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The Why of the Buy Consumer Behavior and Fashion Marketing 2nd Edition Patricia Mink Rath
Are we influenced by ads even when we fast-forward them? Do brands extend our personalities? Why do we spend more when we pay with a credit card?
Psychological Foundations of Marketing considers the impact of psychology on marketing practice and research, and highlights the applied aspects of psychological research in the marketplace.
Each chapter considers a key subject area within psychology, outlines the key theories, and presents various practical applications of the research. Key concepts are highlighted and case studies relevant to the material are included at the end of each chapter.
Areas covered include:
• Motivation: the human needs at the root of many consumer behaviors and marketing decisions.
• Perception: the nature of perceptual selection, attention, and organization and how they relate to the evolving marketing landscape.
• Decision making: how and under what circumstances it is possible to predict consumer choices, attitudes, and persuasion.
• Personality and lifestyle: how insight into consumer personality can be used to formulate marketing plans.
• Social behavior: the powerful role of social influence on consumption.
This book will be of great interest to a diverse audience of academics, students, and professionals, and will be essential reading for courses in marketing, psychology, consumer behavior, and advertising.
Allan J. Kimmel is a retired Professor of Marketing at ESCP Europe in Paris, France and served as a visiting professor at Université Paris IX-Dauphine (Paris) and ESSEC Business School (Paris), and visiting lecturer at TEC de Monterrey (Mexico), Universidad de San Andrés (Buenos Aires, Argentina), Turku School of Economics (Finland), and the University of Vaasa (Finland). His research and writing interests focus on consumer behavior, marketing and research ethics, deception, commercial rumors, connected marketing, and word of mouth.
Psychological Foundations of Marketing
The Keys to Consumer Behavior
SECOND EDITION
Allan J. Kimmel
Second edition published 2018 by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge
The right of Allan J. Kimmel to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him/her/them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
First edition published by Routledge 2013
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this title has been requested
ISBN: 978–1-138–21914–4 (hbk)
ISBN: 978–1-138–21915–1 (pbk)
ISBN: 978–1-315–43609–8 (ebk)
Typeset in Berling by Florence Production Ltd, Stoodleigh, Devon, UK
To Ralph L. Rosnow teacher, mentor, friend
2.1Model
4.2Classical
4.3Hypothetical
5.1Types
5.2The
5.3Consumer
5.5The
6.5Behavioral
6.6The
7.1The
1.1The
4.4Why
5.1Decision
4.5Focus on research: classical conditioning and consumer disgust
4.6Focus on research: the value of small rewards
4.7A downside of sales promotions: negative surprise
4.8Product seeding and Procter & Gamble’s Whitestrips
4.9United breaks guitars
4.10Social learning and tobacco consumption
4.11Thomas Smith (1885) on repetition in advertising
4.12The art and science of remembering everything
5.1Too many choices?
5.2Critically thinking: making bad decisions as consumers
5.3Focus on research: decision-making conflicts and the agony of others
5.4Critically thinking: the low–involvement category
5.5Procrastination and consumer decision making
5.6Decision making and rumors: to believe or not to believe?
5.7Critically thinking: just how rational are consumers?
5.8Focus on research: the dark side of high expectations
6.1Consumer attitudes toward marketing and advertising
6.2Focus on research: measuring attitudes
6.3Familiarity and attitudes: we like what we know
6.4Can there be emotion without thought?
6.5Focus on research: consumer dissatisfaction
6.6Critically thinking: the Net Promoter Score under scrutiny
6.7Focus
6.8The
6.9Critically thinking: is the elaboration likelihood model still relevant?
7.1Focus on research: brand personalities “rub off” on consumers
7.2Critically thinking: are
7.3Focus
7.4The
7.5Transuming:
7.6Targeting
7.7Focus
7.8Focus on research: what your avatar says about
8.1Hush
8.2Self-gifts:
8.3The
8.4Focus
8.5Girls
8.6Critically
8.10Just how trustworthy is online
8.11Focus on
8.12An
Exhibits
1.1A pyramid of consumer behavior
1.2From informational to emotional advertising 18
2.1The Delboeuf illusion and portion sizes
3.1Campaign logos (approximate) for (a) Jeb Bush, (b) Hillary Clinton, and (c) Donald Trump 77
3.2Olfactory outdoor signs capture attention 83
3.3Two examples of logo changes over time: (a) Little Debbie Snacks logo for McKee Foods, 1959 to 2013 and (b) Morton Salt, 1914 to 2014 85
3.4Enhancing consumer attention 91
3.5An illustration of the gestalt concept of perceptual organization 112
4.1What your 3-year-old knows about marketing 129
4.2Sample ads from Dove’s Campaign for Real Beauty 173
5.1Comparison chart of unbiased ratings for ten cord-free vacuum cleaners appearing in the French magazine, Que Choisir (What to Choose) 195
1.Urban ladder: using consumer psychology to build a better website 31
2.LIQS cocktail shots: marketing to the needs of millennials 73
3.Marks & Spencer: the day the music died 120
4.France says “Non!” to undersized fashion models 170
5.Amazon predicts consumer purchases: the emergence of anticipatory shopping 227
6.Intermarché’s ugly fruits and vegetables: changing consumer attitudes to fight waste 281
7.Crest and Freshii: mining selfies for marketing insight 332
8.L’Oréal and Procter & Gamble: using influencers to engage with consumers 388
Permissions and sources
1 PSYCHOLOGY AND MARKETING: A DYNAMIC RELATIONSHIP
Box 1.1: Courtesy of Dyson; courtesy of B&O Play
Key Concept 1: Courtesy of ToolsHero (www.toolshero.com/marketing/marketingmix4p-mccarthy/); Courtesy of the Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC)
Exhibit 1.2: Courtesy of Dentyne; Courtesy of Encyclopedia Britannica
Box 1.4: Courtesy of Getty Images
Case Study 1: Courtesy of Urban Ladder
2 MOTIVATION
Exhibit 2.2: Courtesy of Food&Brand Lab, Cornell University
Exhibit 3.3: Courtesy of McKee Foods Corporation; courtesy Morton Salt, Inc.
