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Optimising poultry flock health

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Related titles:

Improving gut health in poultry

Print (ISBN 978-1-78676-304-4); Online (ISBN 978-1-78676-306-8, 978-1-78676-307-5)

Achieving sustainable production of poultry meat Volume 1: Safety, quality and sustainability

Print (ISBN 978-1-78676-064-7); Online (ISBN 978-1-78676-066-1, 978-1-78676-067-8)

Achieving sustainable production of poultry meat Volume 3: Health and welfare

Print (ISBN 978-1-78676-072-2); Online (ISBN 978-1-78676-075-3, 978-1-78676-074-6)

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BURLEIGH DODDS SERIES IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE

NUMBER 119

Optimising poultry flock health

by Professor Sjaak de Wit, Royal GD and University of Utrecht, The Netherlands

Published by Burleigh Dodds Science Publishing Limited

82 High Street, Sawston, Cambridge CB22 3HJ, UK www.bdspublishing.com

Burleigh Dodds Science Publishing, 1518 Walnut Street, Suite 900, Philadelphia, PA 19102-3406, USA

First published 2022 by Burleigh Dodds Science Publishing Limited © Burleigh Dodds Science Publishing, 2022. All rights reserved.

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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 978-1-78676-887-2 (print)

ISBN 978-1-78676-890-2 (PDF)

ISBN 978-1-78676-889-6 (ePub)

ISSN 2059-6936 (print)

ISSN 2059-6944 (online)

DOI 10.19103/AS.2022.0104

Typeset by Deanta Global Publishing Services, Dublin, Ireland

3 Advances in understanding parasite infections of poultry: protozoa and the red mite

Damer P. Blake, Royal Veterinary College, UK; and Dieter Liebhart, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Austria 1

5

Part 2 Preventing diseases in poultry

4 Improving biosecurity in poultry flocks

Jean-Pierre Vaillancourt and Manon Racicot, Université de Montréal, Canada; and Mattias Delpont, École Nationale Vétérinaire de Toulouse, France

1 Introduction

2 Reducing sources of contamination: cleaning and disinfection of poultry

3 Reducing sources of contamination: equipment and vehicles

4 Reducing sources of contamination: water and feed hygiene

5 Reducing sources of contamination: insect, mite and rodent pests, wild birds and pets

6 Reducing sources of contamination: manure, litter and dead birds

7 Separating healthy birds from sources of contamination: zoning production sites

8 Separating healthy birds from sources of contamination: hatchery

9 Separating healthy birds from sources of contamination:

13

5 Nutritional strategies to boost immune response in poultry

M. T. Kidd, Center of Excellence for Poultry Science, University of Arkansas, USA; and P. F. Surai, Vitagene and Health Research Center, UK, Moscow State Academy of Veterinary Medicine and Biotechnology named after K.I. Skryabin, Russia, Trakia University, Bulgaria, Szent Istvan University, Hungary and Saint-Petersburg State Academy of Veterinary Medicine, Russia

Series list

Title

Achieving sustainable cultivation of maize - Vol 1 001

From improved varieties to local applications

Edited by: Dr Dave Watson, CGIAR Maize Research Program Manager, CIMMYT, Mexico

Achieving sustainable cultivation of maize - Vol 2 002

Cultivation techniques, pest and disease control

Edited by: Dr Dave Watson, CGIAR Maize Research Program Manager, CIMMYT, Mexico

Achieving sustainable cultivation of rice - Vol 1 003

Breeding for higher yield and quality

Edited by: Prof. Takuji Sasaki, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan

Achieving sustainable cultivation of rice - Vol 2 004

Cultivation, pest and disease management

Edited by: Prof. Takuji Sasaki, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan

Achieving sustainable cultivation of wheat - Vol 1 005

Breeding, quality traits, pests and diseases

Edited by: Prof. Peter Langridge, The University of Adelaide, Australia

Achieving sustainable cultivation of wheat - Vol 2 006

Cultivation techniques

Edited by: Prof. Peter Langridge, The University of Adelaide, Australia

Achieving sustainable cultivation of tomatoes 007

Edited by: Dr Autar Mattoo, USDA-ARS, USA and Prof. Avtar Handa, Purdue University, USA

Achieving sustainable production of milk - Vol 1 008

Milk composition, genetics and breeding

Edited by: Dr Nico van Belzen, International Dairy Federation (IDF), Belgium

Achieving sustainable production of milk - Vol 2 009

Safety, quality and sustainability

Edited by: Dr Nico van Belzen, International Dairy Federation (IDF), Belgium

Achieving sustainable production of milk - Vol 3 010

Dairy herd management and welfare

Edited by: Prof. John Webster, University of Bristol, UK

Ensuring safety and quality in the production of beef - Vol 1 011

Safety

Edited by: Prof. Gary Acuff, Texas A&M University, USA and Prof. James Dickson, Iowa State University, USA

Ensuring safety and quality in the production of beef - Vol 2 012

Quality

Edited by: Prof. Michael Dikeman, Kansas State University, USA

Achieving sustainable production of poultry meat - Vol 1 013

Safety, quality and sustainability

Edited by: Prof. Steven C. Ricke, University of Arkansas, USA

Achieving sustainable production of poultry meat - Vol 2 014

Breeding and nutrition

Edited by: Prof. Todd Applegate, University of Georgia, USA

© Burleigh Dodds Science Publishing Limited, 2022. All rights reserved.

Achieving sustainable production of poultry meat - Vol 3 015

Health and welfare

Edited by: Prof. Todd Applegate, University of Georgia, USA

Achieving sustainable production of eggs - Vol 1 016

Safety and quality

Edited by: Prof. Julie Roberts, University of New England, Australia

Achieving sustainable production of eggs - Vol 2 017

Animal welfare and sustainability

Edited by: Prof. Julie Roberts, University of New England, Australia

Achieving sustainable cultivation of apples 018

Edited by: Dr Kate Evans, Washington State University, USA

Integrated disease management of wheat and barley 019

Edited by: Prof. Richard Oliver, Curtin University, Australia

Achieving sustainable cultivation of cassava - Vol 1 020

Cultivation techniques

Edited by: Dr Clair Hershey, formerly International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Colombia

Achieving sustainable cultivation of cassava - Vol 2 021

Genetics, breeding, pests and diseases

Edited by: Dr Clair Hershey, formerly International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Colombia

Achieving sustainable production of sheep 022

Edited by: Prof. Johan Greyling, University of the Free State, South Africa

Achieving sustainable production of pig meat - Vol 1 023

Safety, quality and sustainability

Edited by: Prof. Alan Mathew, Purdue University, USA

Achieving sustainable production of pig meat - Vol 2 024

Animal breeding and nutrition

Edited by: Prof. Julian Wiseman, University of Nottingham, UK

Achieving sustainable production of pig meat - Vol 3 025

Animal health and welfare

Edited by: Prof. Julian Wiseman, University of Nottingham, UK

Achieving sustainable cultivation of potatoes - Vol 1 026

Breeding improved varieties

Edited by: Prof. Gefu Wang-Pruski, Dalhousie University, Canada

Achieving sustainable cultivation of oil palm - Vol 1 027

Introduction, breeding and cultivation techniques

Edited by: Prof. Alain Rival, Center for International Cooperation in Agricultural Research for Development (CIRAD), France

Achieving sustainable cultivation of oil palm - Vol 2 028

Diseases, pests, quality and sustainability

Edited by: Prof. Alain Rival, Center for International Cooperation in Agricultural Research for Development (CIRAD), France

Achieving sustainable cultivation of soybeans - Vol 1 029

Breeding and cultivation techniques

Edited by: Prof. Henry T. Nguyen, University of Missouri, USA

Achieving sustainable cultivation of soybeans - Vol 2 030

Diseases, pests, food and non-food uses

Edited by: Prof. Henry T. Nguyen, University of Missouri, USA

© Burleigh Dodds Science Publishing Limited, 2022. All rights reserved.

