounds him. At the mouth of this small river are long shallow banks of sand, which are bare at low tide, and on these are many large snags and logs
that have come down the streams and grounded while on their way to the sea. On these wide banks, as the ebbing ceases and the tide begins to flow, long lines of gulls, sand-pipers, plovers, and curlews, gather, and, as the water advances, they are forced to approach the shore until the only resting-places left them are the logs and snags that raise their crooked limbs and roots above the surface of the water. At such times these perching-places are one living, fluttering mass of birds. Again and again I came to this spot, and always returned with as many specimens as my native hunter could skin on the following day
A few minutes’ walk back of the controleur’s house took me into the surrounding forest, where I was accustomed to ramble to and fro hour after hour until I knew all the favorite haunts of most of the birds; yet nearly every day, till the time I left, I secured specimens of a species that had not been represented in my collection. Still others were seen, and one or more specimens of them must be obtained; and thus, the more I collected, the more interesting became my work. My regular daily routine was to hunt in the morning till ten or eleven o’clock, return to the house to avoid the heat, and then go out again about four, and remain till the setting sun warned me to return or grope my way back as best I could through the dark woods. Soon after I arrived, a tree, as large as our oak, became filled with great scarlet flowers, and in the early morning flocks of red luris (Eos rubra, Gml.) and other parrakeets, with blue heads, red and green breasts, and the feathers on the under side of the wings of a light red and brilliant yellow (Trichoglossus cyanogrammus, Wagl.), would come to feed on them. It was easy to know where those birds had begun their morning feast by their loud, unceasing screeching and chattering; and, after stealthily creeping through dense shrubbery for hundreds of yards, I would suddenly behold one of these great trees filled with scores of such brilliantly-plumaged birds, flying about or climbing out to the ends of the branches, and using their wings to aid in poising themselves while they made a dainty breakfast on the rich flowers. These are indeed the birds that Moore describes as—
“Gay, sparkling loories, such as gleam between The crimson flowers of the coral-tree
In the warm isles of India’s sunny sea.”
A JUNGLE
Soon after sunset huge bats always came out, in pairs, and sailed about on their leathery wings, searching for those trees that chanced to be in fruit. The wings of a male that I shot measured four feet and four inches from tip to tip, and the wings of the female, which accompanied him, expanded four feet eight inches. They are very properly named by the Dutch, “flying foxes,” and almost seem to be antediluvian monsters, which ought to have disappeared from the face of the earth long ago, like the formidable Pterodactyles. During the day they hide away in the thick foliage, and one afternoon I found one hanging, as they delight to do when they rest or sleep, with its head downward, from the limb of a tree. They are very tenacious of life, and will receive charge after charge of large shot in the head before they will let go of the limbs with their crooked claws and allow themselves to fall. They are said to be good for food, but I never saw the natives eat them, and certainly had no desire myself to try the flavor of such questionable meat. A small path, leading a mile
through the forest, brought me out on to a large open field or prairie, covered with a coarse grass as high as a man’s shoulders. Beyond this was another forest, and there I was informed was a settlement of two or three houses, the farthest place inland inhabited by any of the coast people or common Malays. Beyond that point there is not the slightest footpath. All the hills and high mountains, which I could see toward the interior of the island, are covered with one dense, unbroken forest, and only on some of the lower hills, bordering the bay, are there open areas of grass. What a nice thing it would be to live out there for a week in the midst of that forest! My mind was made up to do it. I returned and explained my plan to the controleur, and the next day we set off to hire one of the distant huts. The farthest one from Kayéli, and exactly the one I wanted, chanced to be unoccupied, for the native who owned it had found the place so lonely that he had deserted it and taken up his abode in the village. The rent for a week was agreed to without much parleying. The owner further agreed to send his son to bring water and keep house while I and my hunter were away, and to be generally useful, which he interpreted to mean that he would only do what he could not avoid. Another man was engaged as cook, and my domestic arrangements were complete, for I purposed not only to live in a native house, but to conform entirely to the Malay cuisine. Our cooking-apparatus consisted of a couple of shallow kettles and a small frying-pan; and the little teapot that accompanied me on my Amboina excursions was not left behind.
