The University Goes to Market: The Infiltration of Neoliberalism
Abstract In this first chapter, we explore some of the foundational concepts for this book. We start by outlining the impacts of the neoliberalization of the academy and advance our central argument: that such impacts go beyond the interpersonal or the administrative to determine the very generation and dissemination of knowledge itself. Drawing on our own work that addresses the intersection of species, gender, and class, we articulate how the power/knowledge paradigm of neoliberalism has begun to dismantle the idea of a public intellectual. We consider what the costs of this are to research located within, and seeking to highlight issues pertinent to, marginalized communities and issues. We conclude with a brief overview of the book and its main themes.
INTRODUCTION
Having lived through recent decades of neoliberalization of Australian universities, we are writing this book to connect with others concerned about this globally destructive force. Our three main aims are to (1) examine the negative impacts of this process on the production of knowledge deemed marginal and by doing so; (2) contest the neoliberalization of the academy and the normalization of neoliberal values and processes; and (3) consider ideological, epistemological, and practical acts of resistance to the neoliberalization of academia, along with acknowledging attendant constraints.
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2016 H. Fraser and N. Taylor, Neoliberalization, Universities and the Public Intellectual, DOI 10.1057/978-1-137-57909-6_1
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We are aware that one of the terribly clever aspects of neoliberalization is to silence dissent. We refuse this silence and, by writing this book, call on others to engage—with us and with others—to tell their stories and of their own methods of resistance, and thereby challenge the neoliberal colonization of knowledge and of the higher education sector. By chronicling the negative effects of the neoliberalization of the university, we examine the deleterious effects on the production and dissemination of knowledge, sometimes referred to as testimony, data, evidence, and interpretation. We do this drawing on our own experience as feminist scholars who research with, and for, marginalized groups including nonhuman animals. In so doing, the book works in and between the borders separating the political from personal, public from private, human from animal, rational from emotional, theoretical from practical, and abstract from embodied.
We start, in this introductory chapter, by outlining some of the effects of the neoliberalization of the academy, including the consequences of neoliberalism for academics, for higher education, and for the production of knowledge. We pay attention to the use of ‘metrics’ as a way of determining what, and whose, knowledge should count and to narrowly determine academic value and argue that this is a central part of the marginalization of critical knowledge production.
THE RISE OF NEOLIBERALISM AND ACADEMIC CAPITALISM
In recent decades, higher education in the West has rapidly expanded in scale and orientation, and is being transformed by neoliberalism. Neoliberalism involves the revival and modified (or ‘new’) use of past liberal ideas about individual property rights in deregulated ‘free market,’ corporate capitalism (Harvey 2005). Advocates of neoliberalism promote the use of private business practices rather than government interventions, prioritizing economic goals over all others, even—if not especially—for public welfare and higher education (see Beddoe 2014; Ferguson and Lavalette 2006, 2013; Grimaldi 2012; Navarro 2007; Reid 2013). The academy (higher education institutions, particularly universities) is increasingly constituted not in educational but economic terms, with most emphasis given to it as a growing market and lucrative export (Giroux 2002; Heath and Burdon 2013; Metcalfe 2010; Ylijoki 2003). Faculties and departments are now conceptualized as small business units that use New Public Management techniques to prioritize expanding economies of scale, work intensification processes, improved international rankings, and positive identification and
association with branding (see Baines et al. 2011; Lorenz 2012; Meyers 2013; Petersen et al. 2010; Smyth 2010). In this ‘academic sausage factory’ (Smith 2000), budget cuts and cost-cutting exercises of all kinds are common, as is the pursuit of a budget surplus also achieved through tuition fee deregulation and fee increases. In this context, we have seen a dramatic casualization of academic work since the 1990s, especially teaching, with low pay for casual academics who usually need to manage larger student to staff ratios (Percy and Beaumont 2008).
While debate still occurs over the extent to which the academy can constitute a market (Marginson 2004), questions are also raised about what neoliberalism really means. As Boas and Gans-Morse (2009, p. 138) note, neoliberalism is a contested concept, one ‘whose strong normative character, multidimensional nature, and openness to modification over time’ has caused much debate over both its meaning and application. While we accept there is slippage around the concept, and one that may need to be resolved if it is to be meaningfully operationalized in empirical work, here we take a broad approach to it, one which associates ‘neoliberalism with multiple underlying concepts, including a set of policies, a development model, an ideology, and an academic paradigm’ (Boas and Gans-Morse 2009, p. 140). In other words, we see it as both cultural and structural and as having impact at the macro, mezzo, and micro levels.
Following Gonzales and Nunez (2014), we see neoliberalism resting upon the idea that ‘all goods and services can and should be treated as if they have an exchange value’; tied to positivist, quantitative epistemologies; and marginalizing of other forms of knowledge relevant to and/or produced by subjects that are not human, white, middle class, heterosexual, able-bodied, and male. To paraphrase Hawkins et al. (2014, p. 331), the neoliberal university considers certain bodies ‘out of place’ (italics in original) and prioritizes ‘productive bodies’ over ‘nurturing’ ones. Significantly, productivity is placed in opposition to nurturance, a category of emotional labor most expected from women, and often expected to be undertaken ‘for love not money.’ Originally from Bourdieu, the concept academic capitalism was deployed critically to understand how the acquisition and expression of knowledge and expertise is constituted as a form of cultural capital, in an unfair and stratified society. However, it is also a term that can be used uncritically to champion free-market capitalism and the commodification of knowledge, labor, and everyday life; where specific forms of knowledge and professional expertise become the ‘hard currency’ of an entrepreneurial university (Slaughter and Leslie 1997).
The impact of the marketization of universities is being examined across continents, from Australia (Marginson and Considine 2000; Percy and Beaumont 2008) and New Zealand (Shore 2010), the USA (Zermsky and Massey 2005) and Canada (Metcalfe 2010) to Finland (Ylijoki 2003). While initially seen as victims of such a process, universities are adopting, if not embracing, neoliberal values, goals, and processes. To cite Gonzales et al. (2014, p. 1098), universities are engaging ‘in market-like behaviors at unprecedented levels and from an offensive rather than defensive position.’ In turn, ‘the university’s compliance with the imperative to cut budgets and remain flexible has produced a growing class of casual teachers’ (Percy and Beaumont 2008, p. 3). Backed by big business, government, and corporate sectors, as well as a growing number of social welfare leaders, this paradigm shift started in the early 1990s (Percy and Beaumont 2008) but has accelerated in recent years, changing dominant assumptions about what is good, possible, and sustainable.
