Contributors
Michael Armstrong is the Head of Social Responsibility at Oceania Football Confederation, New Zealand, and they focus on strategic problem solving and driving innovative thinking in the sport, events, and tourism industry through use of effective data, insights, and evaluation within their role. Michael has worked on projects including the development of public sector business case processes and evaluation plans, management of a city-wide events portfolio, devising a strategy for the growth of Auckland’s sport sector, and project managing the delivery of citywide events with oversight of the event marketing, design, production, and budgetary requirements.
Kylie Bates works at UN Women and leads teams that bring organisations and people together in new ways to use sport for social change. Kylie is a strategist known for building systems that result in long-term impact. They can work with the technical elements of design, monitoring, evaluation, and partnership brokering, applying each purposefully to contribute to the overall outcome. Kylie has strong skills in distilling complex concepts into easily understood formats. With 20 years of experience working in sport and social change, their leadership style means teams can quickly react to fast-moving situations, trial creative solutions, and scale promising ideas.
Veerle De Bosscher is an Associate Professor in the Department of Sports Policy and Management, Faculty of Physical Education at Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Belgium. She is a Visiting Associate Professor within the Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living at Victoria University, Australia. She has established and coordinates a worldwide international network on research in high-performance sport called SPLISS (Sports Policy factors Leading to International Sporting Success) on which she also obtained her PhD in 2007 and won a Best Paper Award during the SMAANZ conference in 2009. For more information: see www.SPLISS.net.
Matthew T. Bowers is a Faculty Member in the Sport Management program within the Department of Kinesiology and Health Education at the University of Texas at Austin, USA. Bowers works extensively in the field with a range of sport organisations in both research and consulting capacities. He has been intricately involved with the Aspen Institute’s Project Play and has served on the Science Board for the President’s Council on Sports, Fitness, and Nutrition.
B. Christine Green is the Director of the Sport Development Lab at George Mason University, USA, where she also serves as Co-Coordinator of the graduate program in sport and recreation. She has worked with sport organisations throughout the world, including World Rugby and Australian Universities Sport, the national governing body for university sport in Australia, national governing bodies such as USA Football, large sport events such as the Lonestar Classic, and numerous youth and community sport organisations. The main focus of Dr Green’s research is sport development, in particular the management and marketing processes that facilitate athlete development across the lifespan. She is a Research Fellow in the North American Society of Sport Management, where she has also been honoured with the Earle F. Zeigler Award (their highest honour) for her work in sport management.
Edward T. Horne is an Assistant Professor of Sport Administration. His primary research interests focus on sport development systems and the key actors within sport systems. Dr Horne is particularly interested in studying how private sport development systems are impacted by the market-driven private sport industry. He is a Book Review Editor for the Journal of Sport Management and is an Editorial Board Member for the Journal of Issues in Intercollegiate Athletics and the Journal of Amateur Sport
Ruth Jeanes is a Professor and Head of School – Curriculum, Teaching, and Inclusive Education within the Faculty of Education at Monash University, Australia. Ruth is a sociologist whose research interests focus on the use of sport and active recreation as a community development resource, particularly to address social exclusion amongst acutely marginalised groups. Methodologically, Ruth seeks to give voice to disempowered individuals and communities within her research by drawing on a range of participatory approaches developed from her PhD. She publishes how constructions of gender and sport can facilitate and constrain girls’ involvement in sport.
Iain Lindsey is an Associate Professor in the Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences at Durham University, UK. Iain’s research has primarily examined sport policy and development, especially youth sport policy in the UK and the use of sport for development in Africa. This research has been undertaken both at global and national levels as well as in a variety of local and community contexts. Iain’s research is underpinned by theories and methodologies from the fields of political science and international development. In doing so, particular issues that are of interest to Iain are governance and partnership working, evidence-based policy, and sustainable development.
Patti Millar is an Associate Professor at the University of Windsor, Canada. Her research focuses on the management and development of non-profit and voluntary sport, with a specific focus on understanding the process of capacity building within community sport and recreation organisations, workforce development throughout the non-profit sport sector, and community sport organisations as agents in policy implementation. Her research also focuses on sport and community, investigating the pace of sport within our communities, exploring the meanings and experiences of sport participation, and how sport can be used as a tool for social change.
Kristen Morrison is an Assistant Professor at the University of Windsor, Canada, and recently completed her PhD at the University of Waterloo, Canada. Her research focuses on community sport organisations and is centred around key issues such as strategic planning and volunteer management.
Katherine Raw is a Researcher with the Sport Innovation Research Group at Swinburne University of Technology, Australia. Her research focuses on the use and management of sport as a vehicle to foster a variety of community outcomes, including social cohesion, gender equity, inclusion, health, prevention of domestic violence, and diplomacy. Her work has been conducted in partnership with a number of organisations, including Tennis Australia, the National Rugby League, Netball Australia, North Melbourne Football Club, and the Commonwealth Secretariat. Katherine’s fieldwork has been completed across a range of locations both locally and internationally, some of which include Fiji, Vanuatu, Tonga, and East Timor.
Popi Sotiriadou is a distinguished international expert in the field of Managing High-Performance Sport and a true pioneer in Sports Education. Her vast range of expertise encompasses various areas including Digital Innovation and Technologies, Sports Infrastructure and Facility Management, Athlete Management, Women in Sport, and Sports Accessibility and Inclusive Practices. Driven by her passion for creating inclusive, safe, and enabling environments for athletes, para-athletes, and sports participants of all backgrounds, Dr Sotiriadou focuses on advancing enabling programs, technologies, and successful sport development policies, programs, and events. Dr. Sotiriadou’s expertise and contributions have been recognised globally, leading to consultancy invitations from esteemed organisations such as the International Olympic Committee, Sports Australia, Sarawak in Malaysia, and the Queensland Academy of Sport.
Jack Sugden is a Lecturer in sport development and management