October 16th.—This morning we came out to our forest home. Our house is about eight feet wide, twelve feet long, and perched upon large posts four feet from the ground. It is divided by a transverse partition into a front room or parlor, and a back room or kitchen. In one corner of the latter is a square framework filled with ashes, in which are inserted three long stones, whose tops slightly incline toward each other. These are to support the kettles, for no Malay has ever conceived of a machine for cooking so complicated as a crane. As to a chimney, there is none whatever, but the smoke is allowed to escape under the eaves or through a hole in the side of the house that also serves for a window. The frame of the house is made from small trees. For a flooring, broad sheets of bark are used. The walls
are made of gaba-gaba, the dry midribs of large palm-leaves, and the roof is of atap. The front door is in one of the gable ends, and is reached by a rickety ladder of two rounds. This part is transformed into a rude piazza by a shed-roof, beneath which we have made a seat and a kind of table for the hunter to use in skinning birds.
My daily routine here is the same as before—hunting every morning and evening, with a native to carry my ammunition and to pick up the birds—a very difficult task whenever we are in the thick jungle or among the tall grass. Near our house is the stony bed of a torrent, which is now perfectly dry. It is the only cleared way there is through the dense forest around us, and I avail myself of it to travel up toward the mountains and down toward the sea. Indeed, I feel proud of our grand highway. True, it is not paved with blocks all carefully cut down to one precise model, and so exactly uniform as to be absolutely painful to the eye, but Nature herself has paved it in her own inimitable way—notice how all the stones have been rounded by the boiling torrent which pours down here from the mountains during the rainy season. Some are almost perfect ellipsoides or spheres, but most are disk-shaped, for they are made from thin fragments of slate that had sharp corners when they broke away from their parent mountain. To prevent a dull uniformity of color, she has scattered here and there rounded boulders of opaque milk-white quartz, fragments, undoubtedly, from beds of that rock which, at this place at least, are interstratified with the slate. Here and there are deeper places, where the troubled stream was accustomed to rest before it went on again in a foaming torrent to empty its sparkling waters into the wide sea, the original source of all streams. By this way I visit my nearest neighbors and procure chickens, which our cook roasts on sticks over the fire, after having carefully rubbed them with salt and a liberal allowance of red pepper, the two universal condiments among the Malays. For ages all the salt these people have had has been brought from Java. The red pepper thrives well everywhere without the slightest care, and it is almost always found growing near every hut. A large bush of it at one corner of our house is now filled with fruit of all sizes; some small and green, and some fully grown and showing it is already ripe by its bright-pink color. In this condition the Malays gather and dry it,
and always carry a good supply wherever they go. Its Malay name is lombok, but the one more generally used is the Javanese name chabé. Besides chickens, we have paddy, that is, rice in the husk. A large elliptical hole is made in a log for a mortar, a small quantity of paddy is then poured in and pounded with a stick five or six feet long, and as large round as a man’s arm. This is raised vertically, and, when the hole is nearly even full, a native will usually pound off all the husks without scattering more than a few grains on the ground; but, if a foreigner attempts it, he will be surprised to see how the rice will fly off in all directions at every blow When the husks are pounded off they are separated from the kernels by being tossed up from a shallow basket and carried away by the wind, as our farmers used to winnow grain. This is the only mode of preparing rice practised by the Malays, and the process is the same in every part of the archipelago. From one corner of our piazza hangs a large bunch of green bananas to ripen in the sunshine. I find it very agreeable to pluck off a nice ripe one myself when I come in weary and thirsty from a long hunt. From the other corner hangs a cluster of cocoanuts filled with clear, cool, refreshing water.