In the last five years, neoliberalism has been rendered so normative that those who challenge it are likely to be cast as dissenters and troublemakers who unnecessarily, if not naively, interfere with the otherwise smooth (or uncontested) day-to-day operations of ‘core business.’ Many critics of the neoliberalizing processes in the academy have noted how pervasive and normalized they have become, to the point that they become internalized by many (Davies and Bansel 2010; Slaughter and Rhoades 2004; Slaughter et al. 2004), including through the use of academic internships, which begin in graduate school (Hawkins et al. 2014). Because we are interested to explore and critique the consequences of neoliberalization on the production and dissemination of knowledge, we focus most on the effects for academics in research, teaching, and community engagement roles. We are not suggesting that the impact neoliberalism has on knowledge production is the only, or the most, important consequence of the neoliberal colonization of academia. Rather, it is but one of many consequences, all of which operate in a tangled web that helps to maintain and spread the gospel of neoliberalism.
As Harvey (2005, p. 40) argues, neoliberalism is a covert (and largely successful) attempt to restore class power into the hands of ‘a small elite who would probably not gain much popular support through other means. But a programmatic attempt to advance the cause of individual freedoms could appeal to a mass base and so disguise the drive to restore class power. Furthermore, once the state apparatus made the neoliberal turn it could use its powers of persuasion, co-optation, bribery, and threat to
maintain the climate of consent necessary to perpetuate its power.’ Given the inequalities embedded in our schooling systems, particularly those in tertiary education that are currently exacerbated by fee deregulation, it is easy to see how academia becomes embroiled as a ‘bureaucratic agency of the corporate state’ (Illich [1971], 2013) in the modern neoliberal push. The aim, it seems, is to produce docile students without critical thinking abilities, who are fully enrolled in ideological notions of individuality and personal success, irrespective of and largely blind to any social costs this entails (see Ahmed 2014; also Chap. 6).
Linked to this is the production (research) and reproduction (teaching) of sanitized knowledge. At the heart of this book is a deep critique of this sanitization through asking questions about how neoliberalism is affecting academics’ choice of and support for research interests (see, for instance, Rose and Dustin 2009), exercise of autonomy, community involvement, and use of critical pedagogy in and beyond the classroom. Important to neoliberal agendas is the production of ‘safe’ knowledge that reiterates the central messages of neoliberalism—the idea that ‘society should construct and produce self-enterprising individuals solely interested in enhancing their human capital’ (Shahjahan 2014, p. 221). As many have pointed out, one of the deeply troubling aspects of the neoliberal colonization of academia is ‘the ways in which neoliberal reforms diminished the relationships, ideas and subjectivities that maintain critical spaces external to pervasive and increasingly hegemonic rationalities’ (Shahjahan 2014, p. 222; see also Giroux 2002).
Neoliberal forces have often been convincing and persuasive in terms of encouraging self-disciplining and censorship to work within the new frames of the entrepreneurial university (see Marginson and Considine 2000; Shore 2010). Like any form of hegemony, what often makes these processes and changes difficult to contest is the seemingly small and benign ways neoliberalism manifests itself in academia—and here we mean in the administrative, teaching, and research components of our lives as academics. Often, we are complicit in such manifestations partly because individual instances remain unseen and we are discouraged from considering them as a whole where the ideology that underpins them becomes apparent. Values such as individualism and competition are fostered in a system precisely to discourage holistic views. Examples of the kinds of small, seemingly benign instances include managers recruiting (other) academics to prioritize departmental budgets, marketing issues, policy standardization and compliance, and the achievement of increasingly detailed and
constrained key performance indicators (see Melnyk et al. 2004) over purely educational goals.
The question of livelihood is not one that we could afford to ignore given most academics are wage slaves dependent on their jobs for their livelihoods. As we will explore throughout this book, neoliberal management techniques can compel us to behave in ways we neither like nor would freely choose. Finding ways to resist, push back, and suggest alternatives to neoliberal technologies and practices—preferably with others with whom solidarity is shared—is an important impetus for this book. Doing so without losing our jobs is a priority (we will let you know how that goes!).
As politically, socially, and ethically engaged activist-scholars, we are (highly) aware of important work—public lectures and other forms of outreach such as blogging, community service, holding workshops to facilitate networking and activism, pastoral care of students—that remains unrecognized by the current system mostly because it has no tangible ‘product’ attached. Importantly, we also see the effects of neoliberalization across the university and do not mean to suggest a dichotomy between academic and general staff at the university. It affects us all, albeit in different ways [see Posecznick (2014) for more on the effects on administrative staff at universities]. Rather than seeing it as a problem between administrators and academic staff, we see divisions between those who have embraced the marketization of the academy and those who are critical of it and seek to resist it.
Yet, this terrain is difficult and messy. With the boundaries blurring between not-for-profit public enterprises and for-profit private enterprises, many of us participate if not collude, even unwittingly, in neoliberal processes. The narrow performance measurement of selected, highly individualized academic ‘outputs’ compounds the problem (see, for instance, Melnyk et al. 2004). Incentives offered to academics to adopt, if not embrace, neoliberalism are part of our interest in this book, as well as the penalties leveled against those who oppose neoliberal practices or are assessed as not meeting sufficient key performance indicators.
THE MARCH FOR METRICS IN THE RANKING REGIME
The neoliberal academy is linked inextricably to measurement, to metrics of all kinds (see Burrows 2012), so much so that Gonzales and Nunez (2014) refer to a ‘ranking regime.’ As they explain (p. 3), ‘our conceptualization
of the “ranking regime” suggests an interrelatedness of various kinds of organization (e.g., government accountability, accreditation, commercial rankings), which work together to define what excellent higher education, valuable knowledge, or at the grandest level “world-class universities” are made of.’ ‘Metrics’ have become a buzzword on campus as academics are forced to prove the worth of their work according to a changing set of abstract measurements that rarely capture all aspects of the work, and give undue emphasis to elements that are revenue producing. Gonzales and Nunez (2014) argue that there is an underlying assumption that quality can be captured and measured, and that this can be done by relatively simple measures. These rankings are then linked to government funding, meaning that in neoliberal times where government spending on education is comparatively low, they become considered all important by university administrators whose focus is the budget. In turn, this leads to the increase of various benchmarking exercizes applied to academic work, often associated with specific key performance indicators applied not just to groups or units but also to individuals. And while the metrics expand, so does the bureaucracy associated with them.
There are few areas of academic life that are not subject to metrics and their perceived importance can be seen in their growth. Gonzales and Nunez (2014, p. 4) report that as of 2013, the European University Association estimated there were at least thirty-two ranking bodies for higher education. Most academics have their work assessed in terms of narrowly defined outputs or ‘metrics’ (see Burrows 2012). Creating these metrics and applying them to individual performance is a job that affects the entire university, whether this is through developing and administering online ‘portals’ to capture outputs, or in participating in the assessment process, for example. The Research Excellence Framework (REF, formerly the Research Assessment Exercise, RAE) in the UK, the PerformanceBased Research Fund (PBRF) in New Zealand, and the Excellence in Research for Australia (ERA) are all examples. The aim is to ‘rank’ knowledge output and by extension its producers, both individual and institutional. While this may sound innocuous and even sensible, the obsession with measuring these results is divisive, agenda setting, alienating, and time-consuming.