Achieving sustainable cultivation of sorghum - Vol 1 031

Genetics, breeding and production techniques

Edited by: Prof. William Rooney, Texas A&M University, USA

Achieving sustainable cultivation of sorghum - Vol 2 032

Sorghum utilization around the world

Edited by: Prof. William Rooney, Texas A&M University, USA

Achieving sustainable cultivation of potatoes - Vol 2 033

Production, storage and crop protection

Edited by: Dr Stuart Wale, Potato Dynamics Ltd, UK

Achieving sustainable cultivation of mangoes 034

Edited by: Prof. Víctor Galán Saúco, Instituto Canario de Investigaciones Agrarias (ICIA), Spain and Dr Ping Lu, Charles Darwin University, Australia

Achieving sustainable cultivation of grain legumes - Vol 1 035

Advances in breeding and cultivation techniques

Edited by: Dr Shoba Sivasankar et al., formerly International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), India

Achieving sustainable cultivation of grain legumes - Vol 2 036

Improving cultivation of particular grain legumes

Edited by: Dr Shoba Sivasankar et al., formerly International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), India

Achieving sustainable cultivation of sugarcane - Vol 1 037

Cultivation techniques, quality and sustainability

Edited by: Prof. Philippe Rott, University of Florida, USA

Achieving sustainable cultivation of sugarcane - Vol 2 038

Breeding, pests and diseases

Edited by: Prof. Philippe Rott, University of Florida, USA

Achieving sustainable cultivation of coffee 039

Edited by: Dr Philippe Lashermes, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), France

Achieving sustainable cultivation of bananas - Vol 1 040

Cultivation techniques

Edited by: Prof. Gert H. J. Kema, Wageningen University and Research, The Netherlands and Prof. André Drenth, University of Queensland, Australia

Global Tea Science 041

Current status and future needs

Edited by: Dr V. S. Sharma, formerly UPASI Tea Research Institute, India and Dr M. T. Kumudini Gunasekare, Coordinating Secretariat for Science Technology and Innovation (COSTI), Sri Lanka

Integrated weed management 042

Edited by: Emeritus Prof. Rob Zimdahl, Colorado State University, USA

Achieving sustainable cultivation of cocoa 043

Edited by: Prof. Pathmanathan Umaharan, Cocoa Research Centre – The University of the West Indies, Trinidad and Tobago

Robotics and automation for improving agriculture 044

Edited by: Prof. John Billingsley, University of Southern Queensland, Australia

Water management for sustainable agriculture 045

Edited by: Prof. Theib Oweis, ICARDA, Jordan

Improving organic animal farming

Edited by: Dr Mette Vaarst, Aarhus University, Denmark and Dr Stephen Roderick, Duchy College, UK

046

© Burleigh Dodds Science Publishing Limited, 2022. All rights reserved.

Improving organic crop cultivation 047

Edited by: Prof. Ulrich Köpke, University of Bonn, Germany

Managing soil health for sustainable agriculture - Vol 1 048 Fundamentals

Edited by: Dr Don Reicosky, Soil Scientist Emeritus USDA-ARS and University of Minnesota, USA

Managing soil health for sustainable agriculture - Vol 2 049

Monitoring and management

Edited by: Dr Don Reicosky, Soil Scientist Emeritus USDA-ARS and University of Minnesota, USA

Rice insect pests and their management 050 E. A. Heinrichs, Francis E. Nwilene, Michael J. Stout, Buyung A. R. Hadi and Thais Freitas

Improving grassland and pasture management in temperate agriculture 051

Edited by: Prof. Athole Marshall and Dr Rosemary Collins, IBERS, Aberystwyth University, UK

Precision agriculture for sustainability 052

Edited by: Dr John Stafford, Silsoe Solutions, UK

Achieving sustainable cultivation of temperate zone tree fruit and berries – Vol 1 053

Physiology, genetics and cultivation

Edited by: Prof. Gregory A. Lang, Michigan State University, USA

Achieving sustainable cultivation of temperate zone tree fruit and berries – Vol 2 054

Case studies

Edited by: Prof. Gregory A. Lang, Michigan State University, USA

Agroforestry for sustainable agriculture 055

Edited by: Prof. María Rosa Mosquera-Losada, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Spain and Dr Ravi Prabhu, World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Kenya

Achieving sustainable cultivation of tree nuts 056

Edited by: Prof. Ümit Serdar, Ondokuz Mayis University, Turkey and Emeritus Prof. Dennis Fulbright, Michigan State University, USA

Assessing the environmental impact of agriculture 057

Edited by: Prof. Bo P. Weidema, Aalborg University, Denmark

Critical issues in plant health: 50 years of research in African agriculture 058

Edited by: Dr Peter Neuenschwander and Dr Manuele Tamò, IITA, Benin

Achieving sustainable cultivation of vegetables 059

Edited by: Emeritus Prof. George Hochmuth, University of Florida, USA

Advances in breeding techniques for cereal crops 060

Edited by: Prof. Frank Ordon, Julius Kuhn Institute (JKI), Germany and Prof. Wolfgang Friedt, Justus-Liebig University of Giessen, Germany

Advances in Conservation Agriculture – Vol 1 061 Systems and Science

Edited by: Prof. Amir Kassam, University of Reading, UK and Moderator, Global Conservation Agriculture Community of Practice (CA-CoP), FAO, Rome, Italy

Advances in Conservation Agriculture – Vol 2 062 Practice and Benefits

Edited by: Prof. Amir Kassam, University of Reading, UK and Moderator, Global Conservation Agriculture Community of Practice (CA-CoP), FAO, Rome, Italy

Achieving sustainable greenhouse cultivation 063

Edited by: Prof. Leo Marcelis and Dr Ep Heuvelink, Wageningen University, The Netherlands

Burleigh Dodds Science Publishing Limited, 2022. All rights reserved.

Achieving carbon-negative bioenergy systems from plant materials 064

Edited by: Dr Chris Saffron, Michigan State University, USA

Achieving sustainable cultivation of tropical fruits 065

Edited by: Prof. Elhadi M. Yahia, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Mexico

Advances in postharvest management of horticultural produce 066

Edited by: Prof. Chris Watkins, Cornell University, USA

Pesticides and agriculture 067

Profit, politics and policy

Dave Watson

Integrated management of diseases and insect pests of tree fruit 068

Edited by: Prof. Xiangming Xu and Dr Michelle Fountain, NIAB-EMR, UK

Integrated management of insect pests 069

Current and future developments

Edited by: Emeritus Prof. Marcos Kogan, Oregon State University, USA and Emeritus

Prof. E. A. Heinrichs, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, USA

Preventing food losses and waste to achieve food security and sustainability 070

Edited by: Prof. Elhadi M. Yahia, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Mexico

Achieving sustainable management of boreal and temperate forests 071

Edited by: Dr John Stanturf, Estonian University of Life Sciences , Estonia

Advances in breeding of dairy cattle 072

Edited by: Prof. Julius van der Werf, University of New England, Australia and Prof. Jennie Pryce, Agriculture Victoria and La Trobe University, Australia

Improving gut health in poultry 073

Edited by: Prof. Steven C. Ricke, University of Arkansas, USA

Achieving sustainable cultivation of barley 074

Edited by: Prof. Glen Fox, University of California-Davis, USA and The University of Queensland, Australia and Prof. Chengdao Li, Murdoch University, Australia

Advances in crop modelling for a sustainable agriculture 075

Edited by: Emeritus Prof. Kenneth Boote, University of Florida, USA

Achieving sustainable crop nutrition 076

Edited by: Prof. Zed Rengel, University of Western Australia, Australia

Achieving sustainable urban agriculture 077

Edited by: Prof. Johannes S. C. Wiskerke, Wageningen University, The Netherlands

Climate change and agriculture 078

Edited by Dr Delphine Deryng, NewClimate Institute/Integrative Research Institute on Transformations of Human-Environment Systems (IRI THESys), Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Germany

Advances in poultry genetics and genomics 079

Edited by: Prof. Samuel E. Aggrey, University of Georgia, USA, Prof. Huaijun Zhou,  University of California-Davis, USA, Dr Michèle Tixier-Boichard, INRAE, France and Prof. Douglas D. Rhoads, University of Arkansas, USA

Achieving sustainable management of tropical forests 080

Edited by: Prof. Jürgen Blaser, Bern University of Life Sciences, Switzerland and Patrick D. Hardcastle, Forestry Development Specialist, UK

Improving the nutritional and nutraceutical properties of wheat and other cereals 081

Edited by: Prof. Trust Beta, University of Manitoba, Canada

© Burleigh Dodds Science Publishing Limited, 2022. All rights reserved.