Not far from us is a hut inhabited by two natives, who are engaged in cultivating tobacco. Their ladangs, or gardens, are merely places of an acre or less, where the thick forest has been partially destroyed by fire, and the seed is sown in the regular spaces between the stumps. As soon as the leaves are fully grown they are plucked off, and the petiole and a part of the midrib are cut away. Each leaf is then cut transversely into strips about a sixteenth of an inch wide, and these are dried in the sun until a mass of them looks like a bunch of oakum. It is then ready for use, and at once carried to market. This cosmopolite, Nicotiana tabacum, is a native of our own country. Las Casas says that the Spaniards on Columbus’s first voyage saw the natives in Cuba smoking it in tubes called tabacos, hence its name. Mr. Crawford states that, according to a Javanese chronicle, it was introduced into Java in the year 1601, ninety years after the conquest of Malacca by the Portuguese, who were probably the first Europeans that furnished it to the Javanese, as the Dutch had not yet formed an establishment on the island. It is now cultivated in every part of the archipelago. The fact that this narcotic
was originally found only in America leads us to infer, without raising the questions whether our continent received her aboriginal population from some other part of the globe, or whether they were created here, that there never has been any extensive migration of our Indians or red-men to the islands in the Pacific, or to any distant part of the world; for if they had colonized any area, in that place at least, its use would undoubtedly continue to exist at the present day, since it is probable that they would never have thought of going to a new land without taking with them this plant, which they valued more even than food, and which they had been accustomed to cultivate. If, after establishing themselves in their new colony, they had been overpowered and completely destroyed by some more powerful tribe, their conquerors would probably have become addicted to the same habit as readily as the people of every clime and every stage of civilization do now, and thus the practice would have been perpetuated, though the people who introduced it perished ages ago, and all the idols, and temples, and fortifications they might have made, have long since crumbled into dust. This inference is greatly strengthened, if we consider the past and present geographical distribution of maize, or Indian corn, which is also a native of our continent only, and, like tobacco, is now raised in every part of the archipelago. Unlike rice, this plant thrives on hill-sides and elevated lands, and can therefore be raised on all the larger islands in these seas, where there are few level areas that can be readily inundated for the cultivation of rice. It was also probably introduced by the Portuguese, for Juan Gaetano, a Spanish pilot, who visited Mindanao in 1642, twenty-one years after the discovery of the Philippines by Magellan, states[41] that “in a certain part of that island ruled by the Moors” (Arabs), “there are some small artillery, and hogs, deer, buffaloes, and other animals of the chase, with Castilian” (or common) “fowls, rice, palms, and cocoa-nuts. There is no maize in that island, but for bread they use rice and a bark which they call sagu, from which also they extract oil in like manner as they do from palms.”
As maize is not difficult to be transported on account of its bulk or liability to any injury, and formed the chief article of food among most
of our red-men, it would be the very provision they would take with them on their migrations; and as the part eaten is the fruit, they would have plenty of seed, and would know from their previous experience precisely how to cultivate it.
One part of the surrounding forest is a grove of jati, or teak-trees, Tectona grandis, Linn. Those found here are only a foot or fifteen inches in diameter and forty feet high, a size they attain in Java in twenty-five or thirty years, where they do not reach their full growth in less than a century. The native name jati is a word of Javanese origin, signifying true, or genuine, and was probably applied to these trees on account of the well-known durability of the wood they yield. Now, near the end of the dry monsoon, they have lost nearly all their foliage; for, though it is sometimes asserted that in the tropics the leaves fall imperceptibly one by one, that is not true, in this region, where there are well-defined wet and dry seasons. The teak also thrives in a few places on the continent, and is found in the central and eastern provinces of Java, in Madura, Bali, and particularly in Sumbawa, where the wood is considered better than that of Java, but it is said to be unknown in Sumatra, Borneo, and in the peninsula of Malacca. It exists in some places in Celebes, but the natives assert that the seed was brought there from Java by one of the sovereigns of Tanéte. It is therefore uncertain whether the teak is a native of this island. In the early morning, and again soon after sunset, flocks of large green parrots, Tanygnathus macrorynchus, Wagl., come to these trees to feed on the fruit which is now ripe. They are so wary that it is extremely difficult to get near them, especially as the large dry leaves of this tree cover the ground and continually crack and rustle beneath one’s feet. To see these magnificent birds flying back and forth in the highest glee, while they remain unconscious of danger, is a grand sight, and it seems little less than absolute wickedness to shoot one, even when it is to be made the subject, not of idle gazing, but of careful study, and it requires still greater resolution to put an end to one’s admiration and pull the fatal trigger. When one of these birds has been wounded, its mate, and sometimes the whole flock, hearing its cries, at once comes back, as if hoping to relieve its misery.
