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Silver Gelatin in the Digital Age
A Step-By-Step Manual for Digital/Analog Hybrid Photography
This book provides photographers of all skill levels with a concise step-by-step guide to combining analog and digital tools with the goal of making silver gelatin prints in the traditional darkroom. It offers the most comprehensive treatment of lith printing published in many years, focusing on materials which are currently available.
Key topics include traditional silver gelatin printing, direct and second-pass lith printing, film to digital image conversion, bleaching, toning and other post-production practices. Readers will learn how to use specific Photoshop tools to carry out the time-honored techniques of overall tonal control, contrast, and burning and dodging.This also features Photoshop basics for black and white, image shaping in Photoshop, and digital negative creation. Through exploring these skills, readers will gain an understanding of how to prepare images and create negatives that can be used in other historical processes including cyanotype, platinum/palladium, and many others.
Author Douglas Ethridge details a systematic approach to combining analog and digital working methods, making the text ideal for both digital photographers looking to creatively edit their images with traditional darkroom aesthetics, and film photographers looking to incorporate digital capabilities into their practice.
Douglas Ethridge has been a working media professional and fine art photographer for more than 50 years and has been blending digital and analog tools for audio, video and still photography into his practice since the 1990s. His work has been exhibited globally and has been published in a variety of fine art publications including Black and White Magazine, Camera Arts, China Photographer Magazine and Lenswork. Ethridge has taught at the Photographic Center Northwest in Seattle, and has contributed to Routledge’s Digital Negatives with QuadToneRIP (Routledge, 2021). Examples of his work can be found on his website: douglasethridgephotography.com.
Contemporary Practices in Alternative Process Photography Series
The Contemporary Practices in Alternative Process Photography series focuses the lens on a variety of alternative, historical processes from the medium’s 180-year history. Each book outlines a stepby-step approach to a particular medium, and features contemporary artists who use that particular process regularly in their practice. The richly illustrated books in this series serve as guidebooks for those new to alternative processes, refresher courses for professionals already familiar with each medium, and a source of inspiration for all.
Series titles in order of publication
Nelson, Don. Kallitype, Vandyke Brown, and Argyrotype: A Step-by-Step Manual of Iron-Silver Processes
Highlighting Contemporary Artists. New York: Routledge (2023)
Anderson, Christina Z. The Experimental Darkroom: Contemporary Uses of Traditional Black & White Photographic Materials. New York: Routledge (2023)
Golaz, Annette. Cyanotype Toning: Using Botanicals to Tone Blueprints Naturally (2022)
Malde, Pradip and Mike Ware. Platinotype: Making Photographs in Platinum and Palladium with the Contemporary Printing-out Process (2021)
McPhee, Leanne. Chrysotype: A Contemporary Guide to Photographic Printing in Gold (2021)
Reeder, Ron and Christina Z. Anderson. Digital Negatives with QuadToneRIP: Demystifying QTR for Photographers and Printmakers (2021)
King, Sandy, Don Nelson and John Lockhart. Carbon Transfer Printing: A Step-by-Step Manual Featuring Contemporary Carbon Printers and their Creative Practice (2020)
Anderson, Christina Z. Cyanotype: The Blueprint in Contemporary Practice (2019)
Ross, Denise. The Handmade Silver Gelatin Emulsion Print: Creating Your Own Liquid Emulsions for Black and White Paper (2019)
Harmon, Clay. Polymer Photogravure: A Step-by-Step Manual Highlighting Artists and their Creative Practice (2019)
Anderson, Christina Z. Salted Paper Printing: A Step-by-Step Manual Highlighting Contemporary Artists (2018)
Anderson, Christina Z. Gum Printing: A Step-by-Step Manual Highlighting Artists and Their Creative Practice (2017)
SILVER GELATIN IN THE DIGITAL AGE
A Step-By-Step Manual for Digital/Analog Hybrid Photography
DOUGLAS ETHRIDGE
First published 2024 by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2024 Taylor & Francis
The right of Douglas Ethridge to be identified as author of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this title has been requested
ISBN: 9781032381787 (hbk)
ISBN: 9781032381770 (pbk)
ISBN: 9781003343837 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003343837
Typeset in Adobe Caslon Pro and Century Gothic by Douglas Ethridge
Publisher’s Note: This book has been prepared from camera-ready copy provided by the author.
Cover image: Morning Fog, Mulan Paddock © Douglas Ethridge 2023. Digital original, digital negative, silver gelatin lith print on Fomatone MG.
Exercise caution in the handling of all photographic chemicals. Use of any such chemicals constitutes some risk, and some are poisonous. The publisher and author accept no responsibility for injury or loss arising from the procedures or materials described in this book whether used properly or improperly. The workplace should be well ventilated. Chemicals should be mixed only in the manner described. Avoid contact between the chemicals and eyes, skin, clothing, and furniture. Do not eat or drink while using chemicals. Keep them away from pets and children. Wear protective eye wear and gloves if necessary. In short, be mindful of all safety procedures for yourself and others.
PART TWO
recording The image
Chapter 4
Film Photography
How this chapter is organized
Film offers a multitude of formats
Film records differently than digital
What about film exposure?
What about “improper” exposure?
Strategies for selecting the right film
Creative benefits of slow speed film
Creative benefits of fast speed film
Convenience of medium speed film
Developers
Acutance developers
Solvent developers
T-grain developers
Choosing a film and developer combination
Determining effective film speed
Using “push” and “pull” development
In-camera contrast filtration
I’ve shot my film, now what?
What’s next?
Chapter 5
Analog to Digital Conversion
How this chapter is organized
How much data do we really need?
What kind of data do we need?
Comparing scanner types
What format(s) do you need to scan?
Lab scans
Desktop film scanners
Desktop flatbed scanners
Post-scanning adjustments
Digital
Digital cameras
Macro-capable
Copy
Light
Film
or tripod
Tethering to a computer
Determining
Framing the
Optimal
Figure 0.2. Head, Tuileries © Douglas Ethridge 2023. Lith print on vintage Kodabromide direct from camera negative.
Figure 0.3. Approaching Escape Velocity © Douglas Ethridge 2023. Silver gelatin lith print on Oriental Warmtone, film original, Imacon scan, digital negative.
Figure 0.4. Contemplating Time © Douglas Ethridge 2023. Silver gelatin lith print on 1970s Kodabromide, direct from camera negative.
Chapter 1 Printmaking with Intent
Since the very beginning of photography, photographers have been consumed with discovering various means to make photographic prints, well aware that the printmaking aspect of their craft was crucial to sharing their images with others, but also with fully realizing the aesthetic expression of the content of the photograph itself. Ansel Adams spoke eloquently of this in his famous statement, “The negative is the score and the print is the
performance.”That sentiment has been integral to photography since the very beginning. The range of possibilities in silver gelatin printing is fairly astounding. As we look at prints of accomplished photographers— both historic masters and contemporary artists— we can clearly see how the selection of materials, the depiction of contrast, the range of tonalities and every other aspect of rendering the image onto paper, shapes the way in which we the viewers perceive any given
Figure 1.2. It’s Complicated © Rashod Taylor 2023.
image. In this book, you will see examples from photographers who have patiently and consciously explored different silver gelatin printing methods to achieve image renderings which set a mood and strengthen the particular type of images that they have created in the camera.There is no reason that each of us cannot strive to achieve this synergy between recording the image and printmaking. It begins with thinking about intent.