Many senior academics spend more than half their time preparing for these benchmarking events, which generally occur every three to five years. For newer academics, the time spent worrying over and applying for ‘large’ grants (from ‘acceptable’ funding bodies) detracts from time put
into teaching preparation and the actual conduct of research. Breeding high levels of individual competition, such narrow definitions of success create an environment that is divisive and alienating (also see Burrows 2012). This occurs at an interpersonal level as we are forced to compete with each other for fewer and fewer resources and encouraged to keep our work ‘secret’ so we aren’t beaten to the (preferably financially rewarding) punch line by others.
The speed of the changes associated with this ranking regime is significant. Fast-paced, work intensification processes are common across locations (Davies and Bansel 2010), so common and so intense, in fact, that they have led to calls for slow scholarship (see, e.g., Hartman and Darab 2012) as a form of resistance (we take this up in more detail in Chap. 6). Under these intensification regimes, academics are to complete an expanding number of responsibilities more quickly than ever. Irrespective of the content or contextual complications, we are expected to prepare our classes, complete our administrative tasks (which are continuously growing due in no large part due to the pressure of benchmarking exercises), and publish more quickly, or risk having our competence challenged. It is now common to hear academics admonish themselves for not working faster. As the benchmarks of ‘good performance’ narrow and rise, it can be hard for people to resist internalizing the idea that they are slow if the (often unreasonable) time frames allocated for tasks cannot be met. One way through is to work more individually so as not to have to ‘waste’ time consulting others. Doing so means reducing genuine attempts to engage others, democratize our work, and involve others in the construction of teaching curricula or research agendas, especially if these relationships need to be developed slowly and/or in the face of considerable obstacles.
In many circumstances, these obstacles may be beyond our control. For example, as it currently stands, the ‘ranking regime’ system does not allow for acknowledgment of cultural or structural factors that inform what gets published and where and, in turn, what becomes discussed publicly or even considered to be important (also see Burrows 2012). It may, for example, be sensible to publish in a lower- or non-ranked journal to reach certain audiences, audiences that might be better placed to act on the knowledge. Similarly, some of the top-ranked journals have particular ideological outlooks not always accommodating to more radical or transformative approaches leading to the kind of gatekeeping that can silence marginal considerations. This may happen overtly with, for example, mentors suggesting changes in research focus away from marginalized concerns
(Hawkins et al. 2014) or covertly through self-surveillance by academics who are concerned their research areas will not be valued or considered legitimate (Gonzales et al. 2014). The result is yet further marginalization (see Hall et al. 1994) of both those who produce critical knowledge and of the knowledge itself. We recognize that the marginalization of critical scholars and scholarship has a long history (see, for instance, Gay 2004) and it is not our intent to put forward our own contribution as ahistorical. We are, however, arguing that the process is intensifying and being elaborated with the widespread take up of neoliberal values in higher education. While not always visible, such processes contribute to the production of an alienated and apathetic (Posecznick 2014) workforce who are forced to manage larger class sizes and are subject to more oversight and surveillance of academic activity by administrators as well as subject to a thorough and cold economic rationalization of their daily lives (Lorenz 2012). The neoliberal model that underpins the logic of these changes is one that fails to prioritize knowledge production beyond that which can be ‘leveraged’ for profit, and one which fails to see the university as either the locus of critical thought, or an institution whose purpose is educational and student-centered. As Tirelli argues (2014, p. 524), ‘higher education has been recast through various means that have affected funding, technology, and curriculum, and these changes have brought the system more into line with a corporate business model rather than with an institution that seeks to develop a critical and democratic citizenry.’
In his consideration of the role of contingent academic labor and the increasing reliance by universities on casual, part-time, nontenured staff, Tirelli (2014) points to the circularity of the neoliberal model. In pushing academics toward research at all costs, and particular kinds of profit-generating research, there is less time for teaching preparation and conduct. Part-time, casual academics with few benefits and increasingly precarious working lives are encouraged to fill this space (see also Hawkins et al. 2014). Importantly, though, beyond this, they have little time or ability to be a ‘strong voice’ (Tirelli 2014, p. 527) in institutional governance, which both weakens the power of academic faculty and strengthens the power of university administrators.
In the USA, for instance, Tirelli (2014) shows how the national percentage of part-time faculty rose from 22 % in 1970 to just over 46 % in 2003 and how today full-time and tenure-track faculty account for only 23.5 % of all faculty members. He points out this weakens faculty power and their ability to counter proposed changes and the neoliberalizing
thrust of modern academia. This is one reason why so many academics report they are disillusioned with their jobs (see, e.g., Bowen and Schuster 1986; Gonzales et al. 2014). It is also a particularly powerful method of control and a way to silence resistance (Purcell 2007). In Tirelli’s words (2014, p. 532), ‘just as the goal of any factory owner is to control the work force in the industrial units that he (sic) oversees, it is also in the instrumental interest of neoliberal elites to have an academic labor force that is fragmented and in check. Divide and conquer is an age-old technique that is as effective today as it has been in previous epochs.’
While it may be interpreted that we are complaining about something unimportant or of narrow interest to only a few in our profession, we refute such a narrow interpretation. All of the points we raise have much broader consequences, as the burgeoning interest in the neoliberalization of higher education attests to (e.g., Archer 2008; Castree and Sparke 2000; Davies and Bansel 2005; Osei-Kofi 2012; Smith 2000). However, it can be difficult to raise criticisms when, even at the mercy of neoliberal trajectories, we still occupy privileged positions. As Hawkins et al. (2014) point out, raising the problems that neoliberal processes create for academics can seem insensitive to those who have less autonomy, pay, and status at work. However, by refusing to acknowledge and discuss these problems we maintain a ‘culture of silence … often imposed on these issues as academic work is increasingly permeated by isolation and individuality’ (Hawkins et al. 2014, p. 330). Beyond that, it is important to consider the impact of neoliberalizing logics not just on faculty and students but also on the very production of knowledge itself. This is a far bigger issue than one of de-professionalization or the work–life balance of academics, for instance, and is one that sits at the heart of this book.
