Purchase Communication in history : stone age symbols to social media 8th edition peter urquhart ebo

Page 1


Communication in History : Stone Age Symbols to Social Media 8th Edition Peter Urquhart

Visit to download the full and correct content document: https://textbookfull.com/product/communication-in-history-stone-age-symbols-to-socia l-media-8th-edition-peter-urquhart/

More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant download maybe you interests ...

Communication in History Stone Age Symbols to Social Media 7th Edition Peter Urquhart

https://textbookfull.com/product/communication-in-history-stoneage-symbols-to-social-media-7th-edition-peter-urquhart/

Sons of Cain A History of Serial Killers from the Stone Age to the Present 1st Edition Peter Vronsky

https://textbookfull.com/product/sons-of-cain-a-history-ofserial-killers-from-the-stone-age-to-the-present-1st-editionpeter-vronsky/

History Year by Year The History of the World From the Stone Age to the Digital Age 2nd Edition Dk

https://textbookfull.com/product/history-year-by-year-thehistory-of-the-world-from-the-stone-age-to-the-digital-age-2ndedition-dk/

Media Culture Mass Communication in a Digital Age

Richard Campbell

https://textbookfull.com/product/media-culture-masscommunication-in-a-digital-age-richard-campbell/

The Doctor s Communication Handbook 8th Edition Peter Tate

https://textbookfull.com/product/the-doctor-s-communicationhandbook-8th-edition-peter-tate/

Computer Architecture From the Stone Age to the Quantum Age Charles Fox

https://textbookfull.com/product/computer-architecture-from-thestone-age-to-the-quantum-age-charles-fox/

A People s History of the World From the Stone Age to the New Millennium Harman

https://textbookfull.com/product/a-people-s-history-of-the-worldfrom-the-stone-age-to-the-new-millennium-harman/

Personal Relationships and Intimacy in the Age of Social Media Cristina Miguel

https://textbookfull.com/product/personal-relationships-andintimacy-in-the-age-of-social-media-cristina-miguel/

The Internet Left: Ideology in the Age of Social Media

Graham Harrison

https://textbookfull.com/product/the-internet-left-ideology-inthe-age-of-social-media-graham-harrison/

Communication in History

This updated eighth edition provides a thorough and engaging history of communication and media through a collection of essential, field-defining essays.

The collection reveals how media has been influential in both maintaining social order and enabling social change. Contributions from a wide range of voices offer instructors the opportunity to customize their courses while challenging students to build upon their own knowledge and skill sets. From stone age symbols and early writing to the internet and social media, readers are introduced to an expansive, intellectually enlivening study of the relationship between human history and communication media. New case studies explore the Black Press, the impact of photography on journalism, gender and civil rights discourses in the media, and the effects of algorithmic data on modern social media platforms.

This book can be used as a core text or supplemental reader for courses in communication history, communication theory, and introductory courses in communication and media studies.

Peter Urquhart is Associate Professor in the Communication Studies Department at Wilfrid Laurier University, Canada.

Paul Heyer was Professor Emeritus in the Communication Studies Department at Wilfrid Laurier University, Canada.

Communication in History

Stone Age Symbols to Social Media

Eighth Edition

Designed cover image: SandyMossPhotography / © Getty Images

Eighth edition published 2024 by Routledge

605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158 and by Routledge

4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

RoutledgeisanimprintoftheTaylor&FrancisGroup,aninforma business

© 2024 selection and editorial matter, Peter Urquhart and Paul Heyer; individual chapters, the contributors

The right of Peter Urquhart and Paul Heyer to be identified as the authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Trademarknotice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

Seventh edition published by Routledge 2018 First edition (1991), Longman, USA.

ISBN: 978-1-032-16829-6 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-032-16175-4 (pbk)

ISBN: 978-1-003-25046-3 (ebk)

DOI: 10.4324/9781003250463

Typeset in Univers by codeMantra

Preface

Acknowledgments

Part One

The Media of Early Civilization

1 The Earliest Precursor of Writing

Denise Schmandt-Besserat

2 Media in Ancient Empires

HaroldInnis

3 Civilization Without Writing—The Incas and the Quipu

Marcia Ascher andRobert Ascher

4 The Origins of Writing

Andrew Robinson

Part Two

The Tradition of Western Literacy

5 The Greek Legacy

Eric Havelock

6 Writing and the Alphabet Effect

Robert K. Logan

7 Writing Restructures Consciousness

Walter Ong

Part Three

The Print Revolution

8 Paper and Block Printing—From China to Europe

Thomas F . Carter

9 The Invention of Printing

Lewis Mumford

10 Early Modern Literacies

Harvey J. Graff

11 Sensationalism and News

MitchellStephens Part Four Electricity Creates the Wired World

12 Time, Space, and the Telegraph

James W. Carey

13 Anti-Lynching Imagery as Visual Protest in the 1890s Black Press

Amanda Frisken

14 The Telephone Takes Command

Claude S. Fischer

15 Dream Worlds of Consumption

RosalyndWilliams

Preface

Why does a new communication medium—the alphabet, printing, broadcasting, the internet—come into being? What impact does it have on the media that precede it? How does a new medium exert influence on the everyday life of society? And how, in turn, can society and culture influence media practices?

These are some of the questions Communication in History has been trying to address for nearly thirty years. During that time numerous students and colleagues told the book’s originators, David Crowley and Paul Heyer, how the subject area has become increasingly vital to their interests and professional engagement. With Crowley long retired and Heyer having died in 2017, and with thanks to the encouragement and the support of Routledge, I (Peter Urquhart) have put together this new eighth edition. It features some excellent recent scholarship that historically contextualizes issues such as “big data” and social media, and contains new entries on media history concerning issues of race, gender and audiences for the press, cinema and radio. The goal of this new edition, however, has changed little from previous versions: to invite students to consider the development of human behavior and social experience as a response to the uses and consequences of communication media in the wider context of human history. The text lays out a journey that will help reveal how media have been influential both in maintaining social order and as powerful agents of change.

The issues raised by the role of media in history are broadly based—too broad, we think, to be easily encompassed in a singleauthor textbook. From the beginning, Crowley and Heyer felt the preferred way to go was with an anthology featuring an exemplary list of contributors whose research interests relate directly to, or complement, one another. As with past editions, all our contributors try to tell us something about the characteristics and the human consequences of various media and their development. It should not be surprising that the contributors come from a variety of disciplines. Communication history, or media history, as it is sometimes called, although most at home in the disciplines of communication and cultural studies, draws from and has relevance to a variety of fields that include architecture, archeology, anthropology, history, journalism, literary criticism, political science and sociology.

New to This Edition

New entries can be found by authors such as Amanda Frisken, Barbara Savage and Michael Slowick.

We have divided the eighth edition into seven parts, beginning with prehistory and ending with the contemporary digital age. Students will often find that contributors in a given section will cite each other’s work as well as the work of an author in another part of the book. As a result, we think you will find considerable unity within and among the seven parts of the book.

To further help students appreciate these connections, and to afford an overview of our subject, we have provided an introduction to each of the seven parts. The purpose of these introductions is to provide a rationale for the essays that follow and an explanation of key concepts and transitions, as well as to cite background material that might help the reader better appreciate the individual essays. At the end of each part, we have provided several study and discussion questions, and the end of the book contains a short list of suggestions for further reading.

Acknowledgments

As Paul Heyer wrote in 2017:

A special acknowledgment must go to David Crowley, my (Heyer) co-editor for all previous editions of this textbook, beginning over twenty-five years ago. This is quite a shelf life, and it attests to a burgeoning interest in the subject area. As colleagues at McGill University those many years ago, David and I shared research and teaching interests in the field of communication history. We searched for an appropriate introductory text suitable for our students, but to no avail. Yet there existed a variety of insightful studies across a number of disciplines that covered specific aspects of the field. David suggested, and I agreed, that rather than hope for, or undertake ourselves, an authored work presenting an overview of the field, a well-conceived anthology could do better justice to the subject matter. Thus was CommunicationinHistoryborn.

Although David is no longer my co-editor, the mantle has, appropriately enough, been handed down to one of his former students, my colleague, Peter Urquhart. David’s presence, however, remains, given the perceptive advice he has provided to us (as well as some of his insightful observations that remain in some of the chapter introductions) in updating a work that, much to our delight, has occasionally been referred to as a classic.