Nearly every photographer I’ve ever met who has moved past the snapshot phase where we all begin, has come to the realization that a well-made print speaks volumes. But what constitutes a well-made print? Perhaps the most conservative interpretation is a print which more or less accurately maps the full range of tones of the film
Figure 1.3. Jökulsárlón, Iceland, 2004 © Paula Chamlee 2015.
Figure 1.4. Big © Hiroshi Watanabe 2008.
or digital recording onto the photographic print. In some cases, this will result in a beautiful print which has been brought to its full potential with relatively modest adjustments; a bit more or less exposure, a bit more or less contrast, a warmer or cooler tone paper, and perhaps some fairly basic toning. For some images, the chosen solution will be making this best possible direct rendition of the negative. Rashod Taylor’s image on the opening page of this chapter, and Paula Chamlee’s large format contact print opposite are fine examples of this approach.
The next steps on the journey are technical as well as emotional. We critically look at our prints and ask “Is there any way to make this print better?” Again being conservative, we look at individual
areas of the image and decide what could be improved by simply making some areas lighter and other areas darker than what was present in the original scene. Sometimes these changes are incremental as in Hiroshi Watanabe’s portrait of Big. Sometimes these changes are more dramatic, and totally change the character of the image, as we see in Bruce Barnbaum’s image above. As a printer, you are always asking, is there more to do?
We also want to ask ourselves what are we trying to say with our images. Some photographers are comfortable with irony, others with joy, others with humor, others with melancholy. For some photographers, their intent is a desire to create a memorable artifact or illustration of an object, a person or a moment in time, which they felt
Figure 1.5. Slick Rock and Reflecting Pool © Bruce Barnbaum 1996.
compelled to document. Other photographers are moved to create imagery which expresses their inner emotions or imparts a social message. Jennifer Schlesinger combines several of these motivations to capture an elegant object infused with emotion in her image Object Diaspora #12 above. Debbie Fleming Caffery’s image Serafina and Hugolina would be far less mysterious if it were rendered in less dramatic tones.
There are as many different reasons to make photographs as there are photographers. No matter the intent, it is useful to know your intent and let it help guide you as you strive to make that intent more clear to the viewer.
As we move away from a somewhat straightforward interpretation of the original scene, we begin to head down the path of intentional transformation. Sometimes this becomes a radical re-imagining of the original scene.The print maker begins to guide the viewer along to a different reality by rendering the image in a non-literal way
to achieve a specific mood or interpretation of that image. We can see this approach quite clearly in the images of Michael Massaia, shown on the
Figure 1.6. Object Diaspora #12 © Jennifer Schlesinger 2023.
Figure 1.7. Serafina and Hugolina © Debbie Fleming Caffery 1995.
Figure 1.8. My Little Dress © Susan de Witt 2023.
opening page of this chapter, and Susan de Witt’s ethereal fashion-driven miniature My Little Dress. Guillaume Zuili takes us on a long, strange and wonderful trip through the California landscape with his powerful silver gelatin lith prints. Carol Golemboski returns us to the idea of “straight prints” but with the unusual notion of layering elements over the paper during printing. Neil Folberg, in the closing page of this chapter, transports us to childhood memories, staring up at the starry skies and wondering,“What’s out there?”
All of these images began life as straightforward, strongly composed scenes which have been transformed by the print-maker’s artistry into something uniquely their own. Again, there is no reason that each of us cannot strive to achieve this synergy between recording an image and printmaking. How do we get there?
It can begin by looking at other people’s work. This is the digital age, after all, and so you can head to the Internet as one starting point. Let’s say you have a particular interest in street photography and
are looking for ideas on how to make better prints, or prints that echo the look of classic masters of this genre. A quick Google search of “street photography masters” immediately delivers a deluge of images and articles about famous artists such as Robert Doisneau, Elliott Erwitt and Daidō Moriyama as well as a host of other talented people you’ve never heard of. Study the images, the tonalities, the compositions. Notice the differences in styles. Think about what work you are most attracted to. Study your own prints and think about how you can incorporate elements of work that you admire as well as how you can strengthen your own points of difference.
Achieving a good synergy between image and printing method also requires an open mind and fearless experimentation. Not every image or series of images is going to be ideal with the same method of printing. Master a particular paper but try new papers and chemistry from time to time. Don’t hesitate to make bold moves whether in the image preparation stage in Photoshop or in the darkroom.
Figure 1.9. Arrow on the Ground, Yucca Valley © Guillame Zuili 2022.
Figure 1.10. Birthday © Carol Golemboski 2015.
For example, you will never know how light or dark the ideal print is until you make one that is clearly too dark and one that is clearly too light. You will always learn something useful from those moody, too dark and airy, too light prints. Rather than throwing out prints that are not to your satisfaction, save them and use them to learn new skills. Bleaching, intensifying, toning, second pass lith and other post-production processes are all fun to do and require experience to master. Printing in the silver gelatin darkroom is a life-long accumulation of not very good but useful prints leading to an occasional wonderful success. Oftentimes finding the “right” printing method for any given image or series is a string of happy accidents with new methods, followed by careful fine tuning.
Why the hybrid workflow?
Certainly there are talented and experienced photographers who hold fast to their analog tools, and why not? However, we are now well into the age of digital photography and there should be no doubt in anyone’s mind that the digital world has opened new horizons of creativity and precision. The beauty of the silver gelatin/digital hybrid workflow is that it allows you to pick and choose tools and materials based on how they can enhance your creative choices and intents.
If a digital camera is more capable for a given task, go for it. Utilize Photoshop to shape the light/ dark values and contrast of every aspect of a scene. You will soon know how to make a digital negative and do not need to deny yourself the hands-on creativity of making your prints using the artistry of the silver gelatin darkroom.
If a film camera feels like the right choice, shoot film. Some of those negatives will be efficient and enjoyable to print directly in the darkroom with only a handful of moderate adjustments. Even for straightforward images though, consider converting negatives to digital files and using Photoshop to experiment with light/dark and contrast values. It takes but a few mouse clicks to make dramatic overall changes, rough in localized burning and
dodging and so on. An afternoon of random “what if” tinkering at the computer can offer guidance for taking those camera negatives into the darkroom and working efficiently under the enlarger.