METRICS AND THE POLITICS OF THE PRODUCTION OF KNOWLEDGE
Power relations affect the way knowledge is formed, valued, promoted, and resourced. Following Hawkins et al. (2014, p. 334), we see the confluence of neoliberalization with ‘other disciplining mechanisms about which types of bodies, knowledges and approaches will or will not be successful.’ Academics are no longer esteemed for being public intellectuals committed to generating public discourse on crucial issues and/or collaborating with community partners. Instead, we are constituted as commercial agents expected to pursue commercially viable projects, sometimes with
the help of specially designated business intermediaries (Kauppinen 2012). We are increasingly expected to fund-raise research resources and solicit media attention to enhance our ‘profile.’ If this happens to incorporate social justice or social change goals—all the better—because that too can be marketable and profile raising, helping to create a veneer of respectability; one that covers over commercial interests to portray more palatable images of universities as noble places of knowledge and learning. However, hidden behind this veneer of nobility and/or respectability is a brutal system with an increasingly singular focus on commercial ends, aided by an embedded audit culture and ranking regime. Gonzales and Nunez (2014, pp. 12–13) argue that the metrics and attendant ‘ranking regime’ creates and perpetuates four values/practices which in turn impact on faculty experiences and their abilities to produce certain kinds of knowledge(s). These are (1) individualism, where stress is placed upon individual achievement, itself inimical to critical knowledge production. This facilitates (2) standardization and (3) commodification that give rise to narrow ideas concerning what constitutes ‘quality’ work which often leads to (4) a homogenization of knowledge output. They conclude that these four values/practices
fail to recognize the multiple professional activities that faculty undertake in colleges and universities, including the tacit and dynamic exchanges involved in teaching and learning, dialoguing with colleagues inside and outside of academia to solve problems or provide service of some sort to society, and engaging in time-intensive student and peer mentoring and advising. … The ranking regime clearly privileges research activities and productivity … in ways that favour the use of English in scholarly dissemination…; in ways that uphold the dominance of disciplines and what seems to be narrow valuation of knowledge; and in ways that favour dissemination strategies to academic instead of broader audiences.
Open collaboration in the pursuit of knowledge becomes fraught with difficulties when individuals are forced to compete with each other for ‘their place in the sun’ (also see Zermsky and Massey 2005). Constantly ranking people, institutions, knowledge outputs, and labor also displaces energy for knowledge- and skill-building activities that benefit communities, especially those that are marginalized and impoverished in some way. The endless round of seminars, workshops, and information sessions that we are expected to attend on ‘managing metrics’ or ‘learning selfpromotion’ add to the time-consuming nature of this whole approach.
These metrics—whether you publish in an A*/top-tier journal, or one with a high impact factor, for example—have become criteria for promotion and even retention, with academics failing to meet such objectives liable to being ‘performance managed,’ and possibly forced redundancy.
The commercialization of knowledge development produced through these processes has significant consequences for the nature of research undertaken, the approaches used, representations of findings, and conclusions drawn. Corporations do not have a habit of funding independent, critically oriented studies, that is, studies not tied to their shareholders’ agendas, especially studies with long lead times and potentially controversial outcomes; it is governments and philanthropic organizations that have provided funding for this kind of research (Marginson 2004). While support from these sources is not always easy to access, their viability as ongoing funding source must be protected if we are to be able to conduct critical inquiries not tied to preordained, marketized outcomes. Even with these sources of support, there are obstacles ahead.
As Gonzales and Nunez (2014, p. 11) note, top-tier journals do not usually have strong track records of publishing ‘feminist scholarship, race/ ethnicity oriented work, qualitative work, or work that interrogates systems of inequality from a structural perspective.’ Then there is the problem of the ongoing bias toward Western European issues, needs, experiences, and authorship. Most leading journals are US or UK based and so effectively exclude those from other, particularly non-Western, cultures, or force them to hire expensive translators if they wish to publish in them (Paasi 2005). In this way, then, the processes of neoliberalization in the academy are agenda setting as decisions about what to publish, what is considered important, which research to fund and undertake (as well as how to undertake it) along with those about who to hire, promote, and fire are made based on metrics that reflect and institute particular outlooks. And if outputs and ranks are largely exclusionary to marginal work, then the impetus is toward the middle: the outputs that are most lauded tend to be conservative and mainstream. Time and again, we have witnessed the impact of this—sitting on committees that make decisions to fund only positivist work, or sitting on selection committees where the hireability of applicants turns on their ability to contribute to the next benchmarking exercise, particularly external grant income and publications considered to be in ‘top-tier journals’ (see Burrows 2012).
To consider alternatives to the marketized entrepreneurial university, we use critical, feminist, and post-positivist analyzes with rebellious pride. We
centralize the working of power/knowledge in a roughly post-Foucauldian way but center this within patriarchal frameworks that we believe underpin both the neoliberalization of the academy and the derision of certain ways of knowing. In practical terms, this means we see power in both possessive and relational terms: you can have but also exercise power, both positively and negatively. Power pulsates in, but also across, intrapersonal, interpersonal, cultural, and structural domains. Weblike patterns of power and domination occur across these domains making it possible for individuals or groups to be exercising personal power (or agency) but still experiencing domination by other people, structures, and/or social systems. When we speak of the politics of the production of knowledge, we are referring to the ways in which different forms of knowledge are ex/ included, de/valued, and dis/credited. In particular, we are interested in how hierarchical assumptions about gender, class, ethnicity, and species can play out, especially in increasingly commercialized contexts of knowledge production.
As we note in Chap. 3, the processes for authorizing knowledge—from original design, methods, interpretations, and applications—are neither neutral nor innocent. Influenced by neoliberalism, universities are increasingly promoting numerical forms of evidence that support attempts to measure almost all phenomena, including that which is hard or impossible to measure. Knowledge prized by advocates of neoliberalism often rests upon post-Enlightenment logical-positivist epistemologies. As Gonzales and Nunez (2014, p. 7) in their consideration of the effects of the ‘ranking regime’ on higher education point out,
there is a notable connection between neoliberalism and the privileging of a scientific epistemology…. The ranking regime is normalized because of the epistemological orientations from which it is built and which circulate through society on a massive scale, particularly in the West.
While academic capitalism and the neoliberalization of universities has been previously considered in detail, the focus has tended to be on describing effects on faculty (e.g., Gonzales et al. 2014) and the broader academic environment (e.g., Berg and Roche 1997). When scholars have turned their attention to the effects on the production of knowledge, it has been done in an abstract, generalized way (e.g., Gonzales and Nunez 2014). While this previous work is important, it is timely to consider the impact on the production of knowledge in a concrete fashion as what is also at
stake here, and often left unconsidered in debates about the problem, is the attendant rationalization and neoliberalization of knowledge itself. While our senior university executives tell us to ‘let the numbers speak for themselves,’ as if the last few decades of feminist critiques of positivism never occurred, we are asked to treat knowledge as a product to ‘leverage.’
In the race to procure grants to secure our academic positions, to develop knowledge that can be commercialized for the university’s profit (not our own, note), to work ‘smarter not harder,’ and to streamline our time, we lose the very thing we are here for—the cultivation of a fascination with knowledge and its potential, both for ourselves as scholars and for our students. It is, after all, awfully difficult to encourage students to be interested in knowledge ‘for the sake of it’ when that very idea is constantly undermined by the message that unless it leads to profit of some kind it is futile and a waste of money and time. It is also difficult when the ethos of the institution that we are trying to spread this message within is itself fully on board with the message that unless it’s vocational it doesn’t matter.