In the same spirit, I need offer a special thanks to my friend and colleague Paul Heyer who died just as the previous edition was going to press in 2017. Paul was enormously generous in inviting me to join him in updating that previous edition, and working with him on it was a genuine pleasure. His enthusiasm for—and vast knowledge about—communication history was a joy to behold. I hope readers will find that this new edition carries on in the impressive tradition that Crowley and Heyer began all those years ago.

Finally, we wish to mention a few of the many individuals who— and this is a list that started with the first edition nearly thirty years ago—have provided encouragement, and often assistance, for this ongoing project. Our thanks go to Alison Beale, Anouk Belanger, David Black, Rhianon Bury, Bill Buxton, Ella Chmielewska, Ian Chunn, Hart Cohen, Lon Dubinski, Derrick de Kerckhove, Jane Dickson, Elin Edwards, Bruce Ferguson, Jonathan Finn, Jib Fowles, Kathleen Galarneau, Robert Graham, Lynne Hissey, Sylvia Hoang, Richard Herbert Howe, Jesse Hunter, Iwona Irwin-Zarecka, Liss Jeffrey, James B. Johnston, Stephen Kern, Bill Leiss, Rowly Lorimer, Oya Majlesi, Shauna McCabe, David Mitchell, Ira Nayman, Jean Ogilvie, John Rowlandson, Lise Ouimet, Hillary Pimlot, Firoozeh Radjei, Gertrude Robinson, Wik Rowland, Leslie Shade, Brian Shoesmith, Ed Slopek, Steve Stack, Jonathan Sterne, Graham Thompson, Phil Vitone, the late James Wong, Darren Wershler, Gaius Gilbert, Lisa Sumner, Martin Dowding, Andrew Herman, Barbara Jenkins, Erin Macleod, Jonathan Finn, Jade Miller, Ira Wagman, and our most recent student research assistants, Nicola Urquhart and Josephine Bhamani.

For their assistance, we would like to thank the National Archives of Canada, Art History and Communication Studies at McGill University, the Department of Communication Studies at Wilfrid Laurier University, the McLuhan Program in Culture and Technology at the University of Toronto, and the InterNet Group.

Finally, enormous thanks are due to Sean Daly at Routledge, whose generosity, helpfulness, know-how and patience apparently

knows no bounds.

Part One

The Media of Early Civilization

DOI: 10.4324/9781003250463-1

Introduction

Whenever the term “media” or “communications” is mentioned, many of us envision the pervasive technology of today’s world. Students engaged in media studies may range further back historically and think of the newspaper over the past 200 years, the invention of the printing press in the fifteenth century, or perhaps the origins of the alphabet in ancient Greece. Communication media, however, are older—much older. In this part we will look at key aspects of their early development, beginning with the symbolic use of material culture in the Old Stone Age.

What was the first communication medium? This question may be impossible to answer scientifically; however, it is not impossible to imagine. Almost as soon as our prehistoric ancestors made tools of wood, bone, and stone to help them physically adapt to a changing environment, they probably made “tools for thought” as well. Perhaps the earliest device of this kind was a simple stick, notched to indicate the number of deer in a nearby herd, or some rocks or logs arranged to mark the importance of a given territory. What was important was the process. Humankind enlarged its sphere of communication (the process) by creating communications (the means or media of communication).

Communication is an exchange of information and messages. It is an activity. About 100,000 years ago, our early ancestors communicated through nonverbal gestures and an evolving system

of spoken language. As their world became increasingly complex, they needed more than just the shared memory of the group to recall important things. They needed what is sometimes called an extrasomatic memory, a memory outside of the body. This led to the development of media to store and retrieve the growing volume of information. The microchip of today is one such medium and a direct descendant of our hypothetical notched stick.

The later prehistoric period, from about 50,000 to 10,000 B.C. (standard usage now is B.C.E.—Before the Common Era—although most essays in our book use the older designation), has yielded impressive evidence of both communication and communications. The most striking examples are the exquisite cave paintings found in Southwestern Europe. Photographs of these images, such as those in many art history books, do not do them justice. The paintings are not positioned for accessible viewing—in ways familiar to us— through vertical and horizontal alignment on a flat plane, and are comparable to the artwork and modes of perception of Eskimos (now referred to as Inuit) studied in more recent times. Perhaps the closest we can come to experiencing the original impact of these works, short of touring the (mostly closed to the public) caves with a flickering oil lamp, is through Werner Herzog’s breathtaking 2010 film Cave of Forgotten Dreams, which was originally shot and illuminated using a special three-dimensional process.

Eventually, communications moved beyond the image and object making of the Old Stone Age (Paleolithic) to a more settled and less nomadic life. Hunting gave way to agriculture, which gave rise to the New Stone Age (Neolithic). With it came a new form of communication: writing. The beginnings of this transformation are outlined in the first essay by Denise Schmandt-Besserat. She bases her argument not on the discovery of new archeological remains, but through a reinterpretation of previous finds in a new way. Her analysis covers a period from about 10,000 to 4000 B.C. and covers the early rise of the great writing-dependent Near Eastern civilizations in Mesopotamia and Egypt.

Schmandt-Besserat provides compelling evidence for her contention that prior to the actual emergence of writing, several Old World societies in the Near East were recording economic transactions through the use of fired clay tokens one to three centimeters in size. Readers will be shown some intriguing archeological detective work as she comments on traditional interpretations of these artifacts as charms, toys, or tools and then suggests an alternative communications view. She notes that many of the tokens resemble characters known as ideograms, which are conventionalized signs that do not look like what they represent (a character that looks like what it represents is known as a pictogram). Ideograms became the basis of the world’s first full-fledged writing system, Sumerian, which arose in 3500 B.C. Thus, if one accepts her hypothesis, the tokens were an abstract form of three-dimensional writing in response to social and economic changes necessitating a more complex way of life: the birth of civilization.

Our next excerpt, by Harold Innis, deals with what happened in the realm of communications and culture after the establishment of empires in Egypt and Mesopotamia. Innis (1894–1952) was a Canadian political economist turned communication theorist. His ideas about the importance of communication, acquired when he studied at the University of Chicago, surfaced periodically in his early economic writings. However, it was the works he produced shortly before his death, Empire and Communications (1950) and The Bias of Communication (1951), that marked his emergence as our first media historian. More than any other twentieth-century figure, Innis argued that this field merits disciplinary or sub-disciplinary status. Although he explored almost every facet of the communications/history question, the bulk of his project deals with the role of media in the organization of ancient empires and early Western civilization.

Innis elaborated his history of communication around a series of core concepts, several of which are used in the excerpt we have included. Perhaps the most significant one pertains to time and space. Innis argued that each of the major Old World civilizations

had a specific cultural orientation that was temporal or spatial. This orientation derived in part from the nature and use of the dominant medium it employed. For example, stone in ancient Egypt was a durable “time-biased” medium, favoring a centralized absolute government of divine kingship. This bias was further evident in the use of hieroglyphic writing to produce astonishingly accurate calendars, around which the agricultural cycle pivoted. With the coming of papyrus, a light portable “space-biased” medium suitable for administration over distance, the orientation of Egypt changed. A priestly class expanded its power as the acquisition of new territories gave rise to an extended empire needing an administrative bureaucracy versed in the new communications.

Our next selection, by Marcia Ascher and Robert Ascher, deals with an area of history largely ignored until recently by media history ancient New World civilizations. The Aschers focus on the Incas of ancient Peru, which, unlike other New World civilizations—the Maya and Aztec, for example—did not have writing. But isn’t writing essential to civilization and a complex state level of organization? Ascher and Ascher debunk this prevalent misconception. They convincingly show that it is not writing per se that allows for civilization, but some medium for the keeping of records that can function in an efficient and comprehensive manner. The quipu served this purpose among the Incas of ancient Peru. It was a series of cords using different lengths, thicknesses, and colors that could be knotted and braided. Each of these elements constituted information, the kind used to record crop production, taxation, a census, and other kinds of information essential to the bureaucratic maintenance of an expanding empire.

An intriguing point relevant to the essay by the Aschers, and the one preceding it by Innis, is that the quipu, a light, portable medium, was suitable for administration over distance and therefore is a classic example of Innis’s notion of a space-biased medium. Although Innis did not consider the Incas, Ascher and Ascher were influenced by his work, and their research extends this useful concept.