Exhibit 3.4: Courtesy of ABA
Exhibit 3.5: Courtesy of Strongbow
4 LEARNING
Figure 4.1; Tables 4.1 and 4.2: J. W. Hutchinson, and E. M. Eisenstein (2008) Consumer learning and expertise. In C. P. Haugtvedt, P. M. Herr, and F. R. Kardes (Eds.), Handbook of Consumer Psychology. New York: Psychology Press, p. 104
Exhibit 4.2: Courtesy of Joe Kingsbury
Case Study 4: Courtesy of Unilever Dove UK
DECISION MAKING
Table 5.1: D. R. John (2008) Stages of consumer socialization: The development of consumer knowledge, skills, and values from childhood to adolescence. In C. P. Haugtvedt, P. M. Herr, & F. R. Kardes (Eds.), Handbook of Consumer Psychology. New York: Psychology Press, pp. 237–238
Figure 5.3: G. Walsh, V.-W. Mitchell, T. Frenzel, and K.-P. Wiedmann (2003) Internetinduced changes in consumer music procurement behavior: A German perspective. Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 21, 305–317, p. 308. Courtesy Emerald Group Publishing
Exhibit 5.1: Courtesy of UFC-Que Choisir
6 CONSUMER ATTITUDES
Table 6.1: Adapted from B. J. Babin and E. Harris (2011) CB3. Mason, OH: SouthWestern and from W. D Wells and D. Prensky (1996) Consumer behavior. New York: John Wiley, p. 127
Figure 6.5: I. Ajzen (1991) The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 179–211, p. 182. Copyright Elsevier
Case Study 6: Courtesy of Intermarché
7 PERSONALITY AND THE SELF-CONCEPT
Exhibit 7.1: Courtesy of Unilever Dove UK
Case Study 7: Courtesy of Pay Your Selfie
8 SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Exhibit 8.1: J. H. Whyte, Jr. (1954, November) The web of word of mouth. Fortune, pp. 140–143
Table 8.1: Adapted from W. D. Wells, and D. Prensky (1996) Consumer behavior. New York: John Wiley, p.111. Reprinted with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Figure 8.1: D. Luna, and S. F. Gupta (2001) An integrative framework for cross-cultural consumer behavior. International Marketing Review, 18, 45–69, p. 47. Courtesy of Emerald Publishing Group
Table 8.4: A. J. Kimmel (2010) Connecting with consumers: Marketing for new marketplace realities. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 93. By permission of Oxford University Press
Figure 8.3: Reprinted with permission from the American Marketing Association, David Dubois, Andrea Bonezzi, and Matteo De Angelis, Article Snapshot: Sharing with Friends Versus Strangers: How Interpersonal Closeness Influences Word-of-Mouth Valence
Exhibit 8.2: Warriner, Lucy. (2009). How transitivity may lead to multiple exposures. Journal of Marketing Communications, 20, 1–2, p 25
Exhibit 8.3: Photo courtesy of People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, www.peta.org
Preface to the second edition
In the nearly five years that have elapsed since publication of Psychological Foundations of Marketing, the examination of the behavior of consumers has continued with growing enthusiasm, as consumers have become more active participants and savvier decision makers in the marketplace of goods and services, as economic and social forces have increasingly posed significant challenges for marketers, and as emerging technologies have brought forth remarkable opportunities for consumers and business professionals. Our understanding of the psychological underpinnings of marketing has rapidly evolved thanks to a steady stream of provocative consumer research and real-world marketing applications. In light of these developments, an update in the form of a new edition clearly seemed in order.
This second edition, Psychological Foundations of Marketing: The Keys to Consumer Behavior, has provided me with the opportunity to add much new material, while at the same time critically reevaluating some insights about consumer psychology that have long stood as gospel in marketing and consumer behavior textbooks. Encouraged by the positive response to the first edition, which was named a CHOICE Outstanding Academic Title for 2013, there are some important new features and pedagogical tools included in the second edition that I believe have made for a stronger reference for researchers, teachers, and marketing practitioners, including the following:
• set-aside discussions of key concepts
• a glossary of terms
• a marketing case study at the end of each chapter
• set-aside topics for critical thinking
• inclusion of new neuromarketing research and applications
• expanded focus on consumer psychology in digital and online environments
• extended discussion of ethical issues
• coverage of nearly 300 new references.
It has been said that writing academic books is like tossing rose petals into the Grand Canyon, where they disappear soundlessly into the void.I wrote the first edition of this book with the objective of producing a timely, informative, interesting, and up-to-date book that would seem as much in place within a university or business school classroom as in a marketing professional’s office or on a consumer’s bedside table. What I tried to
avoid doing was to write a dry, textbook-style tome that would serve to strip the fascinating topics covered in this book of their inherent interest, only to disappear into an academic void. In response to the informative and constructive feedback, comments, and recommendations I received since publication of the first edition, I believe that I have been able to move much closer to the sort of book I would have loved to have read in preparing for and ultimately engaging in my professional psychology, marketing, and research activities. I hope you will feel that way, too.
A. J. Kimmel Paris, France
Psychology and marketing
A dynamic relationship
It is almost inconceivable to imagine contemporary life without marketing. This is rather obvious on a professional level: businesses vie to gain a foothold in a competitive marketplace of exchange by offering high-quality products and services, while aiming to create an appealing brand image and trusting relationships with loyal customers. But individuals market themselves on the personal level as well in a variety of ways, as evidenced by their attempts to gain a cherished position in a firm, acceptance by a prestigious university, and the love and respect of others. There is no escaping marketing— it is central to our lives and touches virtually every aspect of our everyday existence.