Achieving sustainable cultivation of ornamental plants 082

Edited by: Emeritus Prof. Michael Reid, University of California-Davis, USA

Improving rumen function 083

Edited by: Dr C. S. McSweeney, CSIRO, Australia and Prof. R. I. Mackie, University of Illinois, USA

Biostimulants for sustainable crop production 084

Edited by: Youssef Rouphael, Patrick du Jardin, Patrick Brown, Stefania De Pascale and Giuseppe Colla

Improving data management and decision support systems in agriculture 085

Edited by: Dr Leisa Armstrong, Edith Cowan University, Australia

Achieving sustainable cultivation of bananas – Volume 2 086 Germplasm and genetic improvement

Edited by: Prof. Gert H. J. Kema, Wageningen University, The Netherlands and Prof. Andrè Drenth, The University of Queensland, Australia

Reconciling agricultural production with biodiversity conservation 087

Edited by: Prof. Paolo Bàrberi and Dr Anna-Camilla Moonen, Institute of Life Sciences –Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna, Pisa, Italy

Advances in postharvest management of cereals and grains 088

Edited by: Prof. Dirk E. Maier, Iowa State University, USA

Biopesticides for sustainable agriculture 089

Edited by: Prof. Nick Birch, formerly The James Hutton Institute, UK and Prof. Travis Glare, Lincoln University, New Zealand

Understanding and improving crop root function 090

Edited by: Emeritus Prof. Peter J. Gregory, University of Reading, UK

Understanding the behaviour and improving the welfare of chickens 091

Edited by: Prof. Christine Nicol, Royal Veterinary College – University of London, UK

Advances in measuring soil health 092

Edited by: Prof. Wilfred Otten, Cranfield University, UK

The sustainable intensification of smallholder farming systems 093

Edited by: Dr Dominik Klauser and Dr Michael Robinson, Syngenta Foundation for Sustainable Agriculture, Switzerland

Advances in horticultural soilless culture 094

Edited by: Prof. Nazim S. Gruda, University of Bonn, Germany

Reducing greenhouse gas emissions from livestock production 095

Edited by: Dr Richard Baines, Royal Agricultural University, UK

Understanding the behaviour and improving the welfare of pigs 096

Edited by: Emerita Prof. Sandra Edwards, Newcastle University, UK

Genome editing for precision crop breeding 097

Edited by: Dr Matthew R. Willmann, Cornell University, USA

Understanding the behaviour and improving the welfare of dairy cattle 098

Edited by: Dr Marcia Endres, University of Minnesota, USA

Defining sustainable agriculture 099

Dave Watson

Plant genetic resources

A review of current research and future needs

Edited by: Dr M. Ehsan Dulloo, Bioversity International, Italy

100

Developing animal feed products 101

Edited by: Dr Navaratnam Partheeban, formerly Royal Agricultural University, UK

Burleigh Dodds Science Publishing Limited, 2022. All rights reserved.

Improving dairy herd health

Edited by: Prof. Émile Bouchard, University of Montreal, Canada

Understanding gut microbiomes as targets for improving pig gut health

Edited by: Prof. Mick Bailey and Emeritus Prof. Chris Stokes, University of Bristol, UK

Advances in Conservation Agriculture – Vol 3

Adoption and Spread

Edited by: Professor Amir Kassam, University of Reading, UK and Moderator, Global Conservation Agriculture Community of Practice (CA-CoP), FAO, Rome, Italy

Advances in precision livestock farming

Edited by: Prof. Daniel Berckmans, Katholieke University of Leuven, Belgium

Achieving durable disease resistance in cereals

Edited by: Prof. Richard Oliver, formerly Curtin University, Australia

Seaweed and microalgae as alternative sources of protein

Edited by: Prof. Xin Gen Lei, Cornell University, USA

Microbial bioprotectants for plant disease management

Edited by: Dr Jürgen Köhl, Wageningen University & Research, The Netherlands and Dr Willem Ravensberg, Koppert Biological Systems, The Netherlands

Improving soil health

Edited by: Prof. William Horwath, University of California-Davis, USA

Improving integrated pest management in horticulture

Edited by: Prof. Rosemary Collier, Warwick University, UK

Climate-smart production of coffee

Improving social and environmental sustainability

Edited by: Prof. Reinhold Muschler, CATIE, Costa Rica

Developing smart agri-food supply chains

Using technology to improve safety and quality

Edited by: Prof. Louise Manning, Royal Agricultural University, UK

Advances in integrated weed management

Edited by: Prof. Per Kudsk, Aarhus University, Denmark

Understanding and improving the functional and nutritional properties of milk

Edited by: Prof. Thom Huppertz, Wageningen University & Research, The Netherlands and Prof. Todor Vasiljevic, Victoria University, Australia

Energy-smart farming

113

114

115 Efficiency, renewable energy and sustainability

Edited by: Emeritus Prof. Ralph Sims, Massey University, New Zealand

Understanding and optimising the nutraceutical properties of fruit and vegetables

Edited by: Prof. Victor R. Preedy, King's College London, UK and Dr Vinood B. Patel, University of Westminster, UK

Advances in plant phenotyping for more sustainable crop production

Edited by: Prof. Achim Walter, ETH Zurich, Switzerland

Optimising pig herd health and production

Edited by: Prof. Dominiek Maes, Ghent University, Belgium and Prof. Joaquim

Segalés, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain

Optimising poultry flock health

Edited by: Prof. Sjaak de Wit, Royal GD and University of Utrecht, The Netherlands

116

117

118

119

Advances in seed science and technology for more sustainable crop production

Edited by: Dr Julia Buitink, INRAE, France and Prof. Olivier Leprince, L'Institut Agro Rennes Angers, France

Understanding and fostering soil carbon sequestration

Edited by: Dr Cornelia Rumpel, CNRS, France

Advances in sensor technology for sustainable crop production

Edited by: Dr Craig Lobsey, University of Southern Queensland, Australia and Dr Asim Biswas, University of Guelph, Canada

Achieving sustainable cultivation of bananas - Vol 3

120

121

122

123 Diseases and pests

Edited by: Prof. André Drenth, The University of Queensland, Australia and Prof. Gert H. J. Kema, Wageningen University and Research, The Netherlands

Developing drought-resistant cereals

Edited by: Prof. Roberto Tuberosa, University of Bologna, Italy

Achieving sustainable turfgrass management

Edited by: Prof. Michael Fidanza, Pennsylvania State University, USA

Promoting pollination and pollinators in farming

Edited by: Prof. Peter Kevan and Dr Susan Willis Chan, University of Guelph, Canada

Improving poultry meat quality

Edited by: Prof. Massimiliano Petracci, University of Bologna, Italy and Dr Mario Estévez, University of Extremadura, Spain

Advances in monitoring of native and invasive insect pests of crops

Edited by: Dr Michelle Fountain, NIAB-EMR, UK and Dr Tom Pope, Harper Adams University, UK

Advances in understanding insect pests affecting wheat and other cereals

Edited by: Prof. Sanford Eigenbrode and Dr Arash Rashed, University of Idaho, USA

Understanding and improving crop photosynthesis

Edited by: Dr Robert Sharwood, Western Sydney University, Australia

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Introduction

Diseases remain a significant burden to poultry production and its future. Whilst it is widely recognised that vaccines have a major role in inducing protection, they can only be considered as part of the solution to this growing problem. Recent research efforts have focused on developing effective preventative measures that reduce the risk of disease outbreaks in flocks.