You will likely have much more difficult film negatives to print as well. You can labor in the darkroom making minute and tricky adjustments, or you can take advantage of a powerful ally on your desktop in the form of Photoshop. Images which would be painfully difficult to bring fully to life with precision burning and dodging in the wet darkroom can be brought closer to realization in Photoshop and then finished in the darkroom.
As just one example of work that can be extremely challenging, several of the most famous images by the legendary master W. Eugene Smith are the result of literally days spent meticulously bleaching prints with a tiny brush, making adjustments that were impossible to make in the darkroom during printing. One mistake and the print would be ruined. No photographer takes on this kind of tedium because they love to do it, they take it on because at the time it was the only way to accomplish their goal of realizing a specific vision for a specific image. In the digital age, these kinds of detailed, precision adjustments and corrections can be carried out on the computer before the digital negative is made. Sometimes these computer tasks can be every bit as demanding as working in the darkroom, but once completed, they do not need to be done on every print. That leaves time and energy to make further refinements in the darkroom.
The hybrid workflow opens so many doors to so many different ways to make a print. Embrace the concept that you are never going to make the ultimate print of any image, but you can and should strive to make the best possible print on any given day. You will learn much more from failures than from successes. Work diligently to make prints that are satisfying. Build your skills and knowledge base. Take time now and then to revisit old favorites and apply new knowledge to see what happens. The darkroom is truly a place of magic. It is awaiting your presence.
Figure 1.11. Your Ancestral Memory © Neil Folberg 2023.
Figure 2.1. Waterwall Sprites © Douglas Ethridge 2023. Digital original, digital negative, silver gelatin print on Fomabrom 111.
Chapter 2
Getting Started, Hardware and Software
The hybrid workflow is very much about exercising creative control over your images: creative control over which camera and format you find most suitable and enjoyable to work with for any given task; creative control over how you shape the tonal values of every image; creative control over the way the finished prints appear. The purpose of this book is to show you how to take advantage of useful and powerful aspects of commonly available analog and digital tools and combine them in the interest of making ever better silver gelatin prints.
At first glance, it may seem that there are way too many moving parts in the hybrid workflow.The reality is that if you have been making photographs for any length of time, you already understand many of these moving parts. You already own or have access to many of the necessary tools. What I hope to do in this book is to fill in any gaps in your knowledge and show you how to weave everything together. Feel free to skip around to the topics that interest you the most.
This chapter briefly summarizes the hardware, software and materials used in the hybrid workflow.
Cameras
Virtually any film or digital camera is perfectly suitable for the hybrid workflow. Whatever you are shooting with now is all you need.
Analog to digital conversion hardware
• Outsource scanning to a photo lab
• Film capable flatbed scanner
Epson V600, V850 or similar
• Desktop film scanner
Imacon (no longer made)
Plustek OpticFilm series (35 mm only)
• Digital camera scanning setup
Digital camera
Copy stand
Light source
Negative holder(s)
Tether software (optional)
Computer (optional)
If you are shooting film and plan to take advantage of using Photoshop to shape your images before printing them, you will need to convert film images to digital files. You can outsource the work, use a desktop scanner or use a digital camera. We will cover this topic in depth in Chapter 5: Analog to Digital Conversion.
Epson makes good quality film-capable flatbed scanners which are well suited for medium and large format negatives. They work less well for 35 mm only because the scanning resolution for that size film is on the edge of being enough for 11˝ x 14˝ prints. Good desktop film scanners are a bit more problematic. The gold standard is the Imacon scanner, but it is no longer made and even used it is still expensive. The Plustek film scanners are relatively inexpensive but limited to 35 mm. They are easy to use and may do an acceptable job.
The most flexible option if starting from scratch is probably to scan negatives using a digital camera. This method is very efficient and is of high quality. The most expensive component is a digital camera, which many photographers already own.
Computer and printer hardware
• Computer capable of running Photoshop
• Epson printer
P600/800
P700/900
• Flatbed scanner
If you already own a computer capable of running Photoshop, you already have all the computing power you need.
As for the printer, the software you will use for creating digital negatives only runs on Epson printers. As of this writing, the P600/800 and P700/900 printers are highly recommended, along with their heavier duty and wider format siblings. These newer printers have considerably smaller ink dots, resulting in smoother negatives. They also have fewer issues with creating faint marks on the film used for digital negatives, and seem to tolerate periods of inactivity better than older machines. You will need a flatbed scanner for scanning the step wedges used to create digital negative profiles. An inexpensive all-in-one printer/scanner is perfectly fine for this task.
Digital software
• Adobe Photoshop, CS5 or newer
• Adobe Camera RAW
• Adobe Bridge
• QuadToneRIP
• Print-Tool
• Build QTR Curve JavaScript
Adobe Photoshop, Camera RAW and Bridge are the three main software tools used throughout this book. While there are other very good image editing software tools available, the precision and close integration of the Adobe tools makes for an efficient workflow. From a technical standpoint, any version of Photoshop from CS5 on, works well for the hybrid workflow.
Lightroom users may be wondering about using that program for the hybrid workflow. Because I learned Photoshop in depth long before Lightroom was created, I’ve had no compelling reason to give Lightroom more than casual use. Clearly much of
the image preparation work that will be described in this book can be accomplished in Lightroom. There are, however, aspects of building digital negative output profiles for QTR which require Photoshop’s Curves function. We’ll touch more on this point in the chapter on digital negatives.
To drive the Epson printer for making digital negatives you will be using the QuadToneRIP and Print-Tool from Roy Harrington. Navigate to Roy’s website at http://www.quadtonerip.com/ html/QTRoverview.html. Purchase and download QuadToneRIP and Print-Tool. Follow the software installation instructions appropriate for your printer and operating system.
You will also want to download and install David Eisenlord’s very useful Photoshop script Build QTR Curve, found at www.davideisenlord. com/?p=229.
Digital supplies
• Inkjet film
Fixxons Waterproof Separation Film
Pictorico Premium OHP
• Clear Bags or notebook plastic sleeves for storing negatives (optional)
• Inkjet paper for proofing
• Ink for the printer
Outputting negatives requires a transparency film which has been specially coated to accept inkjet inks. There are several brands available and the primary difference is cost. I use films from Fixxons and Pictorico. Fixxons is considerably less expensive and it is the film I use most often: https://www. fixxons.com. Pictorico is available from retailers such as Freestyle and B&H.
Digital negatives can be reused if they are well stored. Bags from the company Clear Bags work well for this purpose: https://www.clearbags.com. Be sure to have a good supply of any brand of photo quality inkjet paper on hand. This is useful for printing digital contact sheets, proof prints as well as final prints when desired. For black and white work, QuadToneRIP comes with printer profiles for several Epson printers.