In our final selection, Andrew Robinson outlines some of the issues, many still unresolved, in the relationship between earlier systems of three-dimensional accounting, such as the tokens studied by Schmandt-Besserat, and the later development of twodimensional systems of ideograms and alphabets that characterize the evolution of writing worldwide. He also explores the controversy about the relationship between written and spoken language systems and the ways in which the linkage between written and spoken forms (logography and phonography) varies widely from language to language. Robinson goes on to raise the question of how globalization today might push the demand for new forms of communication (he points to the growing use of pictograms in public spaces) that are independent of both spoken and written languages. Here he shows how some of the principles used in ancient scripts, such as hieroglyphs, are still with us in everything from road signs to computer keyboards.

This quick rip through tens of thousands of years demonstrates that communication history—once relegated to the margins of the history of human civilization—should instead be seen as central to understandings of the evolution of societies, at least as central as, and intricately connected to, political, social, economic, and social histories. Hopefully it will become clear to students why the insights provided by archeologists, anthropologists, and others who study the ancient world are crucial to understanding, and directly related to, the unfolding history of communication, right to the present moment.

Chapter 1

The Earliest Precursor of Writing

DOI: 10.4324/9781003250463-2

Denise Schmandt-Besserat is an archaeologist working at the University of Texas at Austin. Her work on early symbol systems leading to theorigin of writing is currentlyinfluencing students in a widerangeofdisciplines.

It is the nature of archaeological research to deal with data and their interpretation . . . . I use the facts as well as the hypotheses I have presented on the token system to reflect more broadly on the significance of tokens with respect to communication, social structures, and cognitive skills.

[This reading] deals with the place of tokens among other prehistoric symbolic systems. After presenting relevant aspects of symbolism from the Paleolithic to the Neolithic period, I will analyze what the tokens owed to their antecedents, how they revolutionized the use of symbols, and how they presaged writing.

Symbols and Signs

Symbols are things whose special meaning allows us to conceive, express, and communicate ideas. In our society, for example, black is the symbol of death, the star-spangled banner stands for the United States of America, and the cross for Christianity.

Signs are a subcategory of symbols. Like symbols, signs are things that convey meaning, but they differ in carrying narrow, precise, and unambiguous information. Compare, for example, the color black, the

symbol standing for death, with the sign “1.” Black is a symbol loaded with a deep but diffuse significance, whereas “1” is a sign that stands unequivocally for the number “one.” Symbols and signs are used differently: symbols help us to conceive and reflect on ideas, whereas signs are communication devices bound to action.1

Because the use of symbols is a characteristic of human behavior, it is by definition as old as humankind itself.2 From the beginnings of humanity, symbols have encapsulated the knowledge, experience, and beliefs of all people. Humans, from the beginning, have also communicated by signs. Symbols and signs, therefore, are a major key to the understanding of cultures.

Symbols, however, are ephemeral and, as a rule, do not survive the societies that create them. For one thing, the meaning they carry is arbitrary. For instance, the color black, which evokes death in our culture, may just as well stand for life in another. It is a fundamental characteristic of symbols that their meaning cannot be perceived either by the senses or by logic but can only be learned from those who use them.3 As a consequence, when a culture vanishes, the symbols left behind become enigmatic, for there is no longer anyone initiated into their significance. Thus, not only are symbolic relics from prehistoric societies extremely few, but those that are extant usually cannot be interpreted.

Lower and Middle Paleolithic Symbols

Although humans were present in the Near East starting in the Lower Paleolithic period, as early as 600,000 years ago, no symbols have been preserved from these remote times. The first archaeological material attesting to the use of symbols in the Near East belongs to the epoch of Neanderthal humans, the Middle Paleolithic period, as late as 60,000 to 25,000 B.C. The data are threefold. First, pieces of ocher were recovered in the cave of Qafzeh, Israel.4 There is, of course, no way of knowing what ocher was used for at the time, but the red pigment suggests a symbolic rather than a functional purpose, and some hypothesize it may have been used for body painting. The second set of evidence consists of funerary paraphernalia, such as flowers or antlers deposited in burial sites —for example, at Shanidar about 60,000 B.C. 5 and at Qafzeh.6 Although we shall never know the significance that ocher, flowers, and antlers may

have had for Neanderthal humans, it is generally assumed that the red pigment and the funerary deposits were symbols carrying a magicoreligious connotation. Accordingly, some of the earliest evidence of the use of symbols in the Near East suggests a ritual function.

A third category of artifacts is bone fragments engraved with a series of notches usually arranged in a parallel fashion, such as were recovered in the cave of Kebara.7 These incised bones are important for the present study because they constitute the earliest known examples of manmade symbols in the Near East. Whereas at Shanidar Neanderthal humans conferred a meaning on pigments and flowers readily available in nature, the occupants of Kebara began modifying materials in order to translate ideas.

Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic Symbols

The same symbolic tradition continues in the Upper Paleolithic and the Mesolithic. The use of ocher is frequently attested,8 and notched bones are part of the assemblages at Hayonim in Israel, ca. 28,000 B.C., 9 as well as at Jiita10 and Ksar Akil in Lebanon, ca. 15,000–12,000 B.C. A bone awl from Ksar Akil measures about 10 cm in length and bears some 170 incisions grouped along the shaft into four separate columns . . . . Such artifacts are still present at Hayonim,11 at other Natufian sites of the Levant,12 and even as far away as the Negev around 10,000 B.C. 13 At the same time, sites from the Levant to Iraq produced pebbles and various limestone and bone implements engraved with parallel lines.14

A new category of iconic symbols is manifested in western Asia during the course of the Upper Paleolithic. At Hayonim, ca. 28,000 B.C., these symbols take the shape of stone slabs bearing fine lines that suggest a horse.15 The cave of Beldibi, Turkey, dated about 15,000 to 12,000 B.C., produced images of a bull and a deer, traced with a flint on the cave wall16 and on pebbles.17

The function of the Paleolithic and Mesolithic incised bones and animal representations can only be hypothesized. André Leroi-Gourhan viewed the iconic representations as symbols of magico-religious significance. According to him, the animal images referred to the numinous, each species representing one manifestation of a complex cosmology.18 Leroi-

Gourhan argued that these animal figures were symbols loaded with a deep meaning, serving as instruments of thought and making it possible to grasp the abstract concepts of a cosmology. On the other hand, from the early days of archaeology, the notched bones have been interpreted as tallies, each notch representing one item of which to keep track.19 According to a recent theory of Alexander Marshack, the artifacts were lunar calendars, each incised line recording one sighting of the moon.20 The linear markings have been consistently viewed as referring to discrete and concrete entities. I suggest, therefore, that we consider the notches as signs promoting the accumulation of knowledge for specific ends. If these hypotheses are correct, the tallies constitute evidence that signs started being used in the Near East at least by the Middle Paleolithic period; and if the evidence reflects the facts, then the use of signs to communicate factual information followed the use of symbols in ritual.

If indeed the incised bones are tallies, the Paleolithic and Mesolithic linear markings of Kebara, Hayonim, Ksar Akil, and Jiita are of considerable interest because they represent the first attempt at storing and communicating concrete information in the Near East. This first step in “data processing” signified two remarkable contributions. First, the tallies departed from the use of ritual symbols by dealing with concrete data. They translated perceptible physical phenomena, such as the successive phases of the moon, rather than evoking intangible aspects of a cosmology. Second, the notched signs abstracted data in several ways:

1. They translated concrete information into abstract markings.

2. They removed the data from their context. For example, the sighting of the moon was abstracted from any simultaneous events, such as atmospheric or social conditions.

3. They separated the knowledge from the knower, presenting data, as we are told by Walter J. Ong21 and Marshall McLuhan, in a “cold” and static visual form, rather than in the “hot” and flexible oral medium, that involves voice modulation and body gestures.22

As a result, the graphic signs of Ksar Akil and Jiita not only brought about a new way of recording, handling, and communicating data, but generated an unprecedented objectivity in dealing with information. The tallies remained, however, a rudimentary device. For one thing, the notches were unspecific and could suggest an unlimited field of

interpretations. Marshack postulates that the signs stood for phases of the moon; others have hypothesized that they served to keep a tally of animal kills. But there is no way to verify their meaning. In fact, the notched bones were limited to recording quantitative information concerning things known by the tallier but remaining enigmatic to anyone else. These quantities were entered according to the basic principle of one-to-one correspondence, which consisted of matching each unit of the group to be tallied with one notch. Moreover, because tallies used a single kind of marking—namely, notches—they could handle only one type of data at a time. One bone could keep track of one item, but a second bone was necessary in order to keep track of a second set of data. Therefore, this simple method of tallies would be adequate only in communities where just a few obvious items were being recorded, as seems to have been the case in the Upper Paleolithic period.