This volume reviews the wealth of recent research on the mechanisms of transmission for infectious diseases and how our understanding of this transmission can be used to improve poultry flock health. The book is split into three parts: Part 1 chapters focus on understanding infectious diseases in poultry, drawing attention to viral and bacterial disease transmission and epidemiology as well as parasite infections. Chapters in Part 2 review the ways of preventing diseases, such as improving biosecurity, using nutritional strategies to boost immune response and developments in vaccines to protect against disease. Part 3 examines optimising health at differing stages in poultry production, including chapters that focus specifically on chick health, poultry broilers, layers and breeder birds.

Part 1 Understanding infectious diseases in poultry

The first chapter of Part 1 reviews understanding the molecular biology of avian viruses and their role in poultry health. Chapter 1 first examines the two main groups of viruses, naked (or non-enveloped) and enveloped viruses and how they can survive in poultry environments. It then moves on to discuss viral capsids and viral interaction within the host cell, focusing specifically on infectious bursal disease virus VP2 protein, avian orthoreovirus capsid protein σC and fowl aviadenovirus hexon and fiber proteins. A section on viral glycoproteins is also included, which is then followed by a review of how poultry viruses can mutate via recombination and reassortment.

Chapter 2 looks at advances in understanding bacterial diseases in poultry, focusing on challenges and perspectives. The chapter first examines how identification and various pheno- and genotyping tools can be used to control and prevent bacterial diseases. It also discusses how epidemiology can help to identify the source of infection, method of transmission and host susceptibility. The chapter moves on to review disease pathogenesis and disease prevention by vaccination, as well as how biosecurity and good farm management can help to prevent the transmission of pathogens. It concludes by highlighting potential areas for future research development.

The final chapter of Part 1 focuses on advances in understanding parasite infections of poultry. Chapter 3 reviews research on understanding and controlling three of the most widespread and economically-relevant parasites of poultry and the infections they cause: Eimeria species (coccidiosis), Histomonas meleagridis (histomonosis) and Dermanyssus gallinae (the poultry red mite (PRM)). In each case the chapter reviews advances in areas such as: incidence and economic significance, host-pathogen interactions, population dynamics, detection, control and prevention as well as ongoing challenges in parasite management.

Part 2 Preventing diseases in poultry

Part 2 opens with a chapter that reviews improving biosecurity in poultry flocks. Chapter 4 first highlights the various ways to reduce sources of contamination, drawing specific attention to cleaning and disinfection of poultry barns, management of equipment and vehicles and water and feed hygiene. It also examines how managing insect, mite and rodent pests, wild birds and pets to help reduce contamination which is then followed by a section on manure, litter and dead bird management as well. The chapter also looks at separating healthy birds from sources of contamination through using methods such as zoning production sites and improving hatchery and regional biosecurity. Sections on biosecurity compliance and the economics of biosecurity are also provided.

Chapter 5 considers nutritional strategies to boost immune response in poultry. The chapter specifically focuses on research work from the year 2000 to present, drawing attention to immune responsiveness and disease resistance. In order to assess immune enhancement, suppression and balance, independent sections on vitamins (i.e. carotenoids and vitamin E), minerals, such as selenium and zinc and amino acids, such as arginine and threonine are presented. The chapter also includes sections on other nutrients, specifically highlighting vitamin D, manganese and copper. A section on the ingredients on immune modulation (i.e. fats, oils, wheat, rye, insect meal, algae meal, and alternatively processed oilseeds) is also included. A section on in ovo manipulation of embryo and subsequent chick immunity is presented. Studies assessing few immune parameters versus those assessing overall immune balance in the presence of challenges are discussed.

The final chapter of Part 2 examines developments in vaccines to protect poultry against diseases. Chapter 6 first introduces the three different types of vaccines currently available: inactivated, live and recombinant vaccines. The chapter then goes on to review the viral vectors used for recombinant vaccines, such as herpesviruses, Marek’s disease virus-1 and -2, infectious laryngotracheitis virus, avian poxviruses, adenovirus and Newcastle disease virus. Techniques used for generating recombinant vaccines are also highlighted, which is then

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followed by a discussion on gene editing of herpesvirus vectors. The chapter concludes by emphasising the importance of continuing to develop vaccines for disease prevention in poultry production.

Part 3 Optimising health at differing stages in poultry production

The first chapter of Part 3 looks at incubation and chick health. The chapter begins by discussing what happens during the incubation stage and how the quality of this process can influence the health of the chick involved. The chapter then reviews day-old chick quality and the factors that can influence the chick’s quality and status, focusing specifically on breeder influences such as diseases, nutritional factors, chemical intoxication and biological intoxication. It also reviews how egg quality can affect the chick’s quality, drawing attention to factors such as laying house period, egg washing, egg disinfection, egg position and storage. Biological and physical risk factors during the incubation period are highlighted. A section on processing, storage and transport of the day-old chick is also included.

The next chapter focuses on optimising the health of broilers. Chapter 8 first presents the critical infectious disease challenges faced in the top five broilerproducing countries. It discusses the current and future strategies to control these diseases, strategies include biosecurity, vaccination, surveillance, diagnostics, environmental management, nutritional interventions and genetic selection. The optimisation of broiler health comes with a better understanding and monitoring of the whole production system in each location. The data presented in this chapter indicates that intestinal and respiratory diseases are the main aspects to improve worldwide.

Chapter 9 draws attention to optimising the health of poultry layers. The chapter begins by highlighting key disease issues faced by pullets, discussing the main vertically transmitted diseases, viral diseases and bacterial diseases affecting these hens. The chapter moves on to examine the key disease issues faced by laying hens, focusing specifically on the various viral and bacterial diseases that can affect them. A section on other issues affecting layers and pullets is also provided, drawing attention to the fungal infections that can occur, how feed and water sources need to be monitored closely to prevent deficiencies and excess consumption. External and internal parasites of layers are also highlighted. The chapter also reviews surveillance strategies in laying hens to ensure good bird health before concluding with an overview of why using different approaches is important to optimise layer health.

The final chapter of the book focuses on optimising the health of broiler breeds. Chapter 10 first introduces the diseases that can occur during the rearing period, drawing attention to early chick mortality and coccidiosis,

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various leg problems and spinal abscesses. The chapter then moves on to review the diseases that can arise during the laying period, such as E. coli Peritonitis Syndrome (EPS), infectious bronchitis and other respiratory infections. It also discusses fowl pox, neoplastic diseases, worm infections, histomonosis (blackhead disease), ruptured tendons and amyloidosis. Vertical transmitted diseases are also discussed, focusing on diseases such as Mycoplasma gallisepticum, Salmonella spp., chicken infectious anemia, avian encephalomyelitis (AEV), avian reovirus (ARV) and adenovirus infections. A section on vaccination programs for broiler breeders and the role of maternal immunity is also provided, which is then followed by a review of the effects of various management practices on broiler breeder health. It concludes by highlighting the effects of diet on the health of breeders.

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Part 1

Understanding infectious diseases in poultry

Chapter 1 Understanding the molecular biology of avian viruses and their role in poultry health

Mississippi State University, USA

1 Introduction

2 Enveloped and non-enveloped viruses

3 Viral capsids and viral interaction with the host cell

4 Viral glycoproteins

5 Mutation of poultry viruses: recombination

6 Mutation of poultry viruses: reassortment

7 Conclusion

8 Where to look for further information

9 References

1 Introduction

A mature, complete, and fully infectious virus is known as virion. The simplest virions consist of two basic components:

• the viral genome (single- or double-stranded RNA or DNA);

• a capsid, which is a protein coat that functions as a shell to protect the viral genome from nuclease degradation and, within some limits, from some environmental factors such as desiccation or extreme pH conditions.