Enlarging equipment
• Darkroom space
• Enlarger
• Variable contrast filtration
• Enlarger timer
• Lenses and negative carriers for the formats of film that you are working with
• Contact printing frame used when printing from digital negatives
• Enlarging easel for use when printing from camera negatives
• Paper safe(s)
• Safelight
If you don’t already have darkroom equipment or access to a darkroom, much of this hardware may be available used at a fraction of the cost of new. You will need access to a basic darkroom. It doesn’t need to be fancy. The enlarger will need to have variable contrast filters, a variable contrast head, or a color head. You will also need a reliable timer that the enlarger plugs into. If you will be printing camera negatives, the enlarger will need to have lenses and carriers suitable for whatever format or formats of film you will be working with, and you will need an easel to hold the paper. Printing digital negatives requires a good quality contact printing frame. A paper safe (or several) can be handy. A well-lit darkroom is a pleasure to work in. A basic safelight can be supplemented with a strip or two of inexpensive LED strips set to red.
Darkroom processing equipment
• Assorted beakers, 100 ml, 1 L and 2 L
• Storage bottles
• Minimum of 8 trays
• Tray siphon or print washer
• Print tongs
• Plexiglass or other surface for viewing
• Squeegee
• Drying screens
• Film developing tank
• Film developing reels
• Thermometer
For mixing chemistry and processing paper, you will need several measuring beakers; I find that 100 ml, 1 L and 2 L are about all I normally need. Storage containers are needed because some chemistry is mixed as a stock solution to be further diluted for use and some chemistry can be used for multiple sessions. As for trays, a set of 8 will be useful.The largest practical size for digital negatives without a specialized contact printing frame is 11˝ x 14˝. For washing, at minimum one can use a regular tray and frequently change the water. Better options range from specialized print washer trays to high end slot washers. A sheet of Plexiglass or a waterproof board makes a handy viewing and squeegee surface. For drying screens, you can build wooden frames and stretch fiberglass screening material, or simply hang prints to dry. If you plan to process film, you’ll need a tank and reels to fit whatever format or formats of film you plan to use. Most paper processing steps are not temperature critical, but film developing is, as are the temperatures required for mixing up some powdered chemicals. Consequently a good darkroom thermometer is important.
Darkroom materials
• Paper
• Paper developer
• Film developer
• Stop bath, commercial formula or citric acid
• Non-hardening neutral fixer
• Wash aid, use either a commercial formula or sodium sulfite
• Optional: selenium and sepia toners
While there are indeed differences between brands of silver gelatin papers and brands of chemistry, these differences are more about aesthetics than quality. Any modern paper will work with any modern developer. Select materials that are readily available to you and learn to make the best use of them.These materials are covered in more detail in Chapter 9: Silver Gelatin Printing.
Figure 3.1. Fotofun © Douglas Ethridge 2023. Film original, Imacon scan, print-ready file.
Photoshop Basics for Black and White
The digital side of the hybrid workflow is used to catalog and organize files using Adobe Bridge, and prepare selected images for printing using Camera RAW and Photoshop. This chapter will cover enough of the image processing basics to give new users the information needed to get started. In Chapter 7: Shaping the Image, we’ll take a much deeper dive with detailed examples showing how Photoshop is used to shape and refine images before making a digital negative. Chapter 8: Making the Digital Negative will detail how to use a combination of Photoshop and the QuadToneRIP to create digital negatives for contact printing in the darkroom.
Photoshop is a complex program, designed from the ground up as a professional production tool. The methods described in this book have evolved from my near daily use of Photoshop in a production environment since the program was released in 1990. Still, I often feel as though I have just scratched the surface. Photoshop offers many different ways to approach any given task. I would never claim that my approach is the “best” way to tackle any given operation. I can only say that it works well for me at this moment in time and encourage each user to refine their own favorite
methods as they gain experience. In the hybrid workflow, you are primarily going to be using Photoshop to make light/dark and contrast adjustments to your images, as well as convert digital color images to black and white. These are straightforward skills to master.
If you are an experienced Photoshop user, much of what will be covered in this chapter will be familiar, but there may be some black and white specific operations which will be new to you. Less experienced users would be well served to spend time at the computer with their own images to become comfortable with the operation of each of the tools and processes described in this section.
In all descriptions of software operations throughout the book, I’ll use the convention of describing how to access an operation using Photoshop’s menu structure. In virtually all cases, there are keyboard shortcuts, but not only are they often different for Mac and PC versions, some shortcuts have changed in various versions of the program. To further confuse the issue, you can customize many of the keyboard shortcuts. It is always useful to learn shortcuts specific to your version of Photoshop and system for frequently used operations.
Figure 3.2. The El, Chicago © Douglas Ethridge 2023. Film original, digital negative, selenium toned silver gelatin print on Kodak Ektalure.
How this chapter is organized
The chapter is divided into three parts, covering Bridge, Camera RAW and Photoshop. These tools are used to facilitate organizing and preparing images for further editing. I’ll concentrate on the tools and operations specific to the needs of the hybrid workflow. All three of these programs are complex and will do much more than we can cover here. Users desiring significantly more information may wish to explore Martin Evening’s encyclopedic book Adobe Photoshop 2020 for Photographers.
Adobe Bridge
Adobe Bridge is a valuable tool for streamlining aspects of the hybrid workflow. It is a fine image browser and file organizer. It also allows you to efficiently append useful metadata information such as copyright to your files. Bridge expedites renaming files and can access Photoshop’s Batch and Image Processor functions. Bridge provides direct access to Camera RAW, bypassing Photoshop, which can speed up certain tasks. By using Bridge’s Develop settings you can copy Camera RAW settings from one file and then apply those settings to one or more other Camera RAW files. When it comes time to print digital negatives, you can drag and drop images from Bridge into a Photoshop layered document to efficiently create printing masters. Let’s look more closely at each of these capabilities.
Bridge as an image browser and organizer
Bridge acts as a combination light table and filing cabinet. Open any folder in the filing cabinet and the images inside are immediately available on the light table. Adding a folder on the light table creates a new folder in the filing cabinet. You can have sub-folders inside sub-folders inside subfolders as you refine image selection and editing. It’s a simple and easy system to use.
My personal workflow is that when I come back from a photo trip, I open Bridge and create a folder for that shoot. I copy all of the images from my camera cards into that folder.The images get sorted right away into sub-folders by meaningful groupings. For example, in Figure 3.3 I’ve highlighted a folder titled “Cub Creek Nov 16 2021.” This folder contains images from that specific location. As you can see from the highlighted file trail above the images, the “Cub Creek” folder is a sub-folder in a larger category called “Barrier Canyon and other rock art,” an ongoing long term project. Once my images are sorted into main subfolders (usually by topic or location), I’ll add copyright information and rename them as described shortly.
After those tasks are completed, I make an initial selection of images which have potential and move those into another sub-folder called something like “selects.” As I work on the “selects,” some will end up in an “outs” or “seconds” folder.
Figure 3.3. Bridge overview with frequently used menu operations highlighted.
Another random document with no related content on Scribd:
centre of Russia, and on the other to the new northern through route, which, via Kotlass and Archangel, is this year to bring the cereals of Siberia to London."