It is certainly possible, of course, that the bone tallies were not the only devices for storing information before 10,000 B.C. It is even likely that, as in many preliterate societies, people during the Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods used pebbles, twigs, or grains for counting. If this was so, then these counters shared the same inadequacies as tallies. First of all, pebbles, like the notches along the shaft of a bone, lacked the capacity to indicate what item was being counted. Only the individual who made the markings or piled up a number of pebbles knew what things were being recorded. Second, because they were nonspecific, pebbles and twigs did not allow one to keep track of more than a single category at a time. A pile of pebbles, or one bone, could keep track of a sequence of days, but another pile and another bone would be necessary to handle quantities of, say, animals. Third and finally, it may be presumed that the loose counters were used, like tallies, in the cumbersome method of oneto-one correspondence—each pebble or each twig standing for one unit, with no possibility of expressing abstract numbers. One day, for example, was represented by one pebble, two days by two pebbles, and so on. The loose counters facilitated data manipulation because they were easier to handle. On the other hand, the notched bones were more efficient for accumulating and preserving data, because the notches were permanent and could not be disassembled.

Neolithic

Symbols

The first agricultural communities of the Near East carried on the age-old symbolic traditions. Early farmers placed antlers in house foundations and painted their floors with pigments.23 They also performed burial rituals that sometimes involved red ocher.24 At that time, too, human and animal forms were translated into clay figurines.25 Finally, notched bones were still part of village assemblages.26 However, the practice of agriculture generated new symbols—no doubt as a result of a new economy and a new way of life. The new symbols were different in form and content from anything used previously. These were the clay tokens modeled in distinctive shapes, each representing a precise quantity of a product.

ANew Form

The primary singularity of the tokens was that they were entirely manmade. In contrast to pebbles, twigs, or grains put to a secondary use for counting, and in contrast to tallies, which communicated meaning by slightly altering a bone, tokens were artifacts created in specific shapes, such as cones, spheres, disks, cylinders, and tetrahedrons, from an amorphous clay mass for the unique purpose of communication and record keeping.

The tokens were an entirely new medium for conveying information. Here the conceptual leap was to endow each token shape, such as the cone, sphere, or disk, with a specific meaning. Consequently, unlike markings on tallies that had an infinite number of possible interpretations, each clay token was itself a distinct sign with a single, discrete, and unequivocal significance. While tallies were meaningless out of context, tokens could always be understood by anyone initiated into the system. The tokens, therefore, presaged pictography; each token stood for a single concept. Like the later Sumerian pictographs, the tokens were “concept signs.”27

The greatest novelty of the new medium, however, was that it created a system. There was not just one type of token carrying a discrete meaning but an entire repertory of interrelated types of tokens, each with a corresponding discrete meaning. For example, besides the cone, which stood for a small measure of grain, the sphere represented a large measure of grain, the ovoid stood for a jar of oil, and so on. The system made it feasible to simultaneously manipulate information concerning

different categories of items, resulting in a complexity of data processing never reached previously. It thus became possible to store with precision unlimited quantities of information concerning an infinite number of goods without the risk of depending on human memory. Furthermore, the system was open; that is to say, new signs were added when necessary by creating new token shapes, and the ever-increasing repertory constantly pushed the device to new frontiers of complexity.

The token system was, in fact, the first code—the earliest system of signs used for transmitting information. First of all, the repertory of shapes was systematized; that is to say, all the various tokens were systematically repeated in order to carry the same meaning. A sphere, for example, always signified a particular measure of grain. Second, it may be presumed that tokens were used according to a rudimentary syntax. It is likely, for example, that the counters were lined up on the accountant’s table in a hierarchical order, starting on the right with tokens representing the largest units. That was how the Sumerians organized signs on a tablet, and it is logical to assume that the procedure was inherited from former usage in handling tokens. The fact that the tokens were systematized also had a great impact on their expansion. The token system was transmitted as a full-fledged code from community to community, ultimately spreading throughout the entire Near East, with each token form preserving the same meaning.

The token system owed little to the Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods. The choice of material for manufacturing the counters was a novelty; clay had been ignored by hunters and gatherers. Clay proved particularly advantageous since it is found abundantly in nature and is easy to work. Its remarkable plasticity when wet made it possible for villagers to create, with no tools and no great skill, an indefinite number of forms that became permanent when dried in the sun or baked in an open fire or oven.

The format of movable units was probably one of the very few features that tokens adopted from the past, perhaps having been inspired by a former usage of counting with pebbles, shells, twigs, or grains. Such a format enhanced data manipulation, since the small tokens could be arranged and rearranged at will into groups of any composition and size, while notches engraved on tallies were fixed and irreversible.

Otherwise, the various token shapes have no known Paleolithic or Mesolithic antecedents. But the counters have the merit of bringing

together as a set, for the first time, each of the basic geometric shapes, such as the sphere, cone, cylinder, tetrahedron, triangle, quadrangle, and cube (the latter surprisingly rarely).28 It is difficult to evaluate which of these forms were inspired by everyday life commodities and which were fully abstract. Among the latter, the cylinders and lenticular disks, which represented, alternatively, one unit and a group of animals, are visibly arbitrary. Others, such as the cone and ovoid, which stand respectively for a measure of grain and a unit of oil, were probably iconic, depicting a small cup and a pointed jar. Still other tokens, in the shape of animal heads, were naturalistic depictions.

A New Content

The token system was also unique in the kind of information it conveyed. Whereas Paleolithic iconic art probably evoked cosmological figures, and whereas Paleolithic or Mesolithic tallies may have counted time, the tokens dealt with economic data; each token stood for one precise amount of a commodity. As noted above, the cone and the sphere represented measures of grain probably equivalent to our liter and our bushel, respectively; the cylinder and lenticular disk showed numbers of animals; the tetrahedrons were units of work; and so on.

Moreover, unlike tallies, which recorded only quantitative information, the tokens also conveyed qualitative information. The type of item counted was indicated by the token shape, while the number of units involved was shown by the corresponding number of tokens. For example, one bushel of grain was represented by one sphere, two bushels of grain by two spheres, and (see Figure 1.1) five bushels corresponded to five spheres. Therefore, like the previous tallies, the token system was based on the simple principle of one-to-one correspondence. This made it cumbersome to deal with large quantities of data, since humans can only identify small sets by pattern recognition. There are a few instances of tokens, though, which stood for a collection of items. Among them, the lenticular disk stood for a “flock” (presumably ten sheep). The large tetrahedron may have represented a week’s work or the work of a gang— compared with the small tetrahedron, expressing one man-day’s work.

The tokens lacked a capacity for dissociating the numbers from the items counted: one sphere stood for “one bushel of grain,” and three

spheres stood for “one bushel of grain, one bushel of grain, one bushel of grain.” This inability to abstract numbers also contributed to the awkwardness of the system, since each collection counted required an equal number of tokens of a special shape. Furthermore, the number of types and subtypes of tokens multiplied over time in order to satisfy the growing need for more specificity in accounting. Thus, tokens for counting sheep were supplemented by special tokens for counting rams, ewes, and lambs. This proliferation of signs was bound to lead to the system’s collapse.

The Neolithic symbolic system of clay tokens superseded the Paleolithic tallies throughout the Near East because it had the following advantages:

A. The system was simple.

1. Clay was a common material requiring no special skills or tools to be worked.

2. The forms of the tokens were plain and easy to duplicate.

3. The system was based on a one-to-one correspondence, which is the simplest method for dealing with quantities.

4. The tokens stood for units of goods. They were independent of phonetics and could be meaningful in any dialect.

B. The code allowed new performances in data processing and communication.

1. It was the first mnemonic device able to handle and store an unlimited quantity of data.

2. It brought more flexibility in the manipulation of information by making it possible to add, subtract, and rectify data at will.

3. It enhanced logic and rational decision-making by allowing the scrutiny of complex data.

. . . The code was also timely. It fulfilled new needs for counting and accounting created by agriculture. It was an intrinsic part of the “Neolithic Revolution” spreading throughout the entire region of the Near East, wherever agriculture became adopted.

A Turning Point in Communication and Data Storage

Another random document with no related content on Scribd:

á esplicar la situació de la casa, pera veure si s’emportava alguna criatura ó ausiliava á la mare, pero ahir al vespre, que jo hi vaig tornar, encara no s’hi havia acostat… Sort dels vehins que essent casi tan pobres com ells, fan més de lo que poden pera cuydar á l’ávia y á la partera.