In many places in this vicinity the tall canari-tree is seen raising its high crest, and there flocks of cream-colored doves, Carpophaga luctuosa, gather to feed on its fruit. Their loud, continuous cooing leads the hunter a long way through the jungle. Among the limbs of the lower trees are seen the long-tailed doves, Carpophaga perspiclata. On the banks of the dry brook, near our house, are bunches of bamboos, through which flit fly-catchers, Muscicapidæ, and the beautiful Monarcha loricata, a slender bird about as large as a martin, of a blue above, and a pure, almost silvery white beneath, except on the throat, which is covered with scale-like feathers, of a rich metallic blue-black. So far as is known, this beautiful bird is only found on this island. In the bushes and shrubbery is constantly heard the cheerful note of a bird, the Trobidorynchus bouruensis, somewhat larger than our robin. By day I enjoyed this Robinson Crusoe life very much, but the mosquitoes proved such a torment by night that we could scarcely sleep. A great smouldering fire was made under our hut, but its only effect was to increase our misery, and make the mosquitoes more bloodthirsty. We were frequently disturbed also by several yellow dogs, which came to crunch what chicken-bones the cook had thrown away, and to upset every thing around the house that was not already in a state of stable equilibrium. Afterward, when all was still, occasionally a heavy crash sighed through the deep woods, caused by the falling of some old tree, whose roots had been slowly consumed by the fires that prevail in the neighborhood during the dry season.
At the end of a week my hunter had preserved the skins of sixtythree beautiful birds, including specimens of six species that I had not secured before. We now returned to Kayéli; and though there were only eight white persons in the whole place, I could nevertheless feel that I was returning to civilization, and that I could speak some other language than Malay.
The village of Kayéli is really composed of eleven separate parts, or kampongs, all situated on a low, marshy place, a couple of hundred yards back from the sand-beach. They are separated from each other by a little stream, or kali, and each has its own rajah, and formerly had its own little square mosque, for all these eleven tribes
are Mohammedans, and keep separate from each other, because they lived in different parts of the island when the Dutch arrived. In the centre of this village is a large, square lawn, formed by the fort, the residence of a controleur, and a few other houses. Back of the lawn is the Christian kampong; for in every village where there are Mohammedans and Christians, each has a separate part to itself. Occasionally, instead of a healthful spirit of rivalry, a more bitter hostility springs up than existed between the Jews and the Samaritans, and finally the weaker party is obliged to migrate, as in the case mentioned in regard to the inhabitants of Bonoa.
From Valentyn we learn that, according to native accounts, as early as . . 1511, ten years before the arrival of the Portuguese, the Sultan of Ternate sent out expeditions which subjected all the tribes of this island. In 1652 a treaty was made between the sultan and the Dutch, that all the clove-trees on the island should be uprooted. The natives opposed this measure to the best of their ability, but after a resistance which lasted five years, they were completely subjected, all their clove-trees were destroyed, and they were obliged to remove to Kayéli Bay, and live under the range of the Dutch cannon. Since that time (1657), the clove-tree has never been introduced again. Previous to the expedition of the Sultan of Ternate in 1511, the shores of the island were occupied by the Malays, who had already subjected the earliest inhabitants of the island of which we have any knowledge. During my stay at Kayéli I saw several of them, though they are always shy about entering the village. Like the Alfura of Ceram, they resemble the Malays in stature and general appearance, but are distinguished from them by their darker color, and by their hair, which is frizzly, not lank like that of the Malays, and not woolly, like that of the Papuans. As in Ceram, many of them suffer from that unsightly disease, icthyosis, in which the skin becomes dry and comes off in scales. Their houses are described as the most miserable hovels, consisting of little more than a roof of palm-leaves resting on four poles, with a kind of platform a foot or two above the ground, where they sit and sleep. They are all free, and slavery is wholly unknown. Mr T J. Miller, who was formerly resident here, took much pains to gather all the information possible in regard to them. He states that they have divided the