Great Britain, Parliamentary Publications (Papers by Command: Miscellaneous Series No. 533, 1900, pages 5-7).
"It may be a wild idea, but Russian engineers are actually talking of a railroad from Stryetensk to Bering Strait, over a comparatively easy route that does not enter the Arctic Circle. This imaginary line, they hope, would connect with the American line which is now being built to Dawson City, the distance from which to Stryetensk is about three thousand miles. If this road ever is completed they figure that New York will be placed in railroad connection with London, Calcutta and Cape Town."
A. H. Ford, The Warfare of Railways in Asia (Century, March, 1900).
"Siberia and the Amur lands are rich beyond belief. … This vast territory, long looked upon as a barren waste, is destined to be one of the world's richest and most productive sections. In northern France, wheat ripens in 137 days; in Siberia, in 107. Even heavy night frosts do not injure the young seed. Under such conditions, the possibilities of agriculture are practically unlimited. I may add that oats require, in Siberia and in the Amur country, only 96 days, and in the regions of the Yenisei only 107. The frost period lasts only 97 days in the Irkutsk country. Transbaikalia lies entirely within the agricultural regions; so, too, almost the entire territory traversed by the Amur as far north as it runs. Efforts are being made to obtain along the Amur at least 300,000 square kilometers (115,835 square miles) for the higher forms of northern agriculture. Climatically, the best
of northern Asia's territory, for planting purposes, is the Usuri country, which, in spite of its vast tracts of wood and grazing lands, has 195,000 square kilometers (75,292 square miles) of arable ground. The building of the Trans-Siberian Railroad has already added to the Empire's wheat product.
"The mineral resources of western Siberia are vast. Between Tomsk and Kooznesk lie 60,000 square kilometers (23,167 square miles) of coal lands which have never been touched. The coal is said to be excellent. In eastern Siberia, with its 280,000 square kilometers (108,112 square miles) of fruitful soil, there are 400 places yielding gold. Rich mineral deposits graphite, lapis lazuli; iron mines, particularly rich in quality (as high as 60 per cent); hard and soft coals, i. e., black and brown coals await hands willing to work for them. To-day, thousands of colonists are hurrying to these promising lands. Russia's output in gold and silver is already very large, and is constantly increasing.
"The industries of Siberia are in their infancy; still, they are growing and are bound to grow, so rich are the rewards promised. Chemical, sugar, and paper mills have been put up in several places and are paying well. Even Manchuria, a province so vast that it might make an empire, is looking to Russia for its future development. The wealth of this province, like that of Siberia and all eastern Russia, is ripe for harvesting. The traffic in Siberia and eastern Russia is increasing faster than even the advocates of the great Trans-Siberian road anticipated. The Ob, one of the world's big rivers, emptying through the Gulf of Ob into the Arctic Ocean, has 102 steamers and 200 tugs running already. On the Yenisei, 10 steamers carry the mails regularly. The mouths of both these rivers were visited last summer by English and Russian ships. This proves the practicability of connecting eastern and western Siberia with Europe by water."
United States Consular Reports,
November, 1899, page 411.
An official publication of the year 1900 from St. Petersburg, furnished to American journals by the Russian embassy at Washington, is the source of the following statements relative to the rapid development of the vast Siberian country along the line of the great railway:
"When viewed with reference to colonization Siberia divides itself naturally into two zones, extending east and west, and differing essentially from one another. The first of these embraces the region traversed by the new Siberian railway, the more populous southern portion of Siberia, in which the conditions of climate and soil are favorable to the development of agriculture and colonization. The other zone occupies the extensive, deserted northern region, the land of tundras, or polar marshes, with a constantly frozen subsoil and a severe climate, a dreary tract of land totally unfit for agriculture. Between these two zones stretches a broad belt of forests of tall trees, partly primeval pine and fir, partly leafy trees. The wealth of these broad agricultural and timber areas is, moreover, augmented by mineral deposits of every conceivable nature, as abundant and diversified as those of America, and into this whole region immigration is pouring in volume unequalled except in the history of American colonization. Ever since the serfs were emancipated in 1861 they have formed the bulk of the emigrants from the thickly populated agricultural districts of European Russia, but the great tide of settlers in the new territory is only now assuming tremendous proportions. During the twenty years' period of 1860 to 1880 about 110,000 persons emigrated to Siberia, while for the thirteen years from 1880 to 1892 there were over 440,000, and for the succeeding years since the great railway has been building the number of immigrants of both sexes has been as follows: 1893, 65,000;
1894, 76,000; 1895, 109,000; 1896, 203,000; 1897, 87,000; 1898, 206,000; 1899, 225,000. Total, 971,000.
According to the census of 1897, the population of Siberia had risen to 8,188,368 inhabitants, of which the Russian peasantry formed over 25 per cent."
RUSSIA IN ASIA: A. D. 1899 (May). Steps toward the abolition of transportation.
See (in this volume)
RUSSIA: A. D. 1899 (MAY).
{430}
RUSSIA IN ASIA: A. D. 1900. Russian railway building and railway projects in Persia and Afghanistan.
By several writers who seem to have knowledge of what is doing in those parts of the eastern world, it was reported in the spring of 1900 that an active projection, planning, and building (to some extent) of railroads in Persia and Afghanistan was on foot among the Russians. From Tiflis, it was said, their plans contemplated a line of rail to Teheran; thence to be extended by one branch, southward, via Ispahan, to the Persian Gulf, and by another branch westward to Herat, in Afghanistan. From their Central Asian acquisitions they had advanced their railway to within 70 miles of Herat, and were said to be confidently expecting to push it on, through Kandahar and through Baluchistan, to the Arabian Sea. If these
extensive plans could be carried out, and if Russian influence in Persia, said to be growing fast, should become actually controlling, the Muscovite Power would have made an enormous gain, by planting itself on the shores of the Indian Ocean. How far Russia can continue to press forward in this line of policy without collision with Great Britain and with Germany which seems to have aims in the same direction, through Asiatic Turkey is an interesting question for the future.
The following is from a despatch to the "London Times" from its correspondent at Vienna, February 24, 1901:
"According to trustworthy information from Teheran, Russia is particularly active just now in Persia and the Persian Gulf. … The road from Resht to Teheran, which has been built by a Russian company, is of no value for European trade in the absence of an agreement with Russia respecting the transit traffic through that country. European commerce is dependent upon the long and expensive caravan routes via Trebizond, Bushire, Baghdad, Mochamera,&c. These occupy from four to six months."
RUSSO-CHINESE BANK, Concessions to the.
See (in this volume)
CHINA: A. D. 1898 (FEBRUARY-DECEMBER).
S.
SAGASTA, Señor Praxedes Mateo: Resignation from Spanish Ministry.
See (in this volume)
SPAIN: A. D. 1895-1896.
SAGASTA, Señor Praxedes Mateo:
Return to power.