These are but some of the consequences of the neoliberalization of academia and this book is about naming and challenging them. A critique of the consequences of neoliberalization of the academy—intended or otherwise—sits at the heart of this book. Using our own experience in academia, which jointly comes to around fifty years and traverses fourteen universities and three continents, we reflect upon what it is like both working at the margins and doing margin work. To accomplish this, we centralize our own research interest in human–animal relations, which is very much a marginalized area of study. But we also centralize our positions and our ideologies—we are both working-class females working in what is still a middle-class, male-dominated institution. And to add a triple layer to our marginalization, we are both outspoken feminists. In centralizing these, we do not seek to catalogue the injuries that may or may not have been done to us as a result of them, but to explore the impact of neoliberalization and marginalization on knowledge.
As we discuss later in the book, we accept that working on the margins offers some benefits and can even induce moments of freedom to do and say things that others (fully) caught in ‘the center’ cannot. However, we maintain that margin work is always hard work—whether it is fighting to be taken seriously or fighting for the space and materials needed to actually do it. And this is compounded in an environment that is focused solely
on the commercialization of knowledge. Critical pedagogy and (so-called) marginal research topics are largely unwanted and, true to hegemonic workings of power, are pushed out one way or another. This can come in the form of a lack of recognition from university management, lack of support for research projects, and constant requests to justify their inclusion in the curriculum, to name but a few examples. It can also manifest in a more overt way. One of us was advised by a senior mentor to drop research into human–animal relations and take up something mainstream if she wanted to work her way to up the career ladder. We acknowledge that there are many marginal spaces and that those doing marginal work come from all disciplines and institutions. We do not wish to suggest that our experience is unique or somehow categorically different. In fact, quite the opposite, we have chosen to write this book because we feel it will resonate with so many, even if their substantive research interests differ. We locate our discussion in our work in human–animal studies precisely because we think it is considered (by others, not necessarily by us) as margin work and is thus a useful vehicle through which to explore the consequences of neoliberalization. We expect, though, that those from other disciplines and fields, focusing on other issues, will have had similar experiences.
RESISTING THE NEOLIBERALIZATION OF THE ACADEMY
This book presents findings from key research we have undertaken over the years, including two contemporary projects. The common theme to all of the research is that it has been with and/or on behalf of marginalized others. Neither of us would claim neutrality in our research choices. Instead, we happily label ourselves as scholar-activists who undertake research projects that advocate for (oppressed) others, especially for other species. Our work is informed at a discipline level by Sociology and Social Work, both of which have histories of scholar-activism. As we have noted, our own work is done within a broad theoretical framework that draws on feminism, intersectional approaches toward, and analysis of, social justice, posthumanism, and critiques of the neoliberalization of knowledge and the academy. Throughout the book, we ask how, as academics, are we meant to negotiate the pressures and contradictions associated with the neoliberalization of the academy? How are we to fight them without that fight taking all of our time, resources, energy, and mental well-being? As we indicate throughout the book, we accept that as academics we are often complicit in these processes by (albeit often tacitly) accepting
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valley, it will spare labour and misadventure. The road is good and quite level, and your ball will roll along with no exertion. Not a bit of it. The insect has made up its mind to remount the slope already so fatal to it. Perhaps it suits it to return to the heights. Against that I have nothing to say, the Scarabæus knows better than I do whether it be advisable to dwell in lofty regions. At all events, take this path which will lead you up by a gentle incline. Not at all. If there be near at hand some very stiff slope impossible to climb, then that slope this wrong-headed insect prefers. Then begins the labour of Sisyphus. With endless precautions the monstrous load is painfully hoisted, step by step to a certain height, the beetle always going tail first. One asks one’s self by what miracle of statics such a mass can be kept on the slope. Ah! a clumsy movement brings all this toil to naught. Down goes the ball, dragging the beetle with it. The escalade is repeated, soon followed by a fresh fall. The attempt is renewed, and better managed at the difficult points; a nasty grass-root, which occasioned the previous tumbles, is prudently [9]turned; we have almost got to the top. But gently! gently! the ascent is perilous, and a mere nothing may ruin all. A leg slips on a bit of smooth gravel, and ball and scavenger roll down together. The beetle begins all over again, with tireless obstinacy. Ten times, twenty times, will it attempt that further ascent, until persistency vanquishes all obstacles, or until, better advised, it takes the level road.
The scavenger does not always roll his ball single-handed, but frequently takes a partner, or rather, a partner takes him. The affair is usually managed thus: the ball being prepared, a beetle comes out of the throng, pushing it backwards. One of the newcomers, whose own work is hardly begun, leaves its task and runs to the ball, now in motion, to lend a hand to the lucky proprietor, who appears to accept the proffered aid in an amiable spirit. The two work as partners, each doing its best to convey the ball to a place of safety. Was a treaty made in the workshop, a tacit agreement to share the cake? While one kneaded and shaped, was the other tapping rich veins whence to extract choice material for their common use? I have never observed such collaboration, but have always seen every beetle exclusively occupied by his own affairs on the field of labour, so that the last comer has no acquired rights.
Is it, then, an association of the two sexes, a couple about to set up house? For a time I thought so. The two scavengers pushing a ball, one before and one behind, with equal zeal, used to remind me of certain couplets once on a time popular on barrel-organs—
Pour monter notre ménage, hélas comment ferons-nous?
Toi devant, moi derrière, nous pousserons le tonneau.
[10]
But the evidence of the scalpel forces me to give up this family idyll. There is no outward sign of sex in the Scarabæus, but on dissecting a couple employed on one and the same ball they often turned out to be of the same sex. In fact, there is neither community of family nor community of labour. What, then, is the reason of the apparent partnership? Merely an attempt at filching. The eager fellow-worker, under pretence of giving a helping hand, cherishes the project of carrying off the ball at the earliest opportunity. To make one for itself at the heap demands labour and patience; to abstract a ready-made one, or at least to foist one’s self in as a sharer of the feast, is much more convenient. If the owner’s watchfulness should slacken, one will flee with the treasure; if too closely looked after, one can at least sit down at table on the pretext of services rendered. With such tactics all turns to profit, so that pillage is carried on as one of the most lucrative of trades. Some, as I have just said, play an underhand game, hastening to the aid of some comrade who has not the least need of them, and under the cloak of charitable assistance conceal a highly indelicate greed. Others, bolder or more confident in their strength, go straight to the goal and rob by main force. Every moment some such scene as this will take place. A beetle departs alone, rolling his ball, his own property, acquired by conscientious labour; another comes flying, whence I know not, drops heavily, folds his smoky wings under their elytra, and with the back of his toothed feet oversets the proprietor, which, being hindside before, cannot defend itself. While the latter [11]struggles to its feet the aggressor stations itself on the top of the ball, as a point of vantage whence to repel attack, folds its feet under its breast, ready for action, and awaits events. The bereaved owner moves round the ball, seeking a favourable point whence to attempt an assault; the thief revolves on the top of the citadel, constantly facing him. If the former raises itself for an escalade, the latter gives it a cuff which stretches it flat on its back. Secure on the top of the fortress, the besieged would bring to nought for all time the efforts of its adversary to recover its lost property if the besieger did not alter his tactics. Sapping threatens to bring down both citadel and garrison. The ball being undermined, staggers and rolls, carrying with it the robber, struggling his hardest to keep at the top, which he generally succeeds in doing, thanks to the hurried gymnastics that enable him to regain the altitude lost by the rotation of his standing place. If a false movement should bring him to the ground, the chances
become equal, and the contest turns to a wrestling match. Robber and robbed grapple body to body, breast to breast. Their feet twist and untwist, their joints intertwine, their horny armour clashes and grinds with the harsh sound of filed metal. Then one will succeed in throwing its adversary on the back, and, freeing itself, hastily takes up a position on the top of the ball, and the siege is recommenced, now by the robber, now by the robbed, as the chances of the fight may have decided. The former, no doubt a hardy brigand and adventurer, often gets the best of it. After two or three defeats the ex-owner wearies of the contest [12]and returns philosophically to the heap and makes a new ball. As for the other, when all fear of a surprise is over, he harnesses himself to the conquered ball and pushes it whither it seems good to him. I have occasionally seen a third thief rob the robber. And upon my word I was not sorry.