Some viruses also contain an outer coat called a viral envelope. Viruses also have receptor-binding domains (RBDs) that will recognize and attach to specific receptors located on the membrane of the target cells where viruses ‘deliver’ their genomes. Enveloped viruses have viral glycoproteins anchored to their envelope which have critical roles in the initiation of viral infection as attachment proteins (Maclachlan et al., 2017).

Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites. Viruses lack mechanisms for energy production and protein synthesis since they do not possess cellular

http://dx.doi.org/10.19103/AS.2022.0104.01

organelles (Maclachlan et al., 2017). Viruses have been described as ‘cell hijackers’ because they use host cell processes to synthesize viral proteins and replicate nucleic acids. Viruses have different delivery pathways to reach host cells. Some can disseminate efficiently through direct respiratory transmission like infectious bronchitis or Newcastle disease viruses (NDVs). Some viruses such as arboviruses or poxviruses use arthropods like mosquitoes or mites, while others can infect through the oral route such as enteric viruses. Some viruses like NDV and other paramyxoviruses contain enzymes such as RNA polymerases inside the mature viral particles’ proteins that are essential for the initial stages of viral replication (Maclachlan et al., 2017). In a similar way, poxviruses (fowlpox) carry inside their particles enzymes involved in genome replication (Cann, 2016). Inside the cell, the viral genome replicates and alters protein synthesis to manufacture viral proteins through interactions between cellular and viral components (Flint, 2004). Infected cells react to the presence of viruses in various ways such as apoptosis. As a response to the viral infection, innate and adaptive immune systems elicit diverse mechanisms that play major roles in the pathogenesis of viral diseases. This chapter discusses key features of viruses and their role in understanding the characteristics of common viral diseases in poultry, as well as the ways viruses evolve.

2 Enveloped and non-enveloped viruses

There are two main groups of viruses:

• naked (or non-enveloped) viruses;

• enveloped viruses.

Non-enveloped or ‘naked’ viruses do not have a lipid covering, and their capsid proteins directly interact with the host cell receptors to initiate the infection. Naked viruses rupture infected cells, leading to release of viral progeny (Van Der Grein et al., 2018). Examples of non-enveloped virus families affecting poultry include: Birnaviridae (infectious bursal disease (IBD)), Reoviridae (viral arthritis), Anelloviridae (chicken infectious anemia), Adenoviridae (inclusion body hepatitis), and Picornaviridae (avian encephalomyelitis).

Enveloped viruses are generally large particles with an outer coat, a phospholipid bilayer that originates from the cell membrane and is transformed by the virus. Examples of enveloped viral families of significance in poultry include: Herpesviridae (Marek disease and infectious laryngotracheitis), Orthomyxoviridae (avian influenza), Paramyxoviridae (Avian Paramyxoviruses, including Newcastle disease), and Coronaviridae (infectious bronchitis).

Viral envelopes mainly consist of envelope proteins (E), membrane proteins (M), and spike proteins (S). Envelope lipids are derived from the

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host cell, while envelope glycoproteins are encoded by the virus (Banerjee and Mukhopadhyay, 2016). The envelope acts as an anchor for different viral glycoproteins that form the ‘spikes’ or ‘peplomeres’ (Maclachlan et al., 2017). Enveloped virus particles are formed by budding through a host cell membrane, during which the particle becomes coated with a lipid bilayer derived from the cell membrane (Cann, 2016). This is important because the cell is not destroyed during the process and some of these viruses can thus induce more persistent infections.

The presence or absence of envelope will determine the stability of viruses in the environment and their resistance to chemical agents such as disinfectants. In general, enveloped viruses are more susceptible to chemical disinfectants than non-enveloped viruses. However, organic matter, especially feces or secretions, can protect these viruses and allow them to persist longer in the environment. With some minor differences, most chemical agents can be effective for infectious bronchitis, Newcastle disease, avian influenza, and infectious laryngotracheitis since these are relatively unstable in the environment. Physical factors such as heat, extreme pH, hypertonic conditions, and dryness can also inactivate them. Enveloped viruses with a low lipid content in their envelope (Poxviridae and Hepadnaviridae) are sensitive to disinfectants but more resistant than viruses with a high lipid content (Herpesviridae, Flaviviridae, Togaviridae, Retroviridae, and Coronaviridae), which are the most sensitive to chemical disinfectants (Tarka and Nitsch-Osuch, 2021).

On the other hand, naked viruses are very stable, and they can persist in poultry houses even when thorough cleaning and disinfection procedures were carried out. Infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) is an example of a very hardy virus because it can survive in the environment for up to 122 days after removing infected birds from a poultry house (Benton et al., 1967). This virus can even resist cooking temperatures of over 70°C (Mandeville et al., 2000). Reoviruses can survive for at least 10 days on feathers, wood shavings, egg shells, and in feed but for at least 10 weeks in drinking water with little loss of infectivity (Savage and Jones, 2003). Non-enveloped viruses with strong hydrophilic properties (Picornaviridae and Parvoviridae) are the most resistant to chemical disinfectants in comparison with those with reduced hydrophilic properties (Reoviridae, Rotaviridae, Adenoviridae, and Caliciviridae) (Tarka and Nitsch-Osuch, 2021).

3 Viral capsids and viral interaction with the host cell

Viral capsids are formed as single or double protein shells and consist of only one or a few structural protein species with many copies per viral particle. These multiple protein copies must self-assemble to form a continuous threedimensional capsid structure. These protein shells are tough and elastic. There

are two kinds of capsid architectures (Cann, 2016; Maclachlan et al., 2017; Mateu, 2013):

• helical;

• icosahedral.

To form a viral capsid with helical symmetry, the protein subunits self-assemble into a helical array surrounding the nucleic acid. Such nucleocapsids may form either rigid and highly elongated rods or flexible filaments in enveloped viruses (Cann, 2016). Examples of viruses with helical symmetry are infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), avian paramyxoviruses, including NDV, and avian influenza (AI) virus.

In the icosahedral capsid, the protein subunits are arranged in the form of a hollow quasi-spherical structure enclosing the genome within, consisting of 20 triangular faces and 12 vertices. Examples of viruses with icosahedral symmetry are adenoviruses (inclusion body hepatitis, hemorrhagic enteritis of turkeys, and egg drop syndrome), herpesviruses (Marek’s disease, infectious laryngotracheitis, and duck enteritis virus).

Capsid proteins are extremely important for non-enveloped viruses because they are responsible for the first interaction with the host cell and delivery of the genome in a form in which it can interact with the cell. The interaction between virus and cell is carried out through the binding of a specific virus-attachment protein to a cellular receptor molecule.

3.1 Infectious bursal disease virus VP2 protein

An example of a capsid protein is the IBDV VP2 protein. IBD is an important immunosuppressive disease in young birds, producing severe atrophy with consequent immunosuppression, an increase in mortality, and impairment of growth performance (Eterradossi and Saif, 2020). The genome of this virus codes for five proteins (VP1–VP5). VP2 is the major structural protein that builds the viral capsid and contains the antigenic domains (Lee et al., 2006). There are remarkable variations among isolates or subtypes commonly known as the hypervariable region (between amino acids 204 and 344) in VP2. This region seems to be responsible for the interaction with cellular receptors (Van Loon et al., 2002).