—¡Ay dels pobres, si no fossin los pobres! —esclamá tristament la Presidenta. Y tot seguit digué dirigintse al sacerdot:

—¿No li apar que’s podria fer una solicitut á la Beneficencia de la Parroquia? ¿vosté ja ho recomanará, veritat?

—Si, si; que la fassin avans del dissapte. Y si l’home fa llit, també’s podria cercar la cooperació de la Caritat Cristiana.

—¿Vosté se’n podrá encarregar senyora Guerra de fer aquestas diligencias?

—Jo tinch al meu marit un xich delicat y no sé si podré sortir aquesta tarde; pero ja havém quedat ab la meua companya que si jo no hi podia anar, ella faria las diligencias necessarias per aquesta pobre familia. Si alguna senyora te robeta petita, llensols vells, camisas, en fí, lo que sía, que fassa la caritat d’enviarho pensant que en aquella casa tot hi fa falta. ¡Allí si que serian precisos á més dels bonos de pá, los que’s poguessen donar pera caldo, mentres se corra pe’ls demes ausilis!

—¡Válgans Deu! ¡com més déficit més necessitats! —esclamá la Presidenta; y dirigintse á la Tresorera digué:

—Pósili sis bonos de carn.

—Y ¿vosté, senyora Prats?

—Jo crech que aquesta setmana quedará llest lo dels orfanets Campins. Nostre Senyor nos ha ajudat y com la superiora del Albergue de Sant Antoni en la providencia d’aquesta barriada, hem quedat que si surt alguna almoyna pera pagar la mesada de la nena li donarém y sino será lo mateix: ella se la queda. Y pe’l noy malalt també s’ha pogut alcansar una plassa gratuhita al Asilo de noys escrofulosos de Sant Joan de Deu. Lo Padre superior apesar de no tenir cap vacant, l’ha admés. S’ ha fet cárrech de la desgracia d’aquestas pobras criaturas…

La Presidenta continuá preguntant ab la mateixa forma á cada una de las senyoras allí reunidas y al acabar digué:

—Ara m’es precís á mi exposar la situació de la familia Dominguez, aquella pobra senyora andalussa, viuda de un empleat ab quatre noyas, que quan nosaltres anarem á visitarlas per primera vegada, ja li havian fugit de casa las duas grans… La infelis está esparverada ab las que li quedan, tement que’l mal exemple de las altras y la miseria que passan…

—¿Qué no treballan? —interrumpí’l sacerdot.

—¡Treballar! Fan calsotets, que’ls ne donan noranta céntims per cusirne una dotzena!; y encara tenen que posarhi’l fil y pagar catorse rals cada setmana per la máquina de cusir que las ha fet tornar mitj tísicas á totas duas! Y aixó no es tot. La Emilia, tenia promés. Ja feya tres mesos que entrava á la casa, quan la mare ha sapigut que era un trampós, un home de mala conducta. La pobra dona desatinada l’ha

tret; pero com segons sembla es dels que va armat á las casas de joch, ha dit que si no’l tornan á admetre, allá ahont las trobi las matará. La pobra dona vá venir á casa esglayadísima y me digué que si ella tingués diners pera anársen á Bilbao, ahont hi té un germá que sembla que está arregladet y las vol, marxaria immediatament, aixís per fugir del promés de la noya, com per tenir un apoyo…

—Pero’l viatje d’aquí á Bilbao…

—La senyora Sanmartí, ja ho ha gestionat y la Companyia del ferrocarril del Nort ha fet la caritat de donarlos mitj pasatje franch… Las dificultats son per l’altre mitj… Ja hi há recullida alguna cosa, pero no basta…

Lo sacerdot parlá de baix en baix, algunas pocas paraulas ab la Presidenta y aquesta digué:

—¡Deu li pagui! Aixís me sembla que aquest assumpto quedará arreglat y aqueixa pobra familia podrá sortirse de tan trista situació. Ara aném á la familia Saleta. Ab la senyora Marsal varem anar á casa de don Melcior Ferrer, qui s’ha portat nobilíssimament ab la Conferencia; donchs á més de donarme una almoyna per aqueixa desventurada familia, m’ha promés que apesar de sas moltas ocupacions s’encarregaria del assumpto d’aquest pobre home, que ben ignocentament lo poden portar á un presiri.

—¿Y la familia? —preguntá ab interés lo Director.

—La seua dona fa molta llástima. La desgracia li ha vingut tant de nou, que no hi há pas manera de que s’hi conformi. Las criaturas

apesar de sos pochs anys, sembla que comprenen la terrible pedregada que’ls ha caygut á sobre. Allá no hi há recursos de cap mena, puig lo que s’ha pogut recullir jo’ls hi guardo per si es possible que ell se’n vaji á Fransa, fins á esperar l’éxit de las gestions del advocat, que com es de primera talla, hi ha molt que confiar.— Y girantse seguidament envers la Tresorera digué:

—Reparteixi’ls bonos.

La Secretaria aná cridant una per una, á totas las senyoras allí reunidas, afegint al nom de la sócia, lo del pobre que li corresponia, pera ferli entrega dels bonos de pá, arrós, carn, llet y patatas, que estavan destinats á la familia que visitava.

Acabat lo repartiment, lo sacerdot ab tó persuassiu y elegant dicció, feu una breu y sentida plática plena d’evangélica caritat, que fou atentament escoltada y tot seguit la Tresorera passá una grossa bossa de felpa blava, en la que cada senyora hi ficá la má, depositanthi la seua almoyna.

Acabada la col·lecta aquesta se vuydá dessobre la taula. Las sócias reunidas eran vinticinch y en la cantitat recullida s’hi trobaren divuyt pessetas en monedas de cuatre rals, una de vuyt, dos duros y cinch mitjas pessetas.

La Tresorera recullí la cantitat; la Secretaria l’apuntá en lo llibre d’actas y la Presidenta agenollantse seguida de las sócias, resá unas curtíssimas oracions que donaren per acabada la sessió, qu’escassament havia durat una hora, portantse ab un órdre y rectitut verament monástica. Mes tan bon punt s’hagué fet la senyal

de la creu y s’aixecaren las senyoras, paresqué qu’en la cambra s’acabava d’obrir la resclosa d’un riu impetuós. Com esbart d’aucellas que l’esparver destria, quedá trencada en vint parts la simétrica renglera de cadiras; y las senyoras aplegantse en rotllos de tres, de cinch, de cuatre, segons s’esqueya, romperen en animada conversa que contrastava ab la severa rigidés fins aquell instant escrupulosament observada.

Aquella cambra pareixía una miniatura del saló de conferencias del Congrés, tant per l’animació y efervescencia que hi regnava, com per sentirse que en un rotllo se demanavan recomanacions; en l’altre feyna de roba blanca; en altre mitjas á fer; en aquell se combinava dia y hora pera fer alguna diligencia relativa á tal ó qual pobre ó sensillament pera ferli la visita de la setmana; en tant que en lo de més enllá se tractava la manera de pagar un didatje ó gestionar la entrada en las Hermanitas dels pobres d’algun vell desamparat. En la taula’l rotllo era molt més nombrós: totas las sócias tenian quelcom que ultimar ó recomenar al Director ó á las quatre senyoras que formavan la junta de la Conferencia y que á totas las sócias rebian ab fraternal afecte.

La Montserrat contemplá ab creixent interés l’animada escena que’s desplegava devant de sos ulls. Ni en visitas, ni en passeigs, havia vist á senyoras de tan diversas edats y condicions, impregnadas per un igual d’aquella atmósfera de goig, de benestar, que resplandia en la cara de las que veya entorn seu. Ni una expressió d’enuig, ni un gesto de desdeny, ni una sombra d’ergull, ni un signe de cansanci… ¿Era que totas tenían lo dó de la felicitat, ó mellor dit, de la perfecció moral? Sens dubte que, subjectes com tots los éssers creats á la

ineludible lley de las debilitats humanas, cada una tenia sos defectes, y ab sos més ó menos graus de felicitat, sas penas ó sos rosechs; pero era que en aquells moments gosavan en comunitat de la més hermosa y més consoladora de las virtuts: s’oblidavan de si mateixas, per endolsir y socorre infortunis, que aixís per sa magnitut, com per ésser vistos per sos propis ulls, los feyan agrahir més l’afavoriment de la seua posició ó ab més facilitat conformarse ab las propias penas; era que’s desenrotllava davant seu la transformació del cent per hú, de la hermosa promesa de Jesucrist; la petita almoyna, que individualment no hauria bastat pera res, ajuntada al fondo comú operava lo miracle dels peixos y pans del Evangeli; y la probabilitat del éxit, la interna satisfacció de servir d’instrument de la Divina Providencia, la emulació del bé, la comunió de las bonas obras, com tots los goigs dels plahers místichs, enlayrantse envers lo cel, apartavan lluny de sí las engrunadas petitesas de la terra…

Mes eix raig de celístia del paradís durá poca estona: la porta s’obrí, donant pas á las senyoras que anaren sortint de la cambra; y la veu de donya Balbina indicant á la Montserrat son desitj de presentarla á la Presidenta, tragué á la noya del ensimismament en que l’havia sotmesa l’interés y novedat de la sessió á que acabava de assistir.