Vainly do I ask myself what Prudhon introduced into Scarabæus-morality the audacious paradox that “Property spells theft,” or what diplomatist taught the dung-beetle that “they may take who have the power, and they may keep who can.” I have not the evidence required to lead me to the origin of these spoliations which have become a habit, or of this abuse of strength in order to seize a ball of dirt. All that I can affirm is that among beetles theft is universal. These dung rollers pillage one another with a cool effrontery really matchless. I leave it to future observers to elucidate this curious problem in the psychology of animals, and return to the couple rolling their balls in partnership.
[To face p 12
GEOTRUPES STERCORARIUS FIGHTING FOR THE PELLET
But first let us dissipate an error current in books. In the magnificent work of M. Emile Blanchard, Metamorphoses, Habits, and Instincts of Animals, I find the following passage: “Sometimes our insect is stopped by an insurmountable obstacle: the ball has fallen into a hole. At such a time the Ateuchus1 displays a really astonishing grasp of the situation, and a yet more astonishing power of communication between individuals of the same species. Recognising the impossibility of getting the ball over the obstacle, the Ateuchus seemingly abandons it, and flies away. If you are sufficiently endowed [13]with that great and noble virtue called Patience, remain near this forsaken ball. After a while the Ateuchus will return, and not alone; it will be followed by two, three, or four companions who, alighting at the appointed spot, will join in trying to lift up the load. The Ateuchus has been to seek reinforcements, and this explains why several beetles uniting to transport a single ball is such a common sight in dry fields.” I also read in Illiger’s Entomological Magazine: “A Gymnopleurus pilularius,2 while constructing the ball of dung destined to contain its eggs, let it roll into a hole, whence the insect tried long and vainly to extract it. Finding this only waste of time, he hastened to a neighbouring heap of manure to seek three of his kind, which, uniting their efforts to his, succeeded in getting out the ball, and then went back to their own work.”
I humbly beg pardon of my illustrious master, M. Blanchard, but assuredly things do not happen thus. First, the two accounts are so much alike that they must have had a common origin. After observations not followed up closely enough to merit blind confidence, Illiger put forward the story of his Gymnopleurus, and the same fact has been attributed to the Scarabæus because it really is a common thing to find two of these insects busy rolling a ball, or getting it out of some difficult position. But the partnership does not at all prove that one went to ask help from the other in some difficulty. I have had a large measure of the patience [14]recommended by M. Blanchard; I may claim to have spent long days in the intimacy of Scarabæus sacer; I have tried every means to comprehend its manners and customs, and to study them from life, and never did I see anything which suggested that one had called its companions to its aid. As I shall presently relate, I have put the dung-beetle to proofs far more serious than that of a ball fallen into a hole, and into far graver difficulties than having to climb a slope—a thing which is mere sport for the obstinate Sisyphus, who seems to enjoy the rough gymnastics required by steep places, as if the ball grew thereby
firmer, and therefore more valuable. I have invented situations where the insect had extreme need of help, and never could I detect any proof of good offices between comrades. I have seen pillaged and pillagers, and nothing else. If a number of beetles surrounded the same ball, it meant battle. My humble opinion is that several Scarabæi gathered round a pellet with intent to thieve was what gave rise to these stories of comrades called in to give a helping hand. Incomplete observations have turned an audacious robber into a serviceable companion who put his own work aside to do a friendly turn. It is no slight thing to admit that an insect has a truly surprising grasp of the situation and a facility of communication between individuals more surprising still; therefore I insist on this point, Are we to suppose that a Scarabæus in distress conceives the idea of begging for help?—flies off, explores the country round to find comrades at work on a dropping, and having found them, by some pantomime, especially by movements of the antennæ, addresses them more [15]or less thus: “Hullo, you there! My load is upset in a hole yonder; come and help me to get it out. I will do as much for you another time.” And are we to suppose too that his colleagues understand him? And, more wonderful still, that they leave their work, their ball newly begun, their beloved ball, exposed to the greed of others, and certain to be filched during their absence, in order to help the supplicant! I am profoundly incredulous of so much self-sacrifice, and my incredulity is borne out by all which I have seen during many long years, not in collection boxes, but on the spots where the Scarabæi work. Outside of the cares of maternity—cares in which it almost always shows itself admirable, the Insect—unless, indeed, it lives in society like bees and ants and some others—thinks and cares for nothing but itself.
Let us drop this discussion, excused by the importance of the subject. I have already said that a Scarabæus, owner of a ball which it is pushing backwards, is often joined by another which hastens to its aid with interested views, ready to rob if it gets the chance. Let us call the pair associates, though that is hardly the name for them, since one forces itself on the other, who perhaps only accepts help for fear of worse. The meeting is, however, perfectly peaceable. The arrival of the assistant does not distract the proprietor for an instant from his labours; the newcomer seems animated by the best intentions, and instantly sets to work. The way they harness themselves is different for each. The owner of the ball occupies the chief position, the place of honour; he pushes behind the load, his [16]hind feet upraised, his head downward. The helper is in front, in a reverse position, head raised, toothed arms on the ball, long hind legs on the ground.