The VP2 protein plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of IBD. VP2 and the nonstructural protein VP5 induce programmed cell death (Huang et al., 2021; Qin and Zheng, 2017; Rodriguez-Lecompte et al., 2005; Vasconcelos and Lam, 1994). Apoptosis contributes to the depletion of lymphocytes. In addition to the rapid loss of B cells in the bursa (Fig. 1), a high level of apoptosis is found in peripheral blood lymphocytes during IBDV infection. Some level of apoptosis

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Figure 1 Bursa, commercial broilers inoculated with a Delaware E strain. Histological preparation with riboprobe in situ hybridization (ISH) targeting infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) VP2 protein. (Left) Severe bursal atrophy with lymphoid depletion and interfollicular fibroplasia is appreciated. IBDV-infected lymphoid cells (ISH (+) in brown are located mainly in follicle centers (120× magnification). (Right) Detail of bursal follicle, immature IBDV-infected lymphoid cells, ISH (+) appear in brown in the center of the follicle.

has been observed in birds vaccinated with IBDV intermediate vaccine strains (Killian et al., 2017).

The protein VP2 has been seen as a suitable candidate for the development of recombinant vaccines. VP2 can be used to elicit a significant protective effect sufficiently comparable to that induced by an inactivated vaccine (Martinez-Torrecuadrada et al., 2003). Recombinant vaccine products using turkey herpesvirus (HVT) as a vector have been developed and have been very effective in controlling IBD even in the presence of very virulent IBDV strains (vvIBDV) (Gelb et al., 2016; Parker et al., 2014; Perozo et al., 2009; Sedeik et al., 2019). New research on vaccine development to control IBDV is based on subunit vaccines, virus-like particles, and DNA vaccines that also target VP2 to induce protection (Jackwood, 2017).

The study of IBDV VP2 has also helped in the development of efficient diagnostic tools. There are several types of IBDV, and classification or typing of strains by serological methods is difficult and lengthy and with limited discriminating power to detect minor antigenic differences between strains. Molecular methods such as reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), and nucleotide sequence analysis assay have been used to identify or genotype IBDV strains. Most researchers have focused on the variable sequence region of the VP2 gene, known to encode one or more neutralizing epitopes of the virus (Jackwood, 2004; Wu et al., 2007).

3.2 Avian orthoreovirus capsid protein σC

Avian reoviruses are double-stranded, non-enveloped viruses with a segmented RNA genome. These viruses are the cause of viral arthritis/tenosynovitis in

chickens and turkeys. Clinical signs of this disease include swelling of the hock joints accompanied by lesions in the gastrocnemius and digital flexor tendons causing lameness, reluctance to move (Fig. 2), and other less frequent conditions such as hydropericardium, myocarditis, enteritis, encephalitis, and bursal atrophy. Reoviruses have been also associated with enteric and respiratory disease, malabsorption, and stunting syndromes (Jones, 2000). Although not all reoviruses are pathogenic, reoviral infections may be associated with poor weight gain, increased feed conversion ratios, and rejections at the processing plant, resulting in economic losses.

Attenuated vaccines including the strain S1133 or related strains were developed in the late 1970s and 1980s and had been used in breeders and young chicks to control clinical cases of viral arthritis and tenosynovitis. However, a dramatic increase in the number of clinical cases of tenosynovitis emerged in chickens and turkeys from 2012 in the United States, France, Israel, Canada, and some countries in South America. Molecular methods identified variant reoviruses belonging to different genotypes (Sellers, 2017). Current commercial vaccines do not provide adequate protection against these new variants, requiring vaccines with homologous viruses to confer protection (Lublin et al., 2011; Troxler et al., 2013). The U.S. poultry industry is now using custom-made inactivated vaccines produced from isolates from their farms known as autogenous vaccines (Sellers, 2017).

These disease variants showed wide variations in the gene coding for the capsid protein σC (Kant et al., 2003). Avian orthoreovirus minor outer σC is the viral cell attachment protein and is the most variable protein encoded

Figure 2 Viral arthritis in commercial broiler 20 days old with leg weakness, lateral recumbency, and moderate swelling of hock joints. The flock had history of lameness, leg weakness, birds with lateral recumbency, and concomitant bacterial infections. Avian reovirus was isolated from tendons after one passage in LHM cells.

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Another random document with no related content on Scribd:

salir desta miseria? pues dime, Gallo, en qué tengo de convertirme despues de que deje de ser Micillo?

G.—Eso yo no lo sé porque está por venir; mas volviendo á mi propósito, como al prencipio de mi ser yo fuese Euforbio y pelease ante los muros de Troya matóme Menelao y dende á poco tiempo vine á ser Pitágoras; por cierto vine á vevir sin casa ni techo donde pudiese posar hasta que Menesarca me la edificó.

M.—Ruégote que me digas, ¿hacias vida sin comer ni beber?

G.—Por cierto no usaba de más de lo que al cuerpo le podia bastar.

M.—Pues primero te ruego me digas lo que en Troya pasó y lo que viste siendo tú Euforbio, por ver si Homero dijo verdad.

G.—¿Cómo lo podia él saber, pues no lo vio? que cuando aquello pasaba era él camello en las Indias; una cosa quiero que sepas de mí; que ni Ayax Telamon fue tan esforzado como lo pinta Homero ni Helena tan hermosa porque ya muy vieja era, casi tanto como Hécuba, porque esta fue mucho antes robada de Teseo en Anfione; ni tampoco fue tan elegante Archiles (sic) ni tan

astuto Ulises, que en la verdad fabula es y muy lejos de la verdad, como suele acaescer que las cosas escritas en historias y contadas en lejos (sic) tierras sean muy mayores en la fama y mas elegantes de lo que es verdad. Esto te baste de Euforbio y de las cosas de Troya.

CAPITULO VII

Que siendo Pitagoras lo que le acaesció.

G —Vengo á contar lo que siendo Pitágoras me acaesció y porque cumple que digamos la verdad, yo fue en suma un sofista y no nescio, muy poco ejercitado en las buenas disciplinas, e acordé de me ir en Egito por disputar con los filosofos en sus altas ciencias, con los cuales deprendí los libros de la diosa Ceres la qual fue inventadora de la astrología y primera dadora de leyes, y despues volvime en Italia, donde comenze á enseñar á los latinos aquello que deprendí de los griegos y de tal suerte doctriné que me adoraban por Dios.

M.—Ya yo he oido eso y cómo de los italos fueste creido; mas dime agora la verdad; ¿qué fue la causa que te movió que

constituyeses ley que no comiesen carne ni habas ningun hombre?

G.—Aunque tengo vergüenza de lo decir, oirlo has, con tal condicion que lo calles; yo te hago saber que no fue causa alguna ni cosa notable ni de gran majestad; mas miré que si yo enseñaba cosas comunes y viejas al vulgo no serian de estimar; por tanto acordé de inventar cosa nueva y peregrina á los mortales porque más conmoviese á todos con la novedad de las cosas de admiracion; ansi yo procuré de inventar cosa que denotase algo, mas que fuese á todos incónita su interpretacion y en conjeturas hiciese andar á todos atónitos sin saber qué quería decir, como suele acaescer de los oráculos y profecías muy oscuras.

M.—Dime agora, despues de que dejaste de ser Pitagoras, ¿en quién fuistes transformado y qué cuerpo tomaste?

CAPITULO VIII

Como siendo Pitágoras fue transformado en Dionisio rey de Sicilia y lo que por mal gobernar se sucede.

G.—Despues sucedi en el cuerpo de Dionisio rey de Secilia.

M.—¿Fueste tú aquel que tuvo por nombre Dionisio el tirano?

G.—No ese, mas su hijo el mayor.

M.—Pues di la verdad, que tambien fueste algo cruel y aun si digo mas no mintiré; tú ¿no mataste á tus hermanos y parientes poco á poco porque temías que te habian de privar del reino? bien sé que sino te llamaron el tirano fué porque en el nombre difirieses de tu padre; basta que te llamaron siracusano por las crueldades que heciste en

los siracusanos; dime la verdad, que ya no tienes que perder.