Atansantse á la taula pogué veure d’aprop á la persona que anava á saludar. Era aquesta una senyora d’uns cuaranta anys, de distingidas maneras, d’atractiva fesomía, de cabell castany graciosament ondejat, de mirada dolsa y penetrant á la vegada, de escayenta y baixeta figura, que encara que sensillament vestida ab lo trajo negre, que pareixía ésser lo preferit per la Associació, deixava veure la elegancia de la dama de societat.

Donya Balbina li feu la presentació de la Montserrat y la Presidenta li allargá la má dihentli afectuosament:

—¿No tindrém lo plaher d’haverli fet entrar desitj d’ésser germana nostra?

—¡Ay! senyora —feu la Montserrat ab la vehemencia de la impresió de lo que acabava de presenciar— los desitjos no’m mancan, pero vist lo que vostés fan, no’m reconech ab suficients qualitats pera tenir aquesta honra. Jo coneixía de nom las Conferencias de Sant Vicens de Paul, pero li confesso francament, que no tenia idea de lo que son. Me creya, per haverho sentit explicar, que era una Associació que ajuntava las almoynas que recullía pera comprar comestibles que donava á las familias pobres y… res més. Cregui que no sé tornar en mí de l’admiració que m’ha causat lo que he sentit… Aixó es una cosa tan grandiosa com nova; una Associació de Caritat, ahont apar que’ls diners son lo de menos… perque verdaderament al pobre que se li col·locan los fills, que en sas malaltías se li cercan ausilis, que se li busca feyna ó medis pera guanyarse la vida, se li fá un bé cent vegadas més gran que donantli un, ni tres, ni quatre duros…

—¡Oh filla, filla, aixó no ho alcansém sempre ni molt menos! — interrumpí somrihent la Presidenta.— ¡Tant de bó que ho logréssim tan sols la meytat de las vegadas que ho solicitém!

—Pero vostés ho intentan, ho treballan y’s veu que moltas voltas l’éxit corona los seus esforsos. Cregui que tot aixó m’ha cautivat sobre manera, pero reconech que per pertanyer á aquesta Associació es precís á més de poguer disposar de medis pecuniaris, un talent, un tacte…

—¡Cá! No ho cregui. Per ésser de las Conferencias no’s necessitan més que las tres cosas que recomana Sant Vicens de Paul. Caritat, Caritat y Caritat.

Com vosté pot compendre, entre quaranta duas sócias que avuy compta la nostra Conferencia, n’hi ha de moltas intel·ligencias y posicions, y no n’hi ha una sola que deixi de ferhi lo seu bon servey. Es com un ram de flors en lo que aixís hi dona la seva fragancia la aristocrática gardenia, com la humil maría-lluísa; aixó deixant de banda que la forsa de la caritat es prodigiosa: senyora hi há, que si vosté hi enrahonava, li semblaría que es una intel·ligencia que no arriva á mitjana, y si jo li comptava las cosas que ha lograt per los seus pobres y la sutilitat de la seua diplomacia, per reconciliar lo marit ab la muller, los fills ab los pares y fins lo fadrí despedit ab l’amo enutjat, se’n faria creus. Caritat de cor, d’ánima ¡res més que Caritat! Miri, hi há sócias que la Conferencia se’n refía pe’ls diners, altras per las influencias, altras pe’l temps que poden dedicarshi, altras per la bona voluntat; y de tots aquestos elements que disgregats se pot assegurar que foran molt poca cosa, cooperativament, gracias á la ajuda de Deu, á la emulació y á la forsa imitativa del exemple, naix aquest tot que á vosté li apar tan admirable. Y vaig á dirli una cosa de la que’n tinch plena convicció: un dels elements que més bé podrian fer á la nostra obra, es lo de las senyoretas solteras que passan dels trenta anys y las viudas sense fills. La dona deslligada de las obligacions més íntimas de la familia, que arrossega entre la efervescencia del mon la buydor y lo aislament del seu estat, seria una adquisició per las Conferencias, á las que hi podrian fer un gran bé, consagranthi la forsa de la seua joventut, de

la seua inteligencia y dels seus sentiments, fent de pas la felicitat de son cor ab una hermosa manera d’omplir la buydor de la seua vida.

—Vosté te molt talent y molta amabilitat, senyora —interrumpí la Montserrat— y tinch por de que no li costaria de convéncem…

—Pero jo tampoch desitjo catequisarla de moment. M’ estimo més que primer ho vegi sobre’l terreno, que fassi la práctica de lo que acaba de sentir —digué la Presidenta; y girantse envers la germana del doctor Valls li preguntá:

—Vosté Balbina ¿ab quí visita?

—Ab la senyora Agulló.

—Perfectament. Fassin las visitas juntas, y si en lo camp práctich li agrada tant la nostra obra, com en la sessió que ha presenciat avuy, tindré molt gust en proposarla la vinenta setmana.

Pochs minuts després la Montserrat caminava carrer d’Aragó amunt, entre donya Balbina Valls y la senyora Agulló, que apesar de las escusas de la neófita s’empenyaren en portarla al mitg de totas duas. Al arribar al carrer del Bruch la senyora Agulló, preguntá á la sua companya.— ¿Visitém á la Treno primer, ó á la Roca?

—Casi si á vosté li venia be, preferia anar primer á la meua —digué donya Balbina,— perque dins del manguito porto una camiseta de llana del meu germá pe’l noy de la Roca y no’m deixa ficar be las mans; y com lo fret se deixa sentir…

—Com vulgui; com vulgui —repetí la senyora Agulló. Ho deya, per dirigirnos cap á la dreta ó cap á l’esquerra; donchs crech que la seua pobre está molt per munt.

—¿Vosté no l’ha visitada may?

—No; sols la conech per lo que he sentit parlar d’ella en la Conferencia á vosté y á la senyora Santmartí.

—¡Y tant que convé que vosté la vegi á aquesta familia! —feu la senyora Valls.

—¡Jo!

—Vosté, vosté. Es una pobre que interessa sobre manera y jo estich segura, que una volta l’hagi visitada, vosté fará lo que ha fet per tantas altres.

La senyora Agulló semblá compendre perfectament lo que’s volia d’ella y digué:

—Per lo mateix que ho he fet per tantas, ja no sé com lograrho per cap més. Tinch por d’abusar massa… y més que tot, me consta que lo que aquestos senyors, comensaren per una cantitat ja molt crescuda, ha arribat á triplicarse y quintuplicarse, y que per lo tant costa moltíssim de que acceptin cap pobre nou.

—Ja’n sé alguna cosa d’aixó; pero en fí vosté veurá á aquesta pobre viuda y estich certa que hi fará lo que pugui y Nostre Senyor se cuydará de lo demés. Miri, ja hi havém arribat —feu donya Balbina,

dirigintse á una casa de pobre apariencia de las últimas edificadas en lo carrer del Bruch.

—¿Saben que mirant l’ensanxe de pas, ningú diria que hi visquessin pobres tant necessitats, ni que entre mitj de tanta llum y de tanta esplendidesa, hi hagin aquestas escalas tan foscas, tan encofornadas y brutas? —saltá la Montserrat fixantse que després del primer tram d’esgrahons, la escala que pujavan á més d’anarse estrenyent fins á uns vuytanta centímetres, estava plena de pols, papers, encenalls y altres immundicias per l’estil.