See (in this volume)
SPAIN: A. D. 1897 (AUGUST-OCTOBER).
SAGASTA, Señor Praxedes Mateo: Resignation.
See (in this volume)
SPAIN: A. D. 1899.
SAGHALIEN.
See (in this volume) SAKHALIN.
SAHARA, The: French possessions.
See (in this volume)
NIGERIA: A. D. 1882-1899.
ST. KITTS: Industrial condition.
See (in this volume)
WEST INDIES, THE BRITISH: A. D. 1897.
ST. LOUIS: A. D. 1896. Republican National Convention.
See (in this volume)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1896 (JUNE-NOVEMBER).
ST. VINCENT, The British colony of.
See (in this volume) WEST INDIES, THE BRITISH: A. D. 1897.
SAKHALIN.
"Of late years … its increasing importance as a place of exile for Russian political and criminal offenders has invested Sakhalin with a certain interest, derived, perhaps, more from penal associations than physical resources, which latter may, when fully developed, materially affect trade and commerce in the far East. The island of Sakhalin is 584 miles in length, its breadth varying from 18 to 94 miles. The southern extremity is separated from the island of Yezo, twenty miles distant, by the Straits of La Perouse, and its western coast by the shallow Gulf of Tartary (at one point barely five miles across) from the mainland of Siberia. Although Dutch explorers are said to have landed here in 1643, the first reliable survey of the island was probably obtained in the year 1787 by La Perouse. Russian fur traders followed in the early part of the present century, but it was only in 1853 that, disturbances having occurred with the natives, a score or so of Cossacks were stationed at Dui on the west coast. In 1867 negotiations were entered into by the Russian and Japanese Governments for joint occupation of Sakhalin, but the subsequent discovery of coal, and consequent influx of Russian convicts, rendered this arrangement highly unsatisfactory. Further negotiations, therefore, ensued, with the result that, in 1875, the island was formally ceded to Russia, Japan receiving, in exchange, the entire Kurile Archipelago.
"Sakhalin is by no means easy of access. Even during the open season (from May to September) but very few vessels visit the island, and, with the exception of the monthly arrival of convict-ships from Europe, and a couple of small Russian trading steamers, there is no fixed service with Vladivostok, which, with the exception of Nikolaefsk, is the only Siberian port whence Sakhalin may, in three days, be reached. During the winter months the island is completely ice-bound and unapproachable by water. Communication with the mainland is then maintained by means of dog-sledges, and the mails for Europe are dispatched across
the frozen Gulf of Tartary a journey, under favourable circumstances, of about three months. …
"Sakhalin is, for administrative purposes, divided into three districts, viz.: Korsakovsky-Post in the south, Tymovsk in the north, and Alexandrovsky-Post on the western coast. The latter, which is situated in the centre of the coal district, is a picturesque, straggling town of about 7,000 inhabitants, consisting almost entirely of officials and convicts. This is the most important penal settlement on the island, contains the largest prison, and is, moreover, the residence of the Governor of Sakhalin, a subordinate of the Governor-General of Eastern Siberia. Alexandrovsky is garrisoned by about 1,500 men, and contains large foundries and workshops for convict labour, but most of the prisoners are employed in the adjacent coal mines of Dui. … Korsakovsky-Post, on the south coast, is the next largest settlement, containing about 5,000 convicts who are chiefly employed in agricultural pursuits. Although it may seem a paradox, the remaining prisons in the interior of the island, Derbynskaya, Rykovskaya, and Onor are not prisons at all, but huge wooden barracks, innocent of bolts and bars. Here, also, the work done is solely agricultural."
Harry de Windt, The Island of Sakhalin (Fortnightly Review, May, 1897).
SALISBURY, Lord Robert Cecil, Marquis of: Third Ministry.
See (in this volume) ENGLAND: A. D. 1894-1895. {431}
SALISBURY, Lord Robert Cecil, Marquis of: Correspondence with the Government of the United States
on the Venezuela boundary question.
See (in this volume)
VENEZUELA: A. D. 1895 (JULY) and (NOVEMBER).
SALISBURY, Lord Robert Cecil, Marquis of: Fourth Ministry.
See (in this volume)
ENGLAND: A. D. 1900 (NOVEMBER-DECEMBER).
SALISBURY, Lord Robert Cecil, Marquis of: Tribute to Queen Victoria.
See (in this volume)
ENGLAND: A. D. 1901 (JANUARY).
SALISBURY PLAIN: Purchase by Government.
See (in this volume)
ENGLAND: A. D. 1897 (FEBRUARY).
SALVADOR.
See (in this volume) CENTRAL AMERICA.
SALVATION ARMY, The: Secession of the American Volunteers. Late account of the Army's work.
Much feeling in the American branch of the Salvation Army, and among those who valued its work, was caused in January, 1896, by an order from the London headquarters of the Army recalling Mr. Ballington Booth, who had been its American Commander for nine years. Commander Booth and Mrs. Booth had been remarkably successful in their organization and direction of the
Salvation Army work, and had won a high place in the esteem, not only of their own followers, but of the American public at large. A wide and strong movement of protest against their removal from the field failed to change the London order, which was said to be made in obedience to a necessary rule of the Army against long service in any one post. Miss Eva Booth, representing her father, General Booth, with Colonel Nicol, from London, and Commandant Herbert Booth, from Canada, came to New York as mediators, endeavoring to heal a threatened breach in the ranks; but their mission failed. Commander Ballington Booth resigned his office, and withdrew from the Salvation Army service, declining to return to London. After a time, he and Mrs. Booth became the heads of a new organization called the "Volunteers of America," for religious work, not in rivalry with that of the Salvation Army, but directed more towards the awakening of the interest of the working people, Mr. Ballington Booth was succeeded as Commander in America by a son-in-law of General Booth, Commissioner Frederick St. Clair Tucker. For an account of the origin and growth of the Salvation Army see, under that heading, in the Supplement (volume 5) of the original edition of this work, or in volume 4 of the revised edition.
Of results accomplished in that part of the work of the Salvation Army known as the "Darkest England Scheme," General Booth wrote, early in 1900, an extended account in the "Sunday Strand." He stated that the public had subscribed altogether for his scheme about $1,300,000. "It is a debated point," he wrote, "with the intelligent admirers of the scheme and the careful observers of its progress whether the benefits bestowed on the wretched classes for whom it was originated have been greater within than without our borders. The copyists of our plan have been legion, both at home and abroad, in church and state. The representatives of the different governments specially charged with the responsibility for the outcast classes have been gradually coming to appreciate the principles and methods involved in
the scheme, and to show willingness to cooperate in giving it a chance. They have done this in two ways:
(1) In attempting similar tasks themselves; (2) in using and subsidizing the army for doing the work for them.
Many governments make grants to our various institutions in varying amounts toward the cost of dealing with different classes of the submerged."