Between the two moves the ball, pushed before it by the one, dragged towards it by the other. The efforts of the couple are not always harmonious, especially as the assistant turns his back to the road to be traversed, and the view of the owner is bounded by his load. Hence repeated accidents and ludicrous tumbles, taken cheerfully, each hastening to pick himself up and resume his former position. On level ground this style of draught does not answer to the expenditure of energy, for want of precision in combined movements; the Scarabæus behind would do as well or better alone, and the assistant, having proved his goodwill at the risk of disturbing the mechanism, decides to keep quiet of course without abandoning the precious globe, which he looks on as already his. A ball touched is a ball acquired. He will not be so imprudent as to let go; the other would instantly take advantage of it. So he folds his legs under him, flattens himself, incrusts himself, as it were, on the ball, and becomes part of it. Ball and beetle roll together, pushed along by the lawful owner. Whether it should go over the body of the other, whether he be above, below, or on one side of the rolling load, matters not—the intruder lies low. A singular helper this, who lets himself be run over for the sake of a share in the provender! But let them come to a steep incline, and he gets a chance of displaying his usefulness. On the steep slope he takes the lead, holding up the heavy load with his toothed feet while his [17]comrade steadies himself to hoist the load a little higher. Thus, by a combination of judicious efforts, I have seen them mount ascents, the one above holding up, the lower one pushing, where all the obstinate efforts of a single beetle must have failed. All, however, have not the same zeal in difficult moments; some, just when their assistance is most wanted on a slope, do not appear in the least aware that there is anything to overcome. While the unhappy Sisyphus is exhausting himself in efforts to surmount his difficulties, the other remains passive, incrusted on the ball, rolling down with it, and forthwith hoisted up again.
I have often tried the following experiment on two associates in order to judge of their inventive faculties in a serious predicament. Let us suppose them on level ground, the assistant firmly seated on the ball, the other pushing. Without disturbing the latter, I nail the ball to the ground with a long, strong pin; it comes to a sudden stop. The beetle, unaware of my treachery, doubtless believes in some rut, some dandelion root or pebble stopping the way. He redoubles his efforts, struggles his hardest, but nothing moves. What has happened? Let us go and see. Twice or thrice he walks round his pellet. Discovering nothing which can explain its immovableness, he goes behind and pushes again. The ball
remains motionless. Let us look above. He climbs up to find nothing but his motionless colleague, for I have taken care to drive the head of the pin in deep enough to hide the head in the mass of the ball. He examines the summit and again descends; fresh thrusts are vigorously applied in [18]front and on either side with the same want of success. Certainly no scavenger beetle ever yet found himself confronted by such a problem of inertia. It is the very moment for claiming assistance, a thing all the more easy that the colleague is close at hand, squatted on the top of the dome. Will the Scarabæus give him a shake, or address him somewhat thus: What are you about, lazy bones? Come and look here; something has broken down. Nothing proves that he does so, for the beetle long persists in trying to move the immovable, examining now on this side, now on that, now above, now below, while his friend still remains quiescent. In the end, however, the latter becomes aware that something unusual is going on; it is brought home to him by the uneasy comings and goings of his companion and by the immobility of the ball, so in his turn he comes down to look into the matter. Double harness does not prove more effectual than single, and matters grow complicated. The little fans of their antennæ open and shut, open again, quiver and betray their lively anxiety. Then a stroke of genius ends their perplexities. Who knows what may be underneath? They explore below the ball, and a slight excavation reveals the pin. They recognise at once that the crux is there. Had I a voice in the matter I should have said, “An excavation must be made, and the stake which holds the ball must be got out.” This very elementary proceeding, and one so easy to such expert excavators, was not adopted nor even attempted. The scavenger beetle was cleverer than the man. The two colleagues, one on this side, one [19]on that, insinuated themselves under the ball, which slipped up along the pin in proportion as the living wedges raised it, the softness of the material allowing of this clever manœuvre. Soon the ball was suspended at a height equal to that of the beetles’ bodies. What remained to do was more difficult. From lying flat they gradually got on their legs and pushed upward with their backs. It was hard to accomplish, the feet losing strength the more they stretched upward, but they did it. Then came a moment when they could no longer use their backs to push, the highest point possible being reached. There was a last resource, but one much less favourable to the development of strength. Now in one of the postures in which it drags a ball, now in the other,—that is to say, either head downward or the reverse,—the insect pushes with hind or fore feet. Finally, unless the pin be too long, the ball drops to the ground. The perforation is repaired as best it can be, and the ball is at once dragged onward.
But if the pin should be too long, the ball remains suspended at a height which the insect cannot increase by rearing itself up. In this case, after vain evolutions around the inaccessible maypole, the beetles give up the struggle, unless you are kind-hearted enough to complete the work yourself, and restore their treasure, or unless you aid them by raising the floor with a little flat stone, a pedestal from whence the insect can continue its work. Its use does not seem to be immediately understood, for neither beetle shows any readiness to profit by it. However, by chance or otherwise, one gets on the stone. Oh, joy! as it passed it felt the ball touch its back. [20]Thereupon courage returns, and the struggle begins again. Standing on its platform the beetle stretches its joints, rounds its back, and hoists the pellet. When that no longer avails, it manœuvres with its feet, now upright, now head downward. There is a new pause and new signs of uneasiness when the limit of extension is reached. Without disturbing the creature let us put another little stone on the first. By the help of the new step, which gives a support for its levers, the insect pursues its task. Adding one step to another as required, I have seen the Scarabæus, perched on a shaky pile of three or four fingers’ breadth, persisting in its labour until the ball was completely freed.
Had it some vague consciousness of the services rendered by the elevation of its point of leverage? I cannot believe it, although the beetle profited very cleverly by my platform of little stones, for if the very elementary idea of using a higher base to reach something too elevated was not beyond it, how was it that neither beetle bethought him of offering his back to the other, thus rendering the task possible? One assisting the other, they might have doubled the height attained. They are far indeed from any such combinations. Here, each pushes the ball with all its might, but pushes as if alone, without seeming to suspect the happy result which would be brought about by a combined effort. When the ball is fastened to the ground by a pin, they behave as they would when the ball is stopped by a loop of dandelion, or held by some slender bit of stalk which has got into the soft, rolling mass. My artifice brought about a stoppage not unlike [21]those which occur when the ball is rolling amid the many inequalities of the ground, and the insect acts as it would have acted in some circumstances where I had not interfered. It uses its back as a wedge and lever and pushes with its feet without at all varying its means of action, even when it might call a comrade to its help.