—Vaja, ja conech que será bona observadora —digué donya Balbina que á causa de patir d’ofech, tenia que reposar una estoneta á cada replá— sens que ningú’n fassi esment, sembla estrany com lo visitar pobres predisposa á la observació y á fer filosofías. Apesar de que la nostra feyna es sempre pe’ls voltans de las Salesas, com també nos donan lo seu que fer las porterías y quints pisos dels extréms del carrer de Lauria, Bruch, Girona, Concell de Cent y Valencia, y entre ells hi há també las seuas casas de luxo y fins los seus palaus, quan un baixa de veure tantas miserias, involuntariament se li ocorren ideas, que estich segura es impossible las concebeixi qui no s’hagi dedicat á la tasca de visitar pobres. ¡Quants miracles se podrian realisar ab lo concurs de tots los que tenen cor y possibles per ferho!… En fí ja li he dit que aquest terreno —feu la senyora Valls arrivant al replá del quint pis y trucant en la última de las quatre portas que hi havia arrengleradas— fá acudir á la imaginació moltas ideas que la gent que no veuhen més pobres, que’ls que corran pe’ls carrers ne diuhen utópias ó follías…

Ab lo mohiment de trucar, la porta que sols estava ajustada se mitj obrí, y una noyeta d’uns quatre anys flaca y esgroguehida, tragué’l cap per la escletja y després de deixarla oberta de bat á bat, se ficá endintre cridant ab tó d’alegria.

—¡Mare! ¡Mare! ¡Las senyoras de la setmana entrant!

—Aquesta criatura com que al despedirnos dihem sempre: “Fins á la setmana entrant” nos ho ha deixat per nom —feu donya Balbina tot ficantse per un estret corredor que acabava ab una petita sala ab arcoba.

Unas cortinas de indiana ratlladas de blanch y vermell que tapavan lo llit; una taula de fusta pintada, sis ó set cadiras, de diferentas formas y edats, segons se veya per ésser unas bastant més vellas que las altres; un bagul y un mitj armari, que’s coneixia devia haver tingut en son temps lo seu corresponent sócol y al que á més d’aquest, hi mancava mitja porta, constituhía lo moblatje del quarto, que rebia llum per un petit balcó, obstruhit en aquells moments, per una corda plena de roba á mitg assecar, que una dona d’uns trenta set á trenta vuyt anys, anava girant á fí d’aixugarla més prompte.

Tan aviat entraren las senyoras, la dona tancá com pogué’l balcó y s’apressá á donarlos cadiras, cercant las més novas y reforsadas.

—No s’amohini, Juliana; en qualsevulla estarém be —digué carinyosament donya Balbina, deixant á las seuas companyas que feyan festas á la criatura, las duas més bonas, y assentantse ella en una de mitjaneta, foradada del assiento.

—Pero ¡Si hi estará malament! —feu la dona.

—¿Qué creu que s’hi pot caure?

—¡Tant com aixó!…

—Donchs no s’amohini, y díguins com está desde dilluns passat…

—Tant malament com vulgui —respongué secament la dona, assentantse entre mitj de las senyoras y creuhant las mans sobre la falda.

—¿Y aixó? ¿Qué hi ha de nou?

—Desde’l dimecres que tinch lo noy al llit…

—¡En Quimet! y donchs ¿qué té? ¿Qué no ha anat á cercar al metje?

—Lo divendres veyent que li havia donat sal de Madrit y que encara estava de la mateixa manera, vaig anar á cercar al metje de la Conferencia.

—Ben fet ¿Y qué li ha dit?

—Li va receptar una medicina, la prengué y’l dijous lo trobá més aliviat y me va dir que li fes caldo, y que li donés com més bó mellor. ¡Figuris quin caldo li puch donar jo! Vosté sab com estich de diners y del dolor reuma, que la major part dels dias me té ab un crit etern, sens deixarme bellugar… La setmana passada, de tres pessetas que’m guanya’l noy, com que estigué malalt y no hi aná més que al principi, l’amo no me’n doná més que una… Jo ab los dias que m’he trobat menos malament, entre la setmana passada y aquesta, he guanyat

cinch rals al safreig ¡y ab tot aixó compri quan menos pa!… ¡Y’l procurador ha vingut avuy, dihent que l’amo no vol esperar un dia més! ¡que si no pago me treurá al carrer!… ¡Y jo casi voldria que ho fes! Si á la nit nos troban al mitj de la via, pot esser que’ns recullin y’ns portin á un lloch ó altre… Dech tres mesos de lloguer de casa ¡y jo no sé pas de que pagar, ni aquets, ni’ls altres que vingan!…

—Vaja, vaja, Juliana, ja veig que estém fins al cap de amunt… Paciencia! ¡paciencia y Deu provehirá!

—Ja fa molt temps, que Deu no se’n recorda de mí…

—Vaja que aixó no es pas veritat —feu afectuosament donya Balbina. Y girantse envers las seuas duas companyas, que no s’havian atrevit á bestreure en la conversa, la senyora Agulló per desconeixer la situació de la pobre, que per primera volta visitava, y la Montserrat perque la emoció la tenia corpresa, las digué:

—Ab la pobra Juliana, fa molt temps que Nostre Senyor hi pensa; y ella es molt bona, y s’ho pren ab resignació; pero de tant en tant, s’exalta y ella mateixa s’engrandeix las cosas, y encara es pitjor. Perque vaja, ab quatre anys que fá que es viuda y quatre anys que la Conferencia l’ajuda, es veritat que ha passat moltas penas, perque una pobra dona ab tres fills, (dos y un que se li morí l’any passat), pera pujarlos no més que ab lo seu guany, li costa molts fatichs, pero lo cert es que’l noy que tenia nou anys, ja’n te tretse; y ja es aprenent y guanya alguna coseta y cada dia guanyará més; y com Deu l’ha protegida per passar aquestos quatre anys, la protegirá d’aquí endavant si ella no’s desespera…

—Jo ja ho voldria no desesperarme —feu la dona, bon xich aplacada, per las rahons de la senyora Valls,— pero quan me veig que á sobre de totas las meuas penas, ara se m’hi afegeix la poca salut del noy, me desespero y’m surto de tino y no sé lo que’m dich ni lo que’m passa pe’l enteniment. ¿Cóm vol que ho pensi, que’l noy guanyará més, si’l veig tan poca cosa y que’ls remeys que’l metje’m diu que necessita per reforsarse, jo no’ls hi puch comprar? ¡Tenir un fill malalt, y no poguerli donar lo que necessita per curarse, per viure, es horrorós! —afegí la pobra dona, rompent en un mar de plors.

—En los grans mals Deu ajuda —digué la senyora Agulló prenent per primera volta la paraula, tot aixugant duas llágrimas que li humitejavan los ulls.

—¡Ay, á mí no m’ajuda ningú! —feu altra volta la dona plorant sempre— jo ja sé de molts pobres que tenen uns senyors que los hi pagan lo lloguer del pis. ¡Ay Deu meu! ¡Lo lloguer, que es lo que mata als pobres! pero á mí ja ho sab donya Balbina, llevat de vostés y la Beneficencia de la Parroquia, ¡ningú, ningú m’aussilia en res!

—L’ aussilia Nostre Senyor que no l’ha deixada, ni la deixará may: que de totas aquestas llágrimas, n’hi fá en lo cel una corona, que tal volta no tindrém nosaltres, y que vosté si sufreix las seuas penas ab resignació, la disfrutará al costat del fill que ja hi té y d’aquestos dos si sap criarlos com Deu mana. ¡Vaja, no s’afligeixi més! que d’aixó sols se’n treu ferse malbé’ls ulls y esverar aquestas pobras criaturas, que necessitan que vosté las animi.

—¡Ay Deu meu! ¿Cóm volen que m’animi si ara á falta de penas, se m’hi ha afegit la d’aquesta criatura que está morta de necessitat, que

li tinch de fer caldo? y ¡mirin! ¡mirin! —repetí la Juliana altra volta bon tros exaltada, girant dessobre de sa falda la butxaca de las faldillas de la que’n caygueren vuyt ó deu céntims.— ¡Es tot lo que tinch á casa!

—Aixó ray, aixó ray —feu donya Balbina tot aixecantse. Y dirigintse á una porta del costat de l’arcoba preguntá:— ¿Es aquí en Quimet?