island into Fennas or tribes, each of which has a chief. Instead of living together in villages, like the Malays, they are scattered over their whole territory. Several of these chiefs continue to acknowledge one of the Mohammedan rajahs, or, as they are named by the Dutch, “regents,” in the village of Kayéli, as their superior. Formerly, each was obliged to send one young girl to its regent for a bride every year, but the Dutch have long since relieved them from such an unwelcome exaction. In former times also they were compelled to pay their regent a certain part of their rice and sago, and provide men to row his prau or to carry his chair, if he proceeded by land, but they have been freed from this onerous service, and the Malays who live in the village with the rajah are obliged to perform such offices for him. In regard to marriage, each man buys his wife, her price, according to their laws, depending on the rank of her father, as in Ceram, but a man is not, however, required to cut off a human head before he can be allowed to marry, as is the custom in that island. Instead, therefore, of being fierce head-hunters, as the Alfura of Ceram, they are mild and inoffensive. They believe, according to Mr. Miller, in one Supreme Being, who made every thing, and is the source of all good and all evil. They believe in evil spirits. Prayer leads to prosperity; the negligence of this duty to adversity. Through the love that this Supreme Being had for man, whom He had created, He sent him a teacher, Nabiata, who lived among the mountains. He gave the will of his Master in seven commandments, namely: 1. Thou shalt not kill nor wound. 2. Thou shalt not steal. 3. Thou shalt not commit adultery. 4. Thou shalt not set thyself against thy fenna. 5. A man shall not set himself up against the chief of his tribe. 6. The chief shall not set himself up against him that is over his or other tribes. 7. The chief over more than one tribe shall not set himself up against him who is placed over all the tribes. Nabiata also taught that, though the body perishes, the soul shall still continue to exist. They who have kept the foregoing commandments—for all the acts of men are recorded by this Supreme Being—shall dwell far above the clouds near the Omniscient One. They who have done wickedly shall never rise to the abode of the happy nor remain on earth, but continually, in solitude and sorrow, wander about on the clouds, longing in vain to join their brothers who are above or
beneath them Nabiata also instituted circumcision, which was performed on both sexes when they attained the age of eight or ten years. From the introduction of this rite we may infer that this Nabiata was a Mohammedan teacher, probably an Arab, who had found his way to this region on a Javanese or Malay prau, that had come to purchase cloves. Finally, according to their legend, Nabiata made men of birth his disciples and teachers, and ascended to the abode of the good from whence he came.
One day, while at Kayéli, I received a most polite invitation to attend a feast at one of the rajah’s houses. The occasion was the shaving of a young child’s head. An Arab priest began the rite by repeating a prayer in a monotonous nasal chant, five others joining in from time to time by way of a chorus. After the long prayer was ended, a servant brought in the child, and another servant followed carrying a large plate partly filled with water, in which were two parts of the blossom of a cocoa-nut-palm, a razor, and a pair of shears. The child was first carried to the chief priest, who dipped his fingers in the water, placed them on the child’s head, and then cut off a lock of hair with the large shears. The lock of hair was then carefully thrown into the water along with a guilder. We all did the same. Tea and small cakes made of rice were then served, and “the feast” was ended. The child was one year old; when it becomes eight or nine it will have to submit to that abominable custom prevailing among both sexes of all ranks of Mohammedans, filing the teeth. This, I was informed, was done with a flat stone, or a fragment of slate, and sometimes even with a piece of bamboo. The object is to make the teeth short, and the front ones concave on the outer side, so as to hold the black dye. The Christians never file theirs, and the Mohammedans always ridicule the teeth of such natives by calling them “dogs’ teeth,” because they are “so white and so long.”