Marketing encompasses the creation of products and services that enable us to satisfy our needs (such as hunger, safety, achievement, status, and approval); enriches our lives through the delivery of entertainment and other pleasure-oriented offerings; it nurtures and facilitates our relationships with others; and it plays a significant role in the determination of our identities. Through the marketing process, new product innovations appear in the marketplace that make our lives easier and more comfortable, offering means by which we can save time and reduce distances. Yet marketing involves more than the development of products and services—it also involves how these offerings become available to us through various channels, including “brick-and-mortar” retail stores and via online e-tailers and traders; it entails a determination of the prices asked for products and services that are both affordable to buyers and profitable to the entrepreneurial or corporate interests offering them; and it is responsible for the myriad means by which marketplace offerings are communicated and promoted.
That the marketing process is central to our lives is evident when one considers how many of our typical human activities revolve around it: window shopping, clipping coupons, comparing brands, using services, talking to others about purchases, seeking advice about how to best use a product, deciding where and when to shop, selecting a restaurant, buying groceries, watching a creative advertisement online and then sharing the link with friends, and so on. In fact, we can say that a large part of our involvement with marketing is linked to the fact that we are a shopping, buying, and having species.
Commercial selling and buying behavior represent activities that firmly define successive generations, as fully interwoven within the fabric of industrialized nations as technological, scientific, social, and political developments. Each new product innovation increasingly brings to the fore the defining mantra of modern man and woman—“I shop, therefore I am.” In contemporary times, the buying and having of material goods, along
with a growing array of services, have become as central to people’s sense of being as family and career. Whether it be the clothes we wear, the homes and communities where we reside, the types of pets we own, or the color of the earbud headset through which we privately listen to our preferred musicians as we wend our way through public settings, our consumption choices are inseparable from who we are to ourselves and to others.
Consumers are increasingly becoming active participants in the wide array of activities that comprise the marketing enterprise. Whether it be the creation or modification of products, the establishment of prices, the availability of goods, or the ways in which company offerings are communicated, consumers no longer play a passive role in each of the various marketing functions (Kimmel, 2010). At the root of this new-found consumer power are technological developments, including the Internet and mobile communication devices, that have facilitated the means by which people can create content and access information about companies, products, brands, and so on, either by engaging directly with marketers and sellers or by communicating with each other via social networks and word of mouth. The fact that consumers have come to occupy a more central place in the marketing process in recent decades underlines how psychology has moved front and center into the strategic thinking and planning of marketers. Marketers are increasingly recognizing that to succeed in the contemporary business world, they must have a thorough understanding of their current and potential customers. This understanding encompasses a variety of facets of consumer psychology and life, including:
• the processes by which customer targets acquire information, formulate their decisions, and plan for subsequent consumption opportunities;
• how consumer loyalties are nurtured or changed for different products or brands;
• what consumer likes and dislikes are relative to marketing actions and offerings;
• the means through which consumer attitudes and intentions can be most effectively influenced;
• how consumers differ and what that implies for marketing strategy;
• the factors that influence how consumers ultimately behave in the marketplace.
Together, these topics define what this book is all about: the formidable interplay between psychological understanding and marketing practice.
To illustrate the intricate relationship between psychology and marketing consider the following example, which pertains to how a consumer’s seemingly innocent purchase of a luxury item can set off an unintended buying spree by that consumer. In a series of studies involving hundreds of shoppers, consumer psychologists Patrick and Hagtvedt (2011) found that when the purchase of a new item fails to fit in with one’s existing possessions, consumers generally tend to regret the purchase and return it to the store. There is nothing very surprising about that. However, when the mismatched purchase happens to involve a higher-end offering, such as an item from a designer product line or a luxury branded item, consumers experience less regret, but greater frustration. Rather than returning the designer item, people actively seek out ways to incorporate the new purchase with their other possessions. One way to do that is to make a series of complementary purchases; that is, they purchase other items that closely match the initial one. This process, which the researchers dubbed “aesthetic incongruity resolution,”
ultimately may result in a far greater cumulative expenditure than the consumer had anticipated when the initial purchase was made.
To explain why elegant things make us buy more, we need to consider the role of emotions in determining whether a purchase will be returned or not. Aesthetical purchases imbued with unique design characteristics have intrinsic value and are thereby more difficult for the consumer to relinquish. So if the purchase of an irresistible pair of designer shoes, for example, proves to be totally at odds with one’s current wardrobe once given the chance to more carefully contemplate the purchase, it may not be very long before one attempts to resolve the incongruity by subsequently purchasing a matching handbag, jewelry, and formal dress. A simple safeguard against potentially over-reaching one’s budget in this way is simply to think twice before a purchase, and to consider whether that special purchase matches what one already owns. If not, then buyer beware.
Let’s now consider three marketing implications that can be gleaned from the findings of the incongruity resolution research:
1.Marketers of relatively inexpensive products that are not typically assumed to be aesthetically appealing might consider how unique design elements could be added to appeal to the aesthetic sensibilities of buyers. This is something that the makers of various household products have already begun to implement for the product design of such items as coffee makers, electric grills, vacuum cleaners, hair dryers, and home entertainment centers (Postrel, 2003; see Box 1.1).
2.The incongruity resolution findings also highlight the growing tendency for companies to target sales to individual consumers based on their previous purchases and current possessions. Evolving customer relationship management (CRM) technologies provide firms with the capacity to carefully target product promotions based on detailed information about consumers’ previous purchases, to the point of tracking and even contributing to the development of their consumption environments. More practically, the common sales technique of suggesting various add-ons (a belt or tie) for a current purchase (a new suit) represents another way to increase sales while enhancing customer satisfaction with appropriately matched purchases.
3.Another implication derived from the incongruity resolution research is one that reflects marketers’ ethical responsibilities relative to customer satisfaction and the potential for shaping long-term loyalties. If shoppers end up spending beyond their means without a corresponding increase in satisfaction, neither the customer nor the seller is likely to be best served over the long term. This could add to the already rapidly spiraling mistrust that consumers have for marketers and the marketing process.