The following is a summary of the agencies which have been set at work by the general: "We have now 158 shelters and food depots for homeless men and women, 121 slum posts, each with its own slum sisters, 37 labor bureaus, (10 labor factories for the unemployed, 11 land colonies, 91 rescue homes for women, 11 labor homes for ex-criminals, several nursing institutions, 2 maternity hospitals for deserted women, an institution with branches in forty-five countries and colonies for finding lost and missing persons, together with a host of allied and minor agencies which I am not able here to enumerate. The total number of institutions named above is now 545, under the care of more than 2,000 trained officers and others wholly employed, all working in harmony with the principles I have laid down for helping the poorest and most unfortunate of their fellows, and all more or less experts at their work.
"Nearly 20,000 destitute men and women are in some way or other touched by the operations of the scheme every day. No less than 15,000 wretched and otherwise homeless people are housed under our roofs every night, having their needs met, at least in part, with sympathy and prayer and the opportunity for friendly counsel. More than 300 ex-criminals are to-day in our houses of reformation, having before them another chance for this life, and in many cases the first they have ever had for preparing for the life to come. More than 5,000 women
taken from lives of darkness and shame are safely sheltered in our homes each year, on the way as we have abundantly proved in the case of others, in respect of a large proportion of them to a future of virtue, goodness, and religion. Over 1,000 men are employed on the land colonies. Many of them are working out their own deliverance, and at the same time helping to solve one of the most difficult problems of modern times, and proving that many of the helpless loafers of the great cities can be made useful producers on the soil. Over the gates of every one of these homes, elevators, labor factories, and colonies there might be written: 'No man or woman need starve, or beg, or pauperize, or steal, or commit suicide. If willing to work, apply within. Here there is hope for all.'" General Booth adds that he has always 2,000 women in the rescue homes of the army.
SAMOAN ISLANDS, The:
Ending of the joint control of the Islands by Germany, England and the United States. Partition between Germany and the United States. Retirement of England.
Said President Cleveland, in his annual Message to the Congress of the United States, December 4, 1893: "Led by a desire to compose differences and contribute to the restoration of order in Samoa, which for some years previous had been the scene of conflicting foreign pretensions and native strife, the United States, departing from its policy consecrated by a century of observance, entered [in 1889] … into the, treaty of Berlin [see, in volume 4, SAMOA], thereby becoming jointly bound with England and Germany to establish and maintain Malietoa Laupepa as King of Samoa. {432}
The treaty provided for a foreign court of justice; a municipal council for the district of Apia, with a foreign president thereof, authorized to advise the King; a tribunal for the settlement of native and foreign land titles, and a
revenue system for the Kingdom. It entailed upon the three powers that part of the cost of the new Government not met by the revenue of the islands. Early in the life of this triple protectorate the native dissensions it was designed to quell revived. Rivals defied the authority of the new King, refusing to pay taxes and demanding the election of a ruler by native suffrage. Mataafa, an aspirant to the throne, and a large number of his native adherents were in open rebellion on one of the islands. Quite lately, at the request of the other powers and in fulfillment of its treaty obligation, this Government agreed to unite in a joint military movement of such dimensions as would probably secure the surrender of the insurgents without bloodshed. The war ship Philadelphia was accordingly put under orders for Samoa, but before she arrived the threatened conflict was precipitated by King Malietoa's attack upon the insurgent camp. Mataafa was defeated and a number of his men killed. The British and German naval vessels present subsequently secured the surrender of Mataafa and his adherents. The defeated chief and ten of his principal supporters were deported to a German island of the Marshall group, where they are held as prisoners under the joint responsibility and cost of the three powers. This incident and the events leading up to it signally illustrate the impolicy of entangling alliances with foreign powers."
United States, Message and Documents (Abridgment), 1893-1894.
In his next annual Message, December 3, 1894, the President thus summarized the later situation in the islands: "The suppression of the Mataafa insurrection by the powers and the subsequent banishment of the leader and eleven other chiefs, as recited in my last message, did not bring lasting peace to the islands. Formidable uprisings continued, and finally a rebellion broke out in the capital island, Upolu, headed in Aana, the western district, by the younger Tamasese, and in Atua, the eastern district, by other leaders. The insurgents
ravaged the country and fought the Government's troops up to the very doors of Apia. The King again appealed to the powers for help, and the combined British and German naval forces reduced the Atuans to apparent subjection, not, however, without considerable loss to the natives. A few days later Tamasese and his adherents, fearing the ships and the marines, professed submission. Reports received from our agents at Apia do not justify the belief that the peace thus brought about will be of long duration. It is their conviction that the natives are at heart hostile to the present Government, that such of them as profess loyalty to it do so from fear of the powers, and that it would speedily go to pieces if the war ships were withdrawn. … The present Government has utterly failed to correct, if indeed it has not aggravated, the very evils it was intended to prevent. It has not stimulated our commerce with the islands. Our participation in its establishment against the wishes of the natives was in plain defiance of the conservative teachings and warnings of the wise and patriotic men who laid the foundations of our free institutions, and I invite an expression of the judgment of Congress on the propriety of steps being taken by this Government looking to the withdrawal from its engagements with the other powers on some reasonable terms not prejudicial to any of our existing rights."
United States, Message and Documents (Abridgment, 1894-1895).
In the Message of 1895 the subject was again pressed on the attention of Congress without result.
In August, 1898, Malietoa Laupepa died. By the Berlin Treaty of 1889 "it was provided that in case any question should arise in Samoa, respecting the rightful election of King, or of any other Chief claiming authority over the islands, or respecting the validity of the powers which the King or any Chief might claim in the exercise of his office, such question
should not lead to war, but should be presented for decision to the Chief Justice of Samoa, who should decide it in writing, conformably to the provisions of the Act, and to the laws and customs of Samoa not in conflict therewith, and that the Signatory Governments would accept and abide by such decision. After the death of Malietoa an exchange of views took place between the Powers, and it was agreed that there should be no interference with the right of the Samoans to elect a King, and that the election should proceed strictly in accordance with the provisions of the Final Act. Some time elapsed before any action was taken, pending the completion of certain ceremonial usages customary in Samoa on the death of a High Chief. … As soon as the funeral ceremonies were at an end, deliberation and discussion among the Chiefs ensued. There were in the first instance several candidates for the succession. Their number was eventually reduced to two:
1. Malietoa Tanu, the son of the late King.
2. The High Chief Mataafa.
This Chief had been in rebellion against Malietoa Laupepa, but had suffered defeat, and with other Chiefs had been deported, by agreement between the three Powers, to the Marshall Islands. On the recommendation of the Consular officers at Apia, the Powers, in July 1898, consented to his return. … On the 19th September, Mataafa and the other exiled Chiefs landed in Samoa. It does not appear that he took any overt steps to claim the vacant throne, but a section of the natives pronounced in his favour and announced on the 12th November to the Consuls and to the Chief Justice that he had been duly elected King. On the 13th November the opposing faction declared that the real election of a King had not taken place, and on the following day announced that their choice had fallen upon Malietoa Tanu. Both parties appealed to Mr. Chambers, the Chief Justice, who considered himself then in a position to take cognisance of the matter, according to the provisions of the Final Act, a question having arisen 'in
Samoa respecting the rightful election or appointment of King.'"