—No senyora —respongué la pobra, seguint darrera d’ella y apartant las cortinas de indiana.— He tingut de posarlo en lo meu llit, perque á lo menos, aquí hi tinch márfega, que en lo seu catre no hi ha més que la tela…

—Pero dona, dona, ¿perqué no m’havia dit qu’en Quimet no tenia márfega? —esclamá donya Balbina, atansantse al capsal del llit del noy.— De la mateixa manera que la Conferencia li doná la de vosté, li hauria donat la d’en Quimet…

—Com sempre tinch de demanar tantas cosas, ¡me fá pena, amohinar tant!… Y ja sap que la meua, si no hagués estat per la malaltia de la noya tampoch l’hauria demanada…

—Mal fet; mal fet; —digué la senyora Agulló, que junt ab la nevoda de mossen Jaume, s’havian atansat als peus del llit— vosté, tot lo que necessiti ho demana; nosaltres, no’ns amohinem, sino de no poguer donar tot lo que voldriam. Pero si no’s pot fer tot, á voltas se fa una mica… y val més una mica, que res. Márfegas, llensols, flassadas, la Conferencia no’n te tantas com ne voldria; pero per una necessitat forta, ¡sempre n’hi ha alguna de mal desada!…

—Y donchs, Quimet ¿cóm te trobas? —preguntá donya Balbina al noy, qui al veure á las senyoras s’havia enfonsat en lo llit, cubrintse ab la manta, fins més amunt dels ulls.

—¡Home! ¡Quimet! Respon —feu la mare, apurada, al veure que’l seu fill, en lloch de respondre, havia acabat per taparse tot lo cap.

—¡Déixil estar, que deu dormir! Un altre dia, quan estará més bo, ja coneixerá que lo que está fent, quan hi ha senyoras que l’estiman y que s’interessan per ell, no está gayre be ¡y no ho fará més! —digué somrihent donya Balbina. Y sortint de la arcoba y girantse envers á sa mare afegí:

—Avuy nosaltres anirém á avisar á la Caritat Cristiana, que li donará bonos de carn y gallina; mes com aixó ja no ho tindrá fins demá y al noy li convé’l caldo, d’aquí á una hora, arribis fins á casa ab una olla mitjaneta y n’hi donaré per avuy. Demá ¡Deu provehirá! Y quan aquest noy estiga bo, s’haurá de veure si’l pot seguir ó no l’ofici de manyá… A mi’m sembla que te poca robustesa per aquest treball; y allavors n’hi haurém de cercar un altre…

—¡Ay! ¡prou fa temps que’l metje m’ho diu aixó! ¿Pero com ho haig de fer pobra de mí? Si ab las tres pessetas que’m porta cada setmana, me trobo ab aquestos apuros ¿cóm ho faré sense cap? Perque d’aquí á que ab un altre ofici me las guanyi… ¿y’l lloguer? ¿Y’l pá, que se me’n menjan un y mitj cada dia? ¡No hi ha remey, ha de fer com jo que estich plena de dolor y haig de rentar! Ell ha de seguir ab l’ofici ¡no hi ha més! y encara que’l vegi que se’m mor ¡jo, jo mateixa tinch que caragolarli’l dogal! —esclamá la dona tornant ab major forsa á abandonarse al seu sentiment.

—Vaja ¡que Nostre Senyor, no vol que la gent se desesperi d’aquest modo! —feu la senyora Agulló bon tros afectada, passant carinyosament la má per la espatlla de la pobre. Demanin al Sagrat Cor de Jesús y á Sant Joseph que es lo protector dels pobres y tinga confiansa, que quan Deu tanca una porta, diu que Maria Santíssima n’obra una altra. Y ¡també la obrirá per vosté! Entretant digui al procurador, que una volta que tants dias s’ha esperat, que prenga paciencia fins á la setmana entrant, que nosaltres demanarém á la Conferencia que li pagui algún lloguer atrassat; y després se fará lo que’s puga per veure si’s pot alcansar per via del bon Almoyner d’aquestos senyors, que vosté diu que sab que fan tant be als pobres, que li donguin alguna coseta per ajudarli á pagar lo lloguer de la casa…

—¡Ay, si Deu ho volia! ¡Si María Santissima me fes aquesta gracia! ¡Lo lloguer! ¡Lo lloguer que es lo que mata als pobres! —esclamá la dona plena d’alegria ab aquell raig d’esperansa.

Donya Balbina contentíssima interiorment, de las paraulas de la seua companya, en las que hi veya realisarse lo seu generós intent, doná’ls bonos á la pobre, dos borregos á la criatura y’s despedí tot fentlos la promesa de tornar l’endemá á veure’l noy.

La Montserrat que havia sortit de casa, no portant més que duas pessetas que havia tirat á la bossa, al ferse la col·lecta de la Conferencia, visiblement emocionada per la escena que acabava de presenciar y per haberse vist en la impossibilitat de socórrela, al tornar á pendre lloch en lo carrer entre sas duas companyas d’escursió esclamá ab la habitual impetuositat de son carácter:

—Conech que jo ¡no serviria pas per sócia de las Conferencias! Aixó tant sols se pot fer portant una butxaca ben plena, per remediar aquestos horrors socials…

—Lo mateix vaig dir jo la primera vegada que vaig fer visitas de Conferencia —feu calmosament donya Balbina.

—Y jo —afegí ab lo mateix ayre la senyora Agulló.

—A totas las senyoras que visitan per primera vegada se’ls hi acut lo que acaba de dir vosté; pero quan se convencen que aixó, com la major part de las cosas d’aquest mon, qui las fá casi sempre es qui menos condicions materials té per ferlas, cambian de pensament.

—Perque estarán en altres condicions que jo; perque á falta de diners sabrán trobar com vostés mateixas paraulas de consol, que á mi encara que se m’haguessen acudit, no hauria pogut dirlas, perque jo á n’aquesta dona com una tonta, no li he sapigut obrir la boca. Crega que lo únich que hauria pogut fer era plorar ab ella.

—Lo que proba que vosté está en possessió de la primera qualitat que’s necessita pera visitar pobres, que te cor; y que per lo tant, pensaria que val més fer bonament lo que’s pot que no fer res; perque, veu, nosaltres en aquesta visita de primer moment sembla que havem fet molt poca cosa, pero anantho reflexionant ja’s troba que no es tan poch; puig que la caritat com te sempre l’ajuda de Deu, molt sovint fa miracles. Aqueixa dona demá tindrá carn y gallina y la senyora Agulló que ha presenciat l’apremiant necessitat d’aquesta infelis mare, jo ja sé que posará tota la seua influencia per alcansarli una de las almoynas que mensualment reparteix la caritativa familia

de qui ella nos ha parlat; y si lo que no es probable, no li fos possible lograrho, ella y jo y vosté també, cercariam manera de obtenirla de qualsevulla persona, de las que la experiencia en l’exercici de la caritat nos diu que se las troba quan se las té de menester; y en ultim cás l’assistiríam nosaltres; si no podia ésser ab vuyt, fora en cinch ó en tres, pero sempre ab la seguretat de que la nostra conciencia nos diría que havém obrat molt mellor ajudantla ab la nostra petitísima cooperació, que abandonantla en lo seu desespero. Perque aixó que diuhen molts, de que no volen visitar pobres, perque no están en condicions de tréurels de la miseria, es posarse al nivell del metje que deixés morir al malalt pera no véurel patir. ¡Ah Montserrat!, cregui que es molt diferent sapiguer una necessitat ó véurela ab los propis ulls y estiga certa de que no hi há res tant ingeniós com la caritat, ni cosa tant súptil en escusas com l’egoisme ó l’indiferencia…

Enfront de la realitat y de la claríssima manera d’expressarla, la noya Gil bon xich més reposada de la seua emoció, trobá que donya Balbina parlava maravellosament, y deixantse portar d’aquella falda de cabells blanchs y mantellina de manto, l’acompanyá la tarde del mateix dia á la casa del encarregat de la Caritat Cristiana del barri y á la visita d’altras duas familias de pobres de la Conferencia, deixant pera l’endemá l’anar á cercar una fé de baptisme á la parroquia de Santa Madrona y gestionar ab una bona senyora la manera de desempenyar un farcell de roba d’abrich al Montepío de la Mare de Deu de la Esperansa.

A dos quarts de nou del vespre la Montserrat, plé’l cor de la impresió de las visitas que havia fet aquell dia, y de la idea de que la seua existencia, anava desde aquell moment á tenir també sa noble utilitat

Turn static files into dynamic content formats.

Create a flipbook
Issuu converts static files into: digital portfolios, online yearbooks, online catalogs, digital photo albums and more. Sign up and create your flipbook.