As this research example suggests, insight into consumer psychology puts marketers in a better position to design and implement successful and more ethical marketing strategies. From the customer perspective, by putting their own behavior under the microscope, consumers will find themselves in a position to make better decisions in order to satisfy their needs and maximize their resources.
Throughout this book, we will encounter numerous examples of this sort, which serve to demonstrate how effective marketing strategies and practices can be culled from
Box 1.1 Adding aesthetical elements to everyday products
In a highly competitive marketplace, it no longer is surprising to find that the designs of many everyday products are increasingly imbued with distinguishing aesthetical elements that are intended to appeal to consumers. Absolut’s iconically-shaped vodka bottle sparked the arrival of a wide array of elegantly designed competitors that are worth buying for the bottles alone, which may remain prominently displayed in the home long after the contents have been consumed. The new Dyson Supersonic hair dryer (below), stands out in the category of hair care products by looking nothing like the archetypal hair dryer that consumers have been purchasing for decades.
B&O PLAY’s Beoplay S3 external speakers (below) are among several high-end audio systems intentionally developed with aesthetic congruity in mind. Although higher in cost than more traditional home speakers, the speakers can blend in with most interior room themes, and also offer the opportunity for the user to swap out the face plate to create a better match.
Psychology and marketing 5
In addition to providing environmental balance, aesthetical, more visceral elements related to product appearance and design, such as color, scent, and tactile stimulation, are crucial in helping us understand the reasons why wine tastes better in fancy glasses; that the amount of food eaten, taste satisfaction levels, and amount of money consumers are willing to pay for food vary according to the types and colors of packaging and the dishes on which the food is served; and that consumers are more likely to purchase an item in a store if they first can touch it (Norman, 2005).
A unique or aesthetically designed product form can extend the life of a product long after its functional utility has passed. Consumers are wont to hold on to such products rather than to discard them, choosing to incorporate them as part of their sensory environment. A good example of this was provided by one of my students, who described her disappointment with the taste of the coffee brewed by her new Senseo pod coffee maker. Although she decided to replace it with a drip coffee maker, she kept the Senseo on her kitchen counter because she was impressed by its uniquely-designed cylindrical shape and bright color, and believed that it helped smarten the look of her kitchen.
insight into human thinking and behavior processes. However, before attempting to further delve into the dynamic interplay between psychology and marketing, it first is necessary to be clear about some terminology. If our goal is to unravel the psychological bases of marketing, we first must have a clear understanding of the terms “marketing” and “psychology.”
MARKETING DEFINED
Marketing is a term that is used in everyday parlance, but its technical definition tends to vary according to whether it is treated as an independent discipline or as a managerial process. As an independent discipline, marketing represents a scientific field of inquiry that comprises a vast body of knowledge derived from academic research and theory concerning marketing-related activities. This research, which may be either theoretical or applied in nature, typically is published in notable journals such as the Journal of Marketing Research, the Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, and the International Journal of Research in Marketing, or presented at meetings of academic business and marketing associations and professional seminars.
The independent discipline of marketing was given impetus during the late 1950s when business schools began to shift their emphasis from a vocational teaching orientation to more of a scholarly approach to business research. For marketing, this meant a shift in focus from what marketing managers do to a theoretically based effort at understanding how and why their practices succeed or fail, identifying the forces that underlie the dynamics of the marketing process, and gaining insight into how and why consumers behave as they do (e.g., Gordon &Howell, 1959; Macinnis & Folkes, 2009).
Although the disciplinary side of marketing is typically emphasized by researchers and academics, marketing is more commonly defined in terms of a business activity (or set of activities) and related functions. A widely used definition of the term, adopted by the American Marketing Association (2007), reads as follows:
the activity, set of institutions, and processes for creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that have value for customers, clients, partners, and society at large.
Another, albeit wordier, definition was proposed by the Chartered Institute of Marketing (2007) to better reflect the realities of the contemporary marketing profession, taking into account the increasing complexity of the marketplace and negative attitudes about marketing among the general public:
The strategic business function that creates value by stimulating, facilitating and fulfilling customer demand. It does this by building brands, nurturing innovation, developing relationships, creating good customer service and communicating benefits. By operating customer-centrically, marketing brings positive return on investment, satisfies shareholders and stake-holders from business and the community, and contributes to positive behavioural change and a sustainable business future.
These definitions reveal how marketing has come a long way from its original, literal derivation associated with the act of going to a market to purchase or sell goods and services. At the core of these conceptualizations is the recognition that marketing is a management process that consists of a variety of functions, all intended to facilitate an exchange relationship between companies and customers. Originally, the exchange process was guided by what has come to be known as the “selling concept,” a traditional philosophy that emphasizes company profits regardless of consumer needs. If a product is not selling at sufficient levels, then more aggressive marketing efforts must be initiated, such as significant price cutting, increased advertising, and more aggressive selling strategies. When people express cynical opinions about marketers as persons who will resort to any sort of manipulative tactic to sell an unneeded product, these opinions likely are rooted in a view of the marketing enterprise that is firmly aligned with the selling concept.
Over the years, a philosophy known as the “marketing concept” has evolved, which promotes an orientation that is more consistent with the marketing exchange notion, emphasizing that firms must first analyze the needs of their customers and then make decisions about how to best satisfy those needs, more efficiently than the competition. The marketing concept focuses on providing customers with what they seek, even if that entails the company’s development of entirely new products or the elimination of current ones. Whereas the sales concept is oriented towards maximizing the sales of current offerings by whatever means necessary, the marketing concept emphasizes the identification of consumer needs and the efficient satisfaction of those needs. The marketing concept, which we will return to in Chapter 2, is complicated by the fact that
the consumer environment is dynamic and ever-changing, so that what customers want or need today—and the means by which they can satisfy their needs and desires—is not necessarily the same tomorrow.