Great Britain, Parliamentary Publications (Papers by Command: Samoa, Number 1, 1899).
The decision of the Chief Justice was in favor of Malietoa Tanu, and the adherents of Mataafa took up arms, defeating those of the favored candidate and driving many of them to take refuge on British and German ships of war. Subsequent events were related by the President of the United States in his Message to Congress, December 5, 1899, as follows: "In this emergency a joint commission of representatives of the United States, Germany, and Great Britain was sent to Samoa to investigate the situation and provide a temporary remedy. {433}
By its active efforts a peaceful solution was reached for the time being, the kingship being abolished and a provisional government established. Recommendations unanimously made by the commission for a permanent adjustment of the Samoan question were taken under consideration by the three powers parties to the General Act. But the more they were examined the more evident it became that a radical change was necessary in the relations of the powers to Samoa. The inconveniences and possible perils of the tripartite scheme of supervision and control in the Samoan group by powers having little interest in common in that quarter beyond commercial rivalry had been once more emphasized by the recent events. The suggested remedy of the Joint Commission, like the scheme it aimed to replace, amounted to what has been styled a 'tridominium,' being the exercise of the functions of sovereignty by an unanimous agreement of three powers. The situation had become far more intricate and embarrassing from every point of view than it was when my predecessor, in 1894, summed up its perplexities and condemned the participation in it of the United States. The arrangement under which Samoa was administered had proved impracticable and unacceptable to all
the powers concerned. To withdraw from the agreement and abandon the islands to Germany and Great Britain would not be compatible with our interests in the archipelago. To relinquish our rights in the harbor of Pago Pago, the best anchorage in the Pacific, the occupancy of which had been leased to the United States in 1878 by the first foreign treaty ever concluded by Samoa, was not to be thought of either as regards the needs of our Navy or the interests of our growing commerce with the East. We could not have considered any proposition for the abrogation of the tripartite control which did not confirm us in all our rights and safeguard all our national interests in the islands. Our views commended themselves to the other powers. A satisfactory arrangement was concluded between the Governments of Germany and of England, by virtue of which England retired from Samoa in view of compensations in other directions, and both powers renounced in favor of the United States all their rights and claims over and in respect to that portion of the group lying to the east of the one hundred and seventy-first degree of west longitude, embracing the islands of Tutuila, Ofoo, Olosenga, and Manua."
United States, Message and Documents (Abridgment), 1899-1900, volume 1.
The compensations to England "in other directions" were given by Germany, in the following provisions of a treaty signed at London, November 14, 1899:
"ARTICLE II.
Germany renounces in favour of Great Britain all her rights over the Tonga Islands, including Vavau, and over Savage Island, including the right of establishing a naval station and coaling station, and the right of extra-territoriality in the said islands. … She recognizes as falling to Great Britain those of the Solomon Islands, at present belonging to Germany, which are situated to the east and southeast of the Island of
Bougainville, which latter shall continue to belong to Germany, together with the Island of Buka, which forms part of it. The western portion of the neutral zone in West Africa, as defined in Article V of the present Convention, shall also fall to the share of Great Britain. …
"ARTICLE IV.
The arrangement at present existing between Germany and Great Britain and concerning the right of Germany to freely engage labourers in the Solomon Islands belonging to Great Britain shall be equally extended to those of the Solomon Islands mentioned in Article II, which fall to the share of Great Britain.
"ARTICLE V.
In the neutral zone the frontier between the German and English territories shall be formed by the River Daka as far as the point of its intersection with the 9th degree of north latitude, thence the frontier shall continue to the north, leaving Morozugu to Great Britain, and shall be fixed on the spot by a Mixed Commission of the two Powers, in such manner that Gambaga and all the territories of Mamprusi shall fall to Great Britain, and that Yendi and all the territories of Chakosi shall fall to Germany.
"ARTICLE VI.
Germany is prepared to take into consideration, as much and as far as possible, the wishes which the Government of Great Britain may express with regard to the development of the reciprocal Tariffs in the territories of Togo and of the Gold Coast.
"ARTICLE VII.
Germany renounces her rights of extra-territoriality in Zanzibar, but it is at the same time understood that this renunciation shall not effectively come into force till such time as the rights of extra-territoriality enjoyed there by
other nations shall be abolished."
To the treaty was appended the following "Declaration":
"It is clearly understood that by Article II of the Convention signed to-day, Germany consents that the whole group of the Howe Islands, which forms part of the Solomon Islands, shall fall to Great Britain. It is also understood that the stipulations of the Declaration between the two Governments signed at Berlin on the 10th April, 1886, respecting freedom of commerce in the Western Pacific, apply to the islands mentioned in the aforesaid Convention. It is similarly understood that the arrangement at present in force as to the engagement of labourers by Germans in the Solomon Islands permits Germans to engage those labourers on the same conditions as those which are or which shall be imposed on British subjects nonresident in those islands."
Great Britain, Parliamentary Publication, (Papers by Command: Treaty Series, Number 7, 1900).
Article III of the general treaty between the United States, Germany and Great Britain stipulated: "It is understood and agreed that each of the three signatory Powers shall continue to enjoy, in respect to their commerce and commercial vessels, in all the islands of the Samoan group, privileges and conditions equal to those enjoyed by the sovereign Power, in all ports which may be open to the commerce of either of them."
United States, 56th Congress, 1st Session, Senate Document Number 157.
{434}
On the 17th of April, 1900, an "instrument of cession" was signed by the marks of twenty-two chiefs, conveying to the
United States the islands of the Samoan group lying east of the 171st degree of west longitude, and the American flag was raised over the naval station at Pago-Pago. From Pago-Pago, March 27, 1901, a Press despatch announced: "The natives under the United States Government number 5,800, according to a census just taken, while the natives in the other islands under German rule number 32,000. The population has increased very slightly in the last thirty years, and the main cause of this failure to increase is the infant mortality, due to the violation of the simplest health principles in the care and diet of children. … Reports from the six islands under United States control show that the natives are improving in general conditions, and that they show a desire to keep their houses neat and to educate their children. Not a single native has been arrested for drunkenness since the Americans assumed control of Tutuila island."
SAMPSON, Rear-Admiral William T.: Commanding North Atlantic Station. Blockade of Cuban ports.
See (in this volume)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (APRIL-MAY: CUBA).
SAMPSON, Rear-Admiral William T.: Operations at Santiago de Cuba.
See (in this volume)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (APRIL-JUNE).
SAMPSON, Rear-Admiral William T.: Destruction of Spanish squadron.
See (in this volume)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (JULY 3).
SAN DOMINGO.