If it has to face the difficulties of a ball nailed to the ground with no assistant, its dynamic manœuvres are exactly the same, and it succeeds, so long as we give
the indispensable help of a platform gradually built up. Should this help be refused, the Scarabæus, no longer stimulated by the touch of its beloved ball, loses hope, and sooner or later, no doubt with bitter regret, flies off, whither I know not. What I do know is, that it does not return with a squadron of companions whom it has implored to help it. What could it do with them, since it cannot utilise even the single comrade when one shares the ball? Perhaps, however, an experiment which suspends the pellet at a height inaccessible to the insect when its means of action are exhausted may be too much outside of ordinary conditions. Let us try a miniature ditch, deep enough and steep enough to prevent a beetle when placed at the bottom with its load from rolling it up. These are the exact conditions named by Blanchard and Illiger. What happens? When persistent yet fruitless efforts show the beetle that it can do nothing, it spreads its wings and flies off. Long, very long have I waited, on the faith of what these learned men say, expecting it to return with its friends, but I have always waited in vain. Often, too, many days later I have found the ball [22]just where I tried the experiment, either at the top of the pin or at the bottom of the hole, proving that nothing fresh had happened. A pellet abandoned from necessity is abandoned for good and all, without salvage by the help of other beetles. Dexterous use of wedge and lever to move the arrested ball is the highest intellectual effort I have ever seen in the Scarabæus sacer. As a counterpoise to what experiment refutes, namely, an appeal for help to brother beetles, I very willingly chronicle this feat of mechanics for the glorification of the Scarabæus. Straying over sandy plains thickset with thyme, ruts, and slopes, the ball is rolled for a while by the two partners, the material thus acquiring a firmness which they probably find palatable. By and by a favourable spot is selected. The proprietor, who has always kept the place of honour behind the ball and is the one who performs almost the whole work of draught, begins to hollow out the diningroom. Beside him is the ball, to which his associate clings, motionless. Head and toothed legs attack the sand, flinging quantities backward, and the excavation advances rapidly. Soon the insect disappears therein. Each time that he brings a load to upper air he never fails to glance at the ball to make sure that all is going on well. Now and again he brings it nearer to the edge of the cavity, feels it, and seems to gain new zeal from its contact. The other beetle, hypocrite that he is, continues to inspire confidence by his motionless attitude on the ball. Meanwhile, the underground hall grows larger and deeper, and the excavator appears more rarely, hindered by the extent of his labours. The moment is favourable, [23]the sleeper rouses up. The crafty partner decamps with the ball, dragging it behind him with the haste of a thief fearing to be caught in the act.
This abuse of trust rouses my ire, but I let it pass in the interest of the story— time enough to interfere on behalf of morality if the upshot threaten to turn out ill.
Already the thief is some yards away. The robbed beetle comes up from his hole, looks, and finds nothing. No doubt he has himself had a hand in like proceedings. Scent and sight soon put him on the track and he hurriedly comes up with the robber, whereupon this sly dog promptly changes his position, gets on his hind legs and clasps the ball with his toothed arms as he does when acting helper. Ah, you rascal! I see through you! you would excuse yourself by declaring that the ball rolled down the slope, and that you are trying to stop it and take it home. I, however, who am an impartial witness, assert that the ball, being well balanced at the mouth of the hole, did not move of its own accord. Besides, the ground is level. I affirm that I saw you set it in motion and make off with unequivocal intentions. It was an attempt at larceny or I know nothing about it. My evidence not being taken into consideration, the owner listens mildly to his companion’s excuses, and the two roll the ball back as if nothing had happened.
But if the thief can get far enough away, or can conceal his track by adroitly doubling back, the loss is irreparable. To have collected provisions under a fiery sun, to have conveyed them a weary way, to have hollowed out a comfortable banqueting hall in [24]the sand, and then, just when all is ready, and appetite whetted by toil lends charms to the prospect of the approaching feast, to find one’s self suddenly robbed by a companion is certainly a reverse of fortune that would try most people’s courage. But the dung beetle does not allow itself to be cast down by this malicious blow of fate; it rubs its cheeks, spreads its antennæ, sniffs the air, and flies to the nearest heap to begin again. This is a trait of character which I admire and envy
Let us suppose the Scarabæus lucky enough to have met with a reliable partner, or, better still, that he has no self-invited associate. The hole is ready, made in friable earth, usually in sand, rather shallow, about the size of one’s fist, communicating with the outer air by a short passage, just wide enough to let the ball pass. As soon as the provender is introduced, the Scarabæus shuts itself in, stopping up the mouth of the passage with fragments kept in reserve in a corner Once the door is closed, nothing outside betrays the banqueting hall. And now hurrah! all is for the best, in the best of all possible worlds. The table is sumptuously laid, the ceiling tempers the heat of the sun, only allowing a gentle moist heat to penetrate; the calm, the darkness, the concert given by the fieldcricket overhead, all favour digestion. Carried away by my interest, I have
caught myself listening at the door, believing that I heard sung at table the famous
Ah! how sweet ’tis nought to do When all around is endless stir
from the opera of Galathea. [25]
Who would dare disturb the beatitude of such a banquet? Alas! the desire for knowledge makes one capable of anything, and I have not shrunk from even this. I now give the result of thus violating the sanctity of home-life. The ball filled almost the whole space, the magnificent store of victuals rising from floor to ceiling, a narrow passage separated it from the walls. In this sat the banqueters, two at most, often but one, their faces to the table, their backs to the wall. When once they have taken their places nobody stirs, all their vital powers are absorbed by the digestive faculties. No little movement which might cause the loss of a mouthful, no daintiness which might waste the food—everything must be done decently and in order. To see them thus absorbed round a lump of dung, one would say that they were aware of their rôle as earth-cleansers, and consciously devoted themselves to that marvellous chemistry which out of impurity brings the flower that gladdens the eye, and the wing-cases of the Scarabæus which adorn the turf in springtime. To fit it for this all-important work, which turns into living matter the residue that horse and sheep cannot utilise, in spite of the perfection of their digestive organs, the dung beetle needs special tools. Accordingly anatomy shows the immense length of its intestine, which, folded repeatedly on itself, slowly deals with the material in its manifold circuits, and exhausts the very last atom capable of being used. Where the stomach of the herbivorous animal can extract nothing, this powerful alembic draws riches which under its influence become the ebony mail of the Scarabæus sacer, and a cuirass of gold and [26]rubies for other species. Sanitary principles require that this marvellous change be made as rapidly as possible; therefore the Scarabæus is endowed with a matchless power of digestion. Once shut up with food, it never ceases to eat and digest until the whole store is devoured. Proof of this is easily come by. Open the cell where it has retired from the world at any hour and you find the insect eating, and behind it, still attached to the creature, is a continuous cord, rolled carelessly like a bundle of cables. Without going into particulars, we can guess what this cord represents. Mouthful by mouthful the great ball passes into the digestive organs, yielding up its nutritive principle, and reappearing spun into a rope. Now this unbroken cord, often without a joint and
always hanging from the orifice, proves, with absolute certainty, how continuous is the action of digestion. By the time that the food is nearly eaten, the rope is astonishingly long. Where else could one find another stomach, that, to avoid any loss in the debit and credit ledger of life, can feast for a week or a fortnight on such miserable cheer? When the whole mass has been digested, the hermit returns to daylight, seeks, finds, and shapes a new ball, and begins all over again. This royal life lasts one or two months, from June to July; then, with the coming of the fierce heat, which the grasshoppers love, the Scarabæi take up summer quarters and bury themselves in the cool earth. With the first rains they reappear, less numerous and less active than in spring, but apparently taken up by the all-important task of continuing their race. [27]
The Scarabæus is also called Ateuchus ↑
G. pilularius is a scavenger beetle nearly related to the Scarabæus. As its name suggests, it too rolls balls of dung. It is found very generally, even in the north, whereas S. sacer scarcely leaves the shores of the Mediterranean. ↑
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