Given these notions about the marketing concept, it would be short-sighted to conceive of marketing narrowly as a function or set of functions within a firm whose essential objective is profit maximization. That would imply that any research forays into the marketing process would focus solely on marketers’ problems and the identification of actionable solutions associated with profit-oriented functions. An alternative view, and one more aligned with the exchange relationship at the heart of the marketing concept, holds that marketing is a social institution operating within the context of other institutions, including consumers, the business community, policy makers, and society (Macinnis & Folkes, 2009). This broader view, which is the one adopted for this book, would orient an academic approach to marketing towards the identification of the forces that influence and are influenced by the marketing institution.
These marketing philosophies reflect a long-standing distinction between two basic strategic approaches: push and pull. There has been a shift in marketing over the years to more of an emphasis on utilizing “pull” strategies—spending on advertising and consumer promotion to build consumer demand. By contrast, a “push” strategy calls for using the sales force and trade promotion to push the product through channels (producer to wholesaler to retailers, the latter of whom promote to consumers). In recent years there has been an increasing tendency towards a return to push marketing, albeit in new guises (morebusiness.com, 2006). For example, a variation of push marketing is evident in efforts by companies to encourage satisfied brand users to spread the word to others, such as friends, family members, and co-workers (see Chapter 8). It also is apparent when companies design controversial advertisements intended to create marketplace buzz.
The four P’s of marketing
The various elements at the center of the marketing enterprise collectively are referred to as the marketing mix, defined as “the set of marketing tools the firm uses to pursue its marketing objectives in the target market” (Kotler, 2003, p. 15). The marketing mix concept dates back to a 1964 article written by Neil H. Borden in which he described the marketing manager as a “mixer of ingredients,” involved in such activities as product planning, pricing, distribution channels, advertising, packaging, and brand management.
The American marketing professor E. Jerome McCarthy (1964) popularized Borden’s early conceptualization of marketing elements by simplifying the various marketing ingredients into four basic categories, referred to as the 4 P’s of marketing: product, price, place, and promotion (see Key Concept 1). Traditionally, the marketing mix elements comprised the variables that were largely controlled by the marketer in order to most effectively satisfy a target group. However, as consumers have become more active participants in the marketing process, additional key elements of the marketing mix have been suggested, such as people and personalization (Mootee, 2004).
Key Concept 1 The 4 P’s of marketing
As an enduring notion within the marketing profession, the 4 P’s are essential to understanding the necessary components of any modern marketing effort. In short, marketers strive to develop quality offerings that are capable of satisfying people’s needs (products), and which are adequately affordable (price), accessible (place), and communicated and made known (promotion) to target customers.
Consider the example of bathroom safety products for seniors and persons with mobility issues, such as safety bars for bathtubs, toilets, and showers; seats and benches for showers and bathtubs; and carpeted floor runners that render tile and linoleum less slippery (see illustration below). To address the needs of prospective customers for these and other products that can make the bathroom more secure and easier to navigate, marketers must address a variety of questions related to each of the 4 P’s components.
For example, with regard to the products themselves, some relevant questions are:
• What do consumers desire from the product?
• What attributes or benefits are important?
• How should the products be designed and styled?
• How should products be packaged?
• What product variations are required?
• How should the products be differentiated from those of competitors?
Regarding price:
• What pricing policies are appropriate?
• What is the best suggested retail price?
4 P’s Marketing Mix Model—McCarthy
mix
• Should price variations be established?
• How do consumers perceive prices?
• How effective are volume discounts and wholesale prices?
For place(distribution):
• How should the products be made available to consumers?
• Where do consumers expect to find the products?
• What distribution channels and distribution centers should be established?
• Where should company plants, factories, and warehouses be located?
• Should the products be available internationally?
For promotion:
• How should the products be advertised?
• Which media should be used for advertising and other promotions?
• What is the relative effectiveness of different promotional methods (advertising, coupons and discounts, personal selling, direct marketing)?
• How can good public relations for the company best be achieved?
• What influence tactics should be used in face-to-face selling?
Bathroom equipped with safety features
The 4 P’s framework has stood the test of time as a guiding template for marketing activities, although for each marketing program, the goals, planning, and funding for each element must be integrated in a coherent manner that conforms to the firm’s overall corporate culture and objectives. In recent years, some have argued that other elements need to be formally added to the marketing mix as marketers respond to new marketplace realities, such as emerging social media (“people”) and a growing demand among consumers for products and services that acknowledge their uniqueness (“personalization”) (e.g., Mootee, 2004; Solis, 2012). From the marketer’s perspective, the new challenges of greater consumer connectedness via social networking and online communities has harkened the call for marketing strategies that engage potential customers in collaborative relationships and force a rethinking of the traditional means by which marketers attempted to serve and communicate with customer targets (Kimmel, 2010). In this context, it is understandable that “people” is often offered as a fifth “P” of the marketing mix. However, at the same time that marketers place a greater focus on the people they serve, they must take care not to neglect that which is of utmost importance to any marketing effort—the product.
10 Psychology and marketing
In my 2015 book, People and Products, I posed the question, “Consumers and products: Can there be one without the other?” to point out how in the contemporary era people and products have begun to merge, both literally and figuratively, and that it is nearly impossible to think of one without the other (a point exemplified by the expression “iPod, therefore I am”). In the field of marketing, a “product” is understood as “anything that can be offered to a market that might satisfy a want or need” (Kotler, 2003). This admittedly broad definition encompasses the full gamut of consumables, including physical goods (Panasonic microwave oven, Dyson vacuum cleaner), services (pizza delivery, tax preparation), persons (Beyoncé, LeBron James), places (Disneyland, the Paris Opera, Hawaii), organizations (Greenpeace, Médecins Sans Frontières), and ideas (safe sexual conduct, drinking and driving, religion).
If it is true that we are what we consume, then it is not a stretch to say that the products that we consume are central to what it means to be human.