At another time I received an invitation to attend a wedding-feast, but, when I reached the house, it proved to be a feast that the married couple give to their friends a few days after the wedding. As on all such festive occasions, the house and veranda were brilliantly lighted, and on either side from the house out to the street were a number of posts made of the large soft trunks of bananas. On their
tops large lumps of gum were burned. Between them were arches made of young leaves of the cocoa-nut palm, arranged as I had previously seen in Nusalaut. The bride (who, of course, is to be spoken of first), to our surprise, did not prove to be a young and blooming lass, but already in middle life, yet a suitable helpmeet at least for the bridegroom, who was an Arab, and had married this, his second wife, since he came to Buru, only four months ago. The former wife he had sent back to her parents, much against her wishes. When a wife desires to leave her husband, she cannot do so without his consent, which the husband generally grants, choosing the less of two evils, and, moreover, it is regarded as very ungallant to retain an unwilling mate; but, while travelling in Sumatra, I saw one husband who would not allow his wife another choice, but his was a very peculiar case. His father was a Chinaman, and therefore, as the descendants of the Chinese do, he had shaved his head and wore a cue, and was a Chinaman also; but, becoming desperately enamoured of a Mohammedan lass, he concluded to yield to her unusual demand, that he too must become a Mohammedan before he could be accepted. She soon repented of her proposal, but he replied that he had suffered so much for her sake, he would not release her from her vows—such are the unlimited privileges granted the husband by the laws of the false Prophet.
While at Amboina I was surprised one day, just before dinner, to see a strange servant appear with a large platter containing fifteen or twenty kinds of fishes, fruit, and the various inimitable mixtures made by the Chinese, in whose quarter of the city we were residing. The gentleman with whom I was living, however, explained the mystery. There was to be a wedding in a house near by, and the father of the bride was one of his hired men, and those nice preparations were intended as a present, that is, in form, it being expected that only two or three of them would be taken—and that was quite all a European palate would desire. This was repeated for three or four days. Meantime the father of the bride had hired a house where other friends were received and feasted, and the father of the bridegroom also received and entertained his friends in like manner At length came an invitation to attend the finale of this long ceremonial. We first walked to the house of the bridegroom. Large Chinese lanterns
brilliantly lighted the veranda and the adjoining narrow lane, which was thronged with men and boys. We then visited the house where the bride was waiting to receive her lord. The piazza opened into a large room, and on one side of it was a smaller one, closed by a red curtain instead of a door. No one but the lady-guests were allowed to enter where the bride was sitting. The larger room contained many small tables loaded with delicacies, mostly of Chinese manufacture. Not to be unsocial, we sat down and sipped a cup of boiling tea, and observed the assembled guests while all were waiting for the coming of the bridegroom as in good Scripture times. In the opposite corner was a table surrounded with Malay ladies. It also was covered with sweetmeats, but room was soon made for the more necessary siribox; a liberal quid of lime, pepper-leaves, and betel-nut was taken by each one, and, to complete the disgusting sight, an urn-shaped spittoon, an inseparable companion of the siri-box, was produced, and handed round from one to another as the occasion demanded. A shrill piping was now heard down the street, and every one rushed out on the veranda to see the approaching procession. First came boys with wax-candles, and near them others carrying the presents that the bride and the bridegroom had received. Then came the bridegroom himself, supported by his friends, and surrounded by candles arranged at different heights on rude triangular frames. He was dressed in a Malay suit of light red, and wore a gilded chain. I had been told that, when he should attempt to enter the room where the bride sat waiting, the women would gather and persistently dispute his right to proceed, and here, in the distant East, I thought to myself, I shall see an illustration of the maxim, “None but the brave deserve the fair.” On the contrary, so far from manifesting any disposition to oppose him and prolong the ceremony, they only made way for him to enter the bridal-chamber as quickly as possible. As my friend and I were the only white persons present, we were allowed the especial favor of entering also. On one side of the room was a small table covered with a red cloth, and on this were two gigantic red wax-candles. Behind the table sat the bride, arrayed in a scarlet dress, with a white opaque veil concealing her face, and fastened to her hair. As the bridegroom approached, she slowly rose. Placing his hands with the palms together, he bowed three times in
the same manner as the Chinese address the images in their temples. She returned the salutation by also bowing three times, but without raising her hands. Now came the exciting moment. She remained standing while he stepped forward and commenced pulling out the pins that held fast the opaque veil which hid her beauty from his longing eyes. Not being very skilful in this operation, a couple of the maids-in-waiting assisted him, and, by degrees, was revealed a face that was at least one shade darker than most of the ladies near her, and I could but think, if that really was the first time her husband had ever seen her, he must feel not a little disappointed. However, his countenance remained unchanged, whether such a saddening reflection crossed his mind or one of delightful surprise. He then passed round the table to the side of his bashful bride, and both sat down together and were stupidly gazed at. In the opposite end of the room was the bridal-bed. The four posts rose above the bed nearly to the ceiling, and supported a mosquito-curtain which was bespangled with many little pieces of tinsel and paper