G —No te negaré algo de lo que pasó desde mi niñez, porque veas el mal reinar á qué estado me vino á traer. Yo fue el mayor entre los hijos de mi padre y como el reinado se adquirió por tirania no sucedimos los hijos herederos, sino trabajabamos ganar la gente del pueblo que nos habia de favorescer, y ansi yo procuré quanto á lo primero haber á pesar de mis hermanos los tesoros de mi padre, con los cuales como liberal distribuí por los soldados y gente de armas, que habia mucho tiempo que mi padre los tenia por pagar, y despues por atraer el pueblo á mi favor solté tres mil varones que mi padre tenia en la carcer muy miserablemente atados porque no le querian acudir con sus rentas y haciendas para aumentar sus tesoros y solteles el tributo por tres años á ellos y á todo el pueblo. Mas despues que fue elegido de los ciudadanos y comarcanos, ¡oh Micillo! vergüenza tengo de te lo decir.

M.—Dimelo, no tengas vergüenza de lo contar á un tan amigo y compañero tuyo como yo.

G —Comence luego de siguir la tirania y porque tenia sospecha de mis hermanos yo los degolle y despues los quemé á ellos y á mis parientes y aquellos mayores de la ciudad, que fueron mas de mill, y despues dobléles el tributo fingiendo guerras con las cercanas provincias y grandes prestamos; mi intencion era aumentar tesoros para defender mi misera vida; deleitabame mucho en cortar cabezas de los mayores y en robar haciendas de los menores; hacia traer ante mí aquellas riquezas; deleitabame en verlas; en fin, todo este mi deleite se me convertio en gran trabajo y pesar, porque como el pueblo se agraviase con estas sinrazones, conspiraron contra mi y por defenderme retrajeme á la fortaleza con algunos que me quisieron seguir. Ya estando allí cercado, yo aun quisiese usar de crueldad porque inviandome embajadores de paz los prendí y los maté y plugo á Dios que por mi maldad fue echado por fuerza de allí y fueme acoger con los lucrenses, que era una ciudad sujeta á Siracusa, y ellos me rescibieron muy bien como no sabian que yo iba huyendo; yo como hombre habituado á las pasadas costumbres comence á robar entrellos (sic) lucrenses las

haciendas de los ricos, tomando las mujeres hermosas á sus maridos y sacando las encerradas doncellas que estaban consagradas á los templos, y robaba los templos de todos los aparejos de oro y plata que habia para los sacreficios, y con estas obras vinieronse los lucrenses á enojar de mi; ¡oh omnipotente Dios! y qué trabajo tenía en conservarme en la vida; ¡cuán temeroso estaba de morir! ni osaba beber en vaso, ni aun comer ni dormir, porque en lo uno y en lo otro temia que me habian de matar; ¿qué más quieres, sino que te doy mi fe que con un carbon ardiendo me cortaba la barba por no me fiar de la mano y navaja del barbero, y trabajé por enseñar el oficio de barbero, á unas dos hijas que yo tenia, porque me quemaba con el carbon que no lo podia ya sufrir? Despues que por seis años pasé estos trabajos, no me pudiendo sufrir los lucrenses echaronme por fuerza de la tierra, y sintiendo en paz á Siracusa volvime para ella, y como de ahi algunos dias yo volviese á ser peor me venieron á echar de la tierra jion (sic) e yo desventurado, corrido y afrentado, sin poderle resistir me fue[292] en Corintio destruido por me guarescer; aqui vine á vevir

en mucha miseria demandando á mis amigos y enemigos por limosna el mantinimiento e no lo querian dar, á que vine á vevir en mucha miseria y tanta necesidad que no tenia una capa con que me defender del frio; en fin, yo me vi aqui en extrema miseria, tanto que me vine á enseñar mochachos á leer y escrebir porque de aquel salario me pudiese mantener.

M.—Mas antes yo he oido decir que lo hacias por ejercitar tu crueldad castigando los mochachos con continas disciplinas, y eras tan extremadamente cruel que dicen de ti que en Siracusa una bieja de muy grandisima edad rogaba á los dioses continuamente por ti que te dejasen vivir por muchos años, y preguntando porqué lo hacia, pues toda la cibdad blasfemaba de ti, respondio que habia visto en su vida larga muchos señores tiranos en aquella ciudad y que de contino sucedia otro tirano peor y que rogaba á los dioses que tú vivieses mucho, porque si acaso habia de suceder otro tan malo y más peor, que á todos mandaria quemar juntamente con Siracusa. G.—¡Oh Micillo! todo me lo has de decir, que no callarás algo;

bien has visto el trabajo que tienen los hombres en el mundo en el reinar y regir mal las provincias tiranizando los subditos; mira el pago que los dioses me dieron por mi mal vivir; y si piensas que más descanso y contento tiene un buen rey que con tranquilidad y quietud gobierna su reino, engañaste de verdad, porque visto he que viven sin algun deleite ni placer; piensa desde los primeros justos gobernadores de Atenas é de toda Asia, Europa, Africa y hallarás que no hay mayor dolor en la vida de los hombres quel regir y gobernar. Si no, preguntalo á Asalon (Solon) el cual decía que tanto cuanto más trabajaba por ser buen gobernador de su republica tanto y más trabajo y mal añadia; pero si consideras tú cuán gran carga echa acuestas el que de republica tiene cuidado y aquel que bien ha de regir las cosas, piensa que no tiene de pensar en otra cosa en todos los dias de su vida, sin nunca tener lugar para pensar un momento en su propio y privado bien, con cuánta solicitud procura que se guarden y esten en su vigor y fuerza las leyes quel fundó y no firmó; con cuánto cuidado trabaja que los oficiales de su republica sean justos, no robadores, no

coecheros ni sosacadores de las haciendas de los míseros de ciudadanos y qué continua congoja tiene, considerando que'stá puesto sobre el pueblo por propio ojo de todos con el cual todos se han de gobernar, como piloto de un gran navio en cuyo descuido está la perdicion de toda la mercaderia y junto en el flete del navio va, y tienen gran cuidado en ver que si en el menor pecado ó vicio incurre, á todo el pueblo lleva de si; de otra parte le combate su mucha libertad y su mando y señorio para usar del deleite de la lujuria, del robar para adquirir tesoros, vendiendo synos (sic) preturas y gobiernos para personas tiranas que le destruyan los vasallos é suditos, lo cual huye el buen principe posponiendo cualquiera interese; ¿pues qué soberano trabajo es sufrir los adúlteros y lisonjeros que por servirles le cantan moviendo al buen rey con loores que claramente ves que en si mismo no los hay; pues, ¿qué afrenta rescibe cuando le canta en sus versos: hice escaramuzas notables, si nunca entró en batalla ni pelea, y cuando le procura importunar trayendo á la memoria la genología de sus antecesores, de cuya gloria, él como buen rey no se quiere preciar, sino de su

propia virtud? Alleganse á esto los odios, las invidias, las murmuraciones de los menores, de las guerras, disenciones y desasosiegos de sus reinos, que todo ha de caer sobre él y sobre su buena solicitud; pues allende desto qué trabajos se ofrecen en las encomiendas de las capitanias y de los oficios del campo, de oir las quejas de los miseros labradores que los soldados les destruyen sus mieses y viñas y les roban su ganado, que no basta mantenerlos de balde, mas que les toman por fuerza las mujeres y hijas y sin les poder defender de todo esto. ¿Di, Micillo, el buen rey que sintirá, con que sosiego podrá dormir, con qué sabor comer é que felicidad ó deleite piensas que puede tener? Pues ¿qué te contaré de los caballeros y escuderos y continos que comunican en casa del rey y llevan salarios en el palacio real, á los cuales como en el mundo no sea cosa más baja ni más enojosa ni desabrida ni más trabajosa ni aun más vil quel estado del siervo, ellos se precian de serlo, con decir que tratan y conversan con el rey y que le veen comer y hablar y por esto se tienen por los primeros; en todos los negocios y horas con una sola