The interdisciplinary nature of marketing
Whether one considers marketing as a managerial process or as a formalized field of inquiry, one inescapable fact is that it is interdisciplinary in nature. Marketing is interdisciplinary in that it spans across, and can be said to have evolved from, a variety of other academic fields, including the behavioral and social sciences, communications, and economics. These disciplinary underpinnings serve to enrich the marketing enterprise, providing it with empirically grounded theories and concepts that lie at the heart of the pluralistic perspective typically employed by marketers to ply their trade. When considering the disciplinary foundations of marketing theory and practice, the contributions drawn from psychology cannot be understated. In fact, it can be said that one way of defining marketing is to consider it as psychology applied to business. Although an overly simplistic definition given the evolving complexity and breadth of the marketing discipline, the definition fits perfectly with the central focus of this book, which is to describe the various ways that marketing is psychological in nature. The prospective rewards of such an undertaking can be many, ranging from a fuller understanding of what marketing is to how the marketing process functions to provide insight into best marketing practices that can lead to businesssuccess from a strategic point of view.
PSYCHOLOGY AS A DISCIPLINE
Psychology encompasses the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Like marketing, the discipline of psychology has strong connections to other fields of inquiry, including philosophy, biology, evolution, and the social sciences. As a discipline, psychology is comprised of numerous subfields, including the following:
• experimental psychology: the principles and rules governing how people perceive, learn, and remember;
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ascertained to be the case by observation; the observations being made by Captain Hewett, then employed in a survey of that sea.
Cotidal Lines supply, as I conceive, a good and simple method of representing the progress and connection of littoral tides. But to draw cotidal lines across oceans, is a very precarious mode of representing the facts, except we had much more knowledge on the subject than we at present possess. In the Phil. Trans. for 1848, I have resumed the subject of the Tides of the Pacific; and I have there expressed my opinion, that while the littoral tides are produced by progressive waves, the oceanic tides are more of the nature of stationary undulations
But many points of this kind might be decided, and our knowledge on this subject might be brought to a condition of completeness, if a ship or ships were sent expressly to follow the phenomena of the Tides from point to point, as the observations themselves might suggest a course. Till this is done, our knowledge cannot be completed. Detached and casual observations, made aliud agendo, can never carry us much beyond the point where we at present are.
Double Stars.
Sir John Herschel’s work, referred to in the History (2d Ed.) as then about to appear, was published in 1847. 57 In this work, besides a vast amount of valuable observations and reasonings on other subjects 564 (as Nebulæ, the Magnitude of Stars, and the like), the orbits of several double stars are computed by the aid of the new observations. But Sir John Herschel’s conviction on the point in question, the operation of the Newtonian law of gravitation in the region of the stars, is expressed perhaps more clearly in another
work which he published in 1849. 58 He there speaks of Double Stars, and especially of gamma Virginis, the one which has been most assiduously watched, and has offered phenomena of the greatest interest. 59 He then finds that the two components of this star revolve round each other in a period of 182 years; and says that the elements of the calculated orbit represent the whole series of recorded observations, comprising an angular movement of nearly nine-tenths of a complete circuit, both in angle and distance, with a degree of exactness fully equal to that of observation itself “No doubt can therefore,” he adds, “remain as to the prevalence in this remote system of the Newtonian Law of Gravitation.”
57 Results of Astronomical Observations made during the years 1834, 5, 6, 7, 8, at the Cape of Good Hope, being the completion of a Telescopic Survey of the whole Surface of the visible Heavens commenced in 1825.
58 Outlines of Astronomy
59 Out 844
Yet M. Yvon de Villarceau has endeavored to show 60 that this conclusion, however probable, is not yet proved. He holds, even for the Double Stars, which have been most observed, the observations are only equivalent to seven or eight really distinct data, and that seven data are not sufficient to determine that an ellipse is described according to the Newtonian law. Without going into the details of this reasoning, I may remark, that the more rapid relative angular motion of the components of a Double Star when they are more near each other, proves, as is allowed on all hands, that they revolve under the influence of a mutual attractive force, obeying the Keplerian Law of Areas. But that, whether this force follows the law of the inverse square or some other law, can hardly have been rigorously proved
as yet, we may easily conceive, when we recollect the manner in which that law was proved for the Solar System. It was by means of an error of eight minutes, observed by Tycho, that Kepler was enabled, as he justly boasted, to reform the scheme of the Solar System, to show, that is, that the planetary orbits are ellipses with the sun in the focus. Now, the observations of Double Stars cannot pretend to such accuracy as this; and therefore the Keplerian theorem cannot, as yet, have been fully demonstrated from those observations But when we know 565 that Double Stars are held together by a central force, to prove that this force follows a different law from the only law which has hitherto been found to obtain in the universe, and which obtains between all the known masses of the universe, would require very clear and distinct evidence, of which astronomers have as yet seen no trace.
60 Connaissance des Temps, for 1852; published in 1849.
CHAPTER
VI.
Sect. 1. Instruments. 2. Clocks.
IN page 473, I have described the manner in which astronomers are able to observe the transit of a star, and other astronomical phenomena, to the exactness of a tenth of a second of time. The mode of observation there described implies that the observer at the moment of observation compares the impressions of the eye and of the ear. Now it is found that the habit which the observer must form of doing this operates differently in different observers, so that one observer notes the same fact as happening a fraction of a second earlier or later than another observer does; and this in every case. Thus, using the term equation, as we use it in Astronomy, to express a correction by which we get regularity from irregularity, there is a personal equation belonging to this mode of observation, showing that it is liable to error. Can this error be got rid of?
It is at any rate much diminished by a method of observation recently introduced into observatories, and first practised in America The essential feature of this mode of observation consists in combining the impression of sight with that of touch, instead of with that of hearing. The observer at the moment of observation presses with his finger so as to make a mark on a machine which by its motion measures time with great accuracy and on a large scale; and thus small intervals of time are made visible.