flowers. Both the bride and bridegroom were Mohammedans, and this marriage was nominally according to the Mohammedan usage, but it should perhaps be more properly regarded, like most of the Malay customs at the present day, as combining parts of the rite in China and Arabia with that which existed among these nations while they observed the Hindu religion, or continued to remain in heathenism. The boys usually marry for the first time when about sixteen, and the girls at the age of thirteen or fourteen, though I was once shown a child of nine years that was already a wife, and mothers eleven or twelve years old are occasionally seen. The great obstacle to marriage in all civilized lands—the difficulty of supporting a family—is unknown here. Children, instead of being a source of expense, are a source of income. Until four or five years old, the boys do not usually wear any clothing. Their food costs very little, and all the education they receive still less, or nothing at all. The average number of persons in one family in Java, where it is perhaps as large, if not larger, than elsewhere, is estimated at only four or four and a half. The fact that children help support their parents secures for them such attention that they are never entirely neglected. Polygamy is allowed here as in other Mohammedan lands, but only the wealthier natives and the
princes are guilty of it. The facility with which marriages are made, and divorces obtained, is one cause why it is not more general. In regard to the evil effects of polygamy, and the ideas of this people in respect to the sacred rite of marriage, Sir Stamford Raffles, who was Governor-General of Java, most truthfully remarks: “Of the causes which have tended to lower the character of the Asiatics in comparison with Europeans, none has had a more decided influence than polygamy. To all those noble and generous feelings, all that delicacy of sentiment, that romantic and poetical spirit, which virtuous love inspires in the breast of a European, the Javan is a stranger; and in the communication between the sexes he seeks only convenience and little more than a gratification of an appetite. But the evil does not stop here: education is neglected, and family attachments are weakened. A Javan chief has been known to have sixty acknowledged children, and it too often happens that in such cases sons having been neglected in their infancy become dissipated, idle, and worthless, and spring up like rank grass and overrun the country.”
A MALAY OPIUM SMOKER.
In the little village of Kayéli there were only three Chinamen, but one of them was an opium-seller He was agent for another Chinaman at Amboina, who had bought the privilege of selling it from the Dutch Government, who “farm out” or grant this privilege in every
district to the highest bidder From this article alone, the government obtains in this way an income of four or five million dollars. Opium, as is well known, is the inspissated juice obtained from the capsule of the white poppy, Papaver somniferum. Its Malay name is apyun, which, coming from the Arabic afyun, shows at once by whom it was introduced into the archipelago; the same people, as Mr. Crawfurd remarks, who made them acquainted with ardent spirits, and at the same time gave them a religion forbidding both. It is imported from India, and the poppy is not cultivated in any part of the archipelago. Barbosa mentions it in a list of articles brought from Arabia to Calicut in Malabar, and in his time its price was about one-third what it is now. The man who sells it is obliged to keep a daily account of the quantity he disposes of, and this account is open to the inspection of the government officers at all times. So large is the sum demanded by the government for this farming privilege, and so great are the profits obtained by the Chinese, who are the people that carry on most of this nefarious traffic, that the price the Malays are obliged to pay for this luxury limits its consumption very considerably. When imported, it is usually in balls five or six inches in diameter. It is then soft and of a reddish-brown color, but becomes blacker and harder the longer it is kept. It is slightly elastic, and has a waxy lustre, a strong, unpleasant odor, and to the taste is bitter, nauseous, and persistent. To prepare it for smoking, it is boiled down to the consistency of thick tar. While it is boiling, tobacco and siri are sometimes added. A lamp is then lighted, and a small quantity is taken up on a piece of wire as large as a knitting-needle. This is held in the flame of the lamp until it melts and swells up as a piece of spruce-gum would do under similar circumstances. During this process it is frequently taken out of the flame and rolled between the thumb and forefinger. It is then placed in a small hole in the large bowl of the pipe, and the wire being withdrawn, a hole is left for inhaling the air. The bowl of the pipe is now placed against the lamp and the smoke inhaled with two or three long breaths, which carry the fumes down deep into the lungs. By this time the small quantity of opium in the bowl of the pipe is consumed. It is then filled as before, and this process is repeated until the eyelids become heavy and an irresistible desire to sleep possesses the whole body. Its
immediate effect is to produce a passive, dreamy state. This is followed by a loss of appetite, severe constipation, and kindred ills. When a man has once contracted the habit of using it, it is impossible to reform. Greater and greater doses are required to produce the desired lethargic effect. The evil results of this vice are well shown in the accompanying photograph of a Malay, where the victim, although only in middle life, has already become so emaciated that he is little more than a living skeleton. The rude platform of planks covered with a straw mat, on which he is sitting, is his bed, while stupified with his favorite drug. A pipe, of the customary form, is seen in his right hand. Being too poor to own a lamp, he has instead a small fire of charcoal raised on the top of an urn-shaped vessel of earthen-ware. By his side are seen vessels for making tea, and by copious draughts of that stimulant he will try to revive his dead limbs by and by, when he awakes from his contemplated debauch, and finds his whole energy gone, and, as it were, his very life on the point of leaving the body.
My next excursion, after a week in the woods, was with the commandant of the fort to a high bluff on the eastern side of the entrance of the bay of Kayéli. The fires which rage here year after year destroy much of the thick forest, and a tall, coarse grass takes its place. In these prairies grow many kayu-puti, or whitewood-trees, so called from their bark, which makes them resemble our white birches. Their branches are very scattering, and bear long, narrow leaves, somewhat like those of our willow, which are gathered about this time of year, for the sake of their “oil.” It is obtained in the following manner: the leaves are plucked off by hand and placed in baskets which are carried to sheds, where they are emptied into large kettles, that are partly filled with water, and carefully closed. From the centre of the cover of the kettle rises a wooden tube, to which is joined another of cloth, that is coiled up in a barrel containing cold water. A fire being made beneath the kettle, the volatile “oil” is carried over and condensed in the tube. About eight thousand bottles of this article are manufactured here every year. Indeed, it forms almost the only export from this large island. The price here is about a guilder per bottle. It is sent to Java and other parts of the archipelago, and is used as a sudorific. The tree,
Melaleuca cajeputi, is also found in Amboina, Ceram, Celebes, and Sumatra, but the best oil comes from this island.
After we had wandered over a number of hills, we came down into a basin, in the bottom of which was a little lake, where we found a flock of brown ducks. The borders of the lake, however, were so marshy that I could get no fair shot at this rare game. In a small lake near by I had the privilege of seeing a pair of those beautiful birds, the Anas rajah, or “prince duck.” Around the borders of the lake was a broad band of dead trees. My hunter spied a nice flock of the brown ducks on the opposite side, and for nearly a mile we carefully crept along through the sharp-edged grass, until we were just opposite the flock. If we went down to the margin of the pond they would be completely shielded from our shot by the trees. I therefore ordered my hunter, whose gun was loaded with a ball for deer, to lie down, while I sprang upon my feet and tried the effect of one barrel of my fowling-piece, which, by-the-by, was loaded with small shot for doves. Shy as they were, we had evidently taken them by surprise. There was a click, a report, and four out of the eight remained where they were. The next thing was to get them. We had no dog nor boat, and I proposed to my hunter, as he was a good swimmer, that he swim for them, but he only shrugged his shoulders and declared the whole pool was so full of crocodiles that a man could not get out where the birds were before he would be devoured. It evidently was just such a place as those monsters delight to frequent, but I determined to go after them myself; and as I proceeded to carry out my resolution, my hunter, ashamed to remain on the banks, joined me, and after an ugly scramble through the bushes and sticks, and much wallowing in the soft mud, we got into the water and out to the flock, and as soon as possible were back again on the bank. The commandant now came up, and I recounted to him what we had been doing. He was horrified! That a man could go into that pond and escape the crocodiles for ten minutes he regarded as next to a miracle. A number of natives, who had frequently visited the place, assured me that nothing could have induced them to run such a risk of losing their lives. Our whole party then continued on over the grassy hills, and came down to Roban, a place of two native huts, and one of those was empty. Here, I thought to myself, will be