cosa son contentos, sin tener invidia de alguno, y tratando ellos la seda y el brocado y las piedras preciosas menos pueden y curan de todos los buenos estados del vevir y de la virtud que engrandece los nobres y este dejan por otros, diciendo que les sea cosa muy contraria el saber; en esto solo se tienen por bienaventurados en poder llamar amo al rey, en saber saludar á todos conforme al palacio y que tienen noticia de los títulos y señores que andan en la Corte y saben á cuál han de llamar ilustre, á cuál manifico, á cuál serenisimo señor; precianse de saber bien lisonjear, porque esta es la ciencia en que más se ha de mostrar el hombre del palacio. Pues si miras toda la manera de su vivir en qué gastan el tiempo de su vida, ¡oh qué confusion y qué trabajo y qué laberintio de eterno dolor! oyémelo y cree que lo dirá hombre expirimentado y que todo ha pasado por mi sudor hasta el medio día porque se fueron acostar cuando queria amanescer; luego mandan que esté aparejado un asalariado sacerdote que muy apriesa sacrefique a Dios junto á su cama á la hora de medio día y despues comenzanse á vestir con mucho espacio con todas las

pesadumbres y polidezas del mundo y a la hora de las vísperas van á ver si quiere comer el Rey; ¡oh qué hacen en palacio! dispónense á servir á la mesa; á la hora que ni entra en sabor ni en sazon se van ellos á comer frio y mal guisado y luego á jugar con las rameras ó acompañar al Rey doquiera que fuere; venida la hora de la cena tornan al mismo trabajo y despues que á ellos les dan de cenar, á la media noche vuelven al juego y si juega el Rey ó Principe ó otro cualquiera que sea su señor, estan alli en pie hasta que harto su apetito de jugar se quieren ir á dormir cuando quiere amanescer. Pues las camas y posadas de la gente de palacio, ¿quién te las pintará? cada dia la suya y tres ó cuatro echados en una, unos sobre arcas é otros sobre cofres tumbados. En cuanto se debe estimar; ¡oh vida de más que desesperados! ¡oh Purgatorio de perpetuo dolor! Pues entre estos anda un género de hombres malaventurados que no los puedo callar; su nombre es truanes chucarreros, los cuales se precian deste nombre y se llaman ansi y pienso que en los decir su trabajo no merezco culpa si a[ca]so no me erré. Estos para ser estimados y ganar el comer se

han de hacer bobos ó infames para sofrir cualquier afrenta que les quisieren hacer; precianse de sucios borrachos y glotones; entre sus gracias y donaires es descobrir sus partes vergonzosas y deshonestas á quien las quiere ver; sin ninguna vergüenza ni temor nombran muchas cosas sucias las cuales mueven al hombre á se recoger en si; sirven de alcahuetes para pervertir á las muy vergonzosas señoras y doncellas y casadas y aun muchas veces se desmandan á tentar las monjas consagradas á Dios. Su principal oficio es lisonjear al que tiene presente porque le dé y decir mal de la gente publicando que nunca le dio; y en fin de todos dicen mal porque otra vez tienen aquel ausente. Esta es su vida, este es su oficio, su trato y conversacion y para esto, son hábiles y no para mas; de tal suerte que si les vedase algun principe esta su manera de vivir por les rescatar sus ánimas, no sabrian de qué vivir ni en qué entender, porque quedarian bobos, necios, ociosos, holgazanes, inutiles para cualquier uso y razon, inorantes de algun oficio en que se podiesen aprovechar, en este género de vanidad, trabajando hechos pedazos por los palacios

tras los unos y los otros confusos sin se conoscer y al fin todos mueren muertes viles é infames; que estos mismos que les hicieron mercedes los hacen matar porque en su malaventurado decir no les trató bien. Dejémoslos, pues pienso nuestra reprension poco les aprovechará; solo una cosa ¡oh Micillo! podemos de aqui concluir; que en la vida y ejercicio destos necios bobos malaventurados no hay cosa que tenga sabor de felicidad, mas gran trabajo y peligro y desventura para si.

M.—¡Oh! Euforbio, ¡oh! Pitágoras, ¡oh! Dionisio, que no sé como te nombre, qué admirables cosas que me has contado en el trabajo de mandar reinos y provincias, á tanto que me has hecho conceder que no hay estado mas quieto quel mio, pues en los reyes y los que comunican en el palacio real donde paresce estar la bienaventuranza está tanto trabajo y desasosiego de cuerpo y de ánima que casi no parezcan vivir. Dime agora porque me place mucho saber mas; despues que fueste Dionisio ¿qué veniste á ser?

NOTAS:

[292] En este diálogo está usado fue innumerables veces en el sentido de fui.

CAPITULO IX

Que pone como fue trasformado de Dionisio en Epulon el rico y cuanto trabajo tiene uno en ser rico y lo que le sucedio.

G.—Mira, mi amo Micillo, yo no hago caudal en el nombre, llámame como mas te placerá. Sabras que despues de poco tiempo que fui Dionisio vine á ser un rico de Siria llamado Epulon el rico, de cuyo desasosiego y trabajo te quiero ahora decir Yo fue hijo de padres muy ricos; yo ansi por herencia, como por la gran contratacion sobrepijé en el poseer muy mayores tesoros que ellos, por lo cual fue muy estimado del pueblo y todos me deseaban servir; hacianme gran veneracion con gran reverencia; no habia noble que en estima se me pensase igualar; tenia grandes vajillas de plata, vasos

de oro para me servir en el comer; hacia grandes convites y banquetes á mis amigos por hacer gran fama de mi; servianse con gran aparato de pajes muy graciosamente ataviados los manjares; en mucha copiosidad aquellos potages y salsas en perfeccion; asalariaba grandes cocineros examinados en su arte que supiesen gran diversidad de los guisados como para un rey; mientras comia tenia gran diversidad de música, de cantores é instrumentos que daban mucho deleite; bebia las aguas destiladas y cocidas y los vinos puestos á infriar, muy acompañado de juglares y chocarreros que me daban á los convidados mucho placer. Despues de haber comido jugaba todo el dia grandes cantidades de moneda por me solazar; ataviabame muy suntuosamente; tenia muy poderosos cavallos; iba á caza de altaneria y de galgos; mas ¡ay de mi! que Dios sabe con qué ánimo hacia yo estas profanidades, que del alma me salia cada pequeña moneda que se gastaba, porque si me esforzaba á lo hacer era por los que á mi se allegaban por dar de mi buena fama, que escondido donde no me podian ver en mi casa con mis familiares y

apaniguados esforzábame á pasar con un misero potaje de miseras lentejas y aunque en él no habia para todos poder comer, siempre andaba amarillo y pensativo como se me gastaba lo que con tanto trabajo habia adquerido yendo á las ferias de todo Egito e Palestina y aun á las de Grecia por convenir con los tratantes y mercaderes y con los deudores á quien con grandes intereses y usuras yo prestaba mi moneda; venia por los caminos y por el mar aventurando mi persona y hacienda á los cosarios que me robasen y me quitasen la vida, sufriendo las crueles tempestades que cada hora me ponian en peligro de me perder; no osaba dar á ningun mendigo un solo cornado pensando de me venir empobrecer; pesábame con grandisimo dolor en pensar que con la muerte lo habia de dejar. Si préstamos ó tributos se habian de dar al Emperador yo habia de ser el primero; si guerra habia en la provincia ó que Roma las quisiese tener yo habia de ir allá y aun habia de llevar lanzas á mi costa y mension; en todo esto pasaba en el campo la misera vida que pasan los soldados y suelen pasar en el campo de la guerra. Temia siempre si mi hacienda que habia dejado soterrada pensando

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