A universal, though not a necessary, part of this machinery, as hitherto adopted, is, that a galvanic circuit has been employed in conveying the impression from the finger to the part where time is
measured and marked. The facility with which galvanic wires can 566 thus lead the impression by any path to any distance, and increase its force in any degree, has led to this combination, and almost identification, of observation by touch with its record by galvanism.
The method having been first used by Mr. Bond at Cambridge, in North America, has been adopted elsewhere, and especially at Greenwich, where it is used for all the instruments; and consequently a collection of galvanic batteries is thus as necessary a part of the apparatus of the establishment as its graduated circles and arcs.
H I S T O R Y OF THE I
VOLUME II.
B O O K VIII.
HISTORY OF ACOUSTICS.
Go, demand
Of mighty Nature, if ’twas ever meant That we should pry far off and be unraised, That we should pore, and dwindle as we pore, Viewing all objects unremittingly In disconnexion dead and spiritless; And still dividing, and dividing still, Break down all grandeur, still unsatisfied With the perverse attempt, while littleness May yet become more little; waging thus An impious warfare ’gainst the very life Of our own souls.
W , Excursion.
N Dionysiac xli 275
Along the skiey arch the goddess trode, And sought Harmonia’s august abode; The universal plan, the mystic Four, Defines the figure of the palace-floor. Solid and square the ancient fabric stands, Raised by the labors of unnumbered hands.
B O O K VIII.
INTRODUCTION.
The Secondary Mechanical Sciences
IN the sciences of Mechanics and Physical Astronomy, Motion and Force are the direct and primary objects of our attention. But there is another class of sciences in which we endeavor to reduce phenomena, not evidently mechanical, to a known dependence upon mechanical properties and laws. In the cases to which I refer, the facts do not present themselves to the senses as modifications of position and motion, but as secondary qualities, which are found to be in some way derived from those primary attributes. Also, in these cases the phenomena are reduced to their mechanical laws and causes in a secondary manner; namely, by treating them as the operation of a medium interposed between the object and the organ of sense. These, then, we may call Secondary Mechanical Sciences. The sciences of this kind which require our notice are those which treat of the sensible qualities, Sound, Light, and Heat; that is. Acoustics, Optics, and Thermotics.
It will be recollected that our object is not by any means to give a full statement of all the additions which have been successively made to our knowledge on the subjects under review, or a complete list of the persons by whom such additions have been made; but to present a view of the progress of each of those branches of knowledge as a theoretical science;—to point out the Epochs of the discovery of those general principles which reduce many facts to one theory; and to note all that is most characteristic and instructive in the circumstances and persons which bear upon such Epochs. A
history of any science, written with such objects, will not need to be long; but it will fail in its purpose altogether, if it do not distinctly exhibit some well-marked and prominent features. 24
We begin our account of the Secondary Mechanical Sciences with Acoustics, because the progress towards right theoretical views, was, in fact, made much earlier in the science of Sound, than in those of Light and of Heat; and also, because a clear comprehension of the theory to which we are led in this case, is the best preparation for the difficulties (by no means inconsiderable) of the reasonings of theorists on the other subjects.
CHAPTER I.
P S P A
N some measure the true theory of sound was guessed by very early speculators on the subject; though undoubtedly conceived in a very vague and wavering manner. That sound is caused by some motion of the sounding body, and conveyed by some motion of the air to the ear, is an opinion which we trace to the earliest times of physical philosophy. We may take Aristotle as the best expounder of this stage of opinion. In his Treatise On Sound and Hearing, he says, “Sound takes place when bodies strike the air, not by the air having a form impressed upon it (σχηματίζομενον), as some think, but by its being moved in a corresponding manner; (probably he means in a manner corresponding to the impulse;) the air being contracted, and expanded, and overtaken, and again struck by the impulses of the breath and of the strings. For when the breath falls upon and strikes the air which is next it, the air is carried forwards with an impetus, and that which is contiguous to the first is carried onwards; so that the same voice spreads every way as far as the motion of the air takes place.”
As is the case with all such specimens of ancient physics, different persons would find in such a statement very different measures of truth and distinctness. The admirers of antiquity might easily, by pressing the language closely, and using the light of modern discovery, detect in this passage an exact account of the production and propagation of sound: while others might maintain that in Aristotle’s own mind, there were only vague notions, and verbal generalizations. This 25 latter opinion is very emphatically expressed
by Bacon. 1 “The collision or thrusting of air, which they will have to be the cause of sound, neither denotes the form nor the latent process of sound; but is a term of ignorance and of superficial contemplation.” Nor can it be justly denied, that an exact and distinct apprehension of the kind of motion of the air by which sound is diffused, was beyond the reach of the ancient philosophers, and made its way into the world long afterwards It was by no means easy to reconcile the nature of such motion with obvious phenomena For the process is not evident as motion; since, as Bacon also observes, 2 it does not visibly agitate the flame of a candle, or a feather, or any light floating substance, by which the slightest motions of the air are betrayed. Still, the persuasion that sound is some motion of the air, continued to keep hold of men’s minds, and acquired additional distinctness. The illustration employed by Vitruvius, in the following passage, is even now one of the best we can offer. 3 “Voice is breath, flowing, and made sensible to the hearing by striking the air. It moves in infinite circumferences of circles, as when, by throwing a stone into still water, you produce innumerable circles of waves, increasing from the centre and spreading outwards, till the boundary of the space, or some obstacle, prevents their outlines from going further. In the same manner the voice makes its motion in circles. But in water the circle moves breadthways upon a level plain; the voice proceeds in breadth, and also successively ascends in height.”
1 Hist. Son. et Aud. vol. ix. p. 68.
2 Ibid.
3 De Arch. v. 3.
Both the comparison, and the notice of the difference of the two cases, prove the architect to have had very clear notions on the subject; which he further shows by comparing the resonance of the walls of a building to the disturbance of the outline of the waves of water when they meet with a boundary, and are thrown back. “Therefore, as in the outlines of waves in water, so in the voice, if no obstacle interrupt the foremost, it does not disturb the second and the following ones, so that all come to the ears of persons, whether high up or low down, without resonance But when they strike against obstacles, the foremost, being thrown back, disturb the lines of those which follow.” Similar analogies were employed by the ancients in order to explain the occurrence of Echoes. Aristotle says, 4 “An Echo takes place, when the air, being as one body in consequence of the vessel which bounds it, and being prevented from being thrust forwards, is reflected 26 back like a ball.” Nothing material was added to such views till modern times.
4 De Animâ, ii. 8.
Thus the first conjectures of those who philosophized concerning sound, led them to an opinion concerning its causes and laws, which only required to be distinctly understood, and traced to mechanical principles, in order to form a genuine science of Acoustics. It was, no doubt, a work which required a long time and sagacious reasoners, to supply what was thus wanting; but still, in consequence of this peculiar circumstance in the early condition of the prevalent doctrine concerning sound, the history of Acoustics assumes a peculiar form. Instead of containing, like the history of Astronomy or of Optics, a series of generalizations, each including and rising above preceding generalizations; in this case, the highest generalization is in view from the first; and the object of the philosopher is to determine its
precise meaning and circumstances in each example. Instead of having a series of inductive Truths, successively dawning on men’s minds, we have a series of Explanations, in which certain experimental facts and laws are reconciled, as to their mechanical principles and their measures, with the general doctrine already in our possession. Instead of having to travel gradually towards a great discovery, like Universal Gravitation, or Luminiferous Undulations, we take our stand upon acknowledged truths, the production and propagation of sound by the motion of bodies and of air; and we connect these with other truths, the laws of motion and the known properties of bodies, as, for instance, their elasticity. Instead of Epochs of Discovery, we have Solutions of Problems; and to these we must now proceed.
We must, however, in the first place, notice that these Problems include other subjects than the mere production and propagation of sound generally. For such questions as these obviously occur:— what are the laws and cause of the differences of sounds; of acute and grave, loud and low, continued and instantaneous;—and, again, of the differences of articulate sounds, and of the quality of different voices and different instruments? The first of these questions, in particular, the real nature of the difference of acute and grave sounds, could not help attracting attention; since the difference of notes in this respect was the foundation of one of the most remarkable mathematical sciences of antiquity. Accordingly, we find attempts to explain this difference in the ancient writers on music. In Ptolemy’s Harmonics, the third Chapter of the first Book is entitled, “How the 27 acuteness and graveness of notes is produced;” and in this, after noting generally the difference of sounds, and the causes of difference (which he states to be the force of the striking body, the physical constitution of the body struck, and other causes), he
comes to the conclusion, that “the things which produce acuteness in sounds, are a greater density and a smaller size; the things which produce graveness, are a greater rarity and a bulkier form.” He afterwards explains this so as to include a considerable portion of truth. Thus he says, “That in strings, and in pipes, other things remaining the same, those which are stopped at the smaller distance from the bridge give the most acute note; and in pipes, those notes which come through holes nearest to the mouth-hole are most acute ” He even attempts a further generalization, and says that the greater acuteness arises, in fact, from the body being more tense; and that thus “hardness may counteract the effect of greater density, as we see that brass produces a more acute sound than lead.” But this author’s notions of tension, since they were applied so generally as to include both the tension of a string, and the tension of a piece of solid brass, must necessarily have been very vague. And he seems to have been destitute of any knowledge of the precise nature of the motion or impulse by which sound is produced; and, of course, still more ignorant of the mechanical principles by which these motions are explained. The notion of vibrations of the parts of sounding bodies, does not appear to have been dwelt upon as an essential circumstance; though in some cases, as in sounding strings, the fact is very obvious. And the notion of vibrations of the air does not at all appear in ancient writers, except so far as it may be conceived to be implied in the comparison of aërial and watery waves, which we have quoted from Vitruvius. It is however, very unlikely that, even in the case of water, the motions of the particles were distinctly conceived, for such conception is far from obvious.
The attempts to apprehend distinctly, and to explain mechanically, the phenomena of sound, gave rise to a series of Problems, of which we most now give a brief history. The questions which more
peculiarly constitute the Science of Acoustics, are the questions concerning those motions or affections of the air by which it is the medium of hearing. But the motions of sounding bodies have both so much connexion with those of the medium, and so much resemblance to them, that we shall include in our survey researches on that subject also. 28
CHAPTER II.
P V S
THAT the continuation of sound depends on a continued minute and rapid motion, a shaking or trembling, of the parts of the sounding body, was soon seen. Thus Bacon says, 5 “The duration of the sound of a bell or a string when struck, which appears to be prolonged and gradually extinguished, does not proceed from the first percussion; but the trepidation of the body struck perpetually generates a new sound. For if that trepidation be prevented, and the bell or string be stopped, the sound soon dies: as in spinets, as soon as the spine is let fall so as to touch the string, the sound ceases.” In the case of a stretched string, it is not difficult to perceive that the motion is a motion back and forwards across the straight line which the string occupies when at rest. The further examination of the quantitative circumstances of this oscillatory motion was an obvious problem; and especially after oscillations, though of another kind (those of a pendulous body), had attracted attention, as they had done in the school of Galileo. Mersenne, one of the promulgators of Galileo’s philosophy in France, is the first author in whom I find an examination of the details of this case (Harmonicorum Liber, Paris, 1636). He asserts, 6 that the differences and concords of acute and grave sounds depend on the rapidity of vibrations, and their ratio; and he proves this doctrine by a series of experimental comparisons. Thus he finds 7 that the note of a string is as its length, by taking a string first twice, and then four times as long as the original string, other things remaining the same. This, indeed, was known to the ancients, and was the basis of that numerical indication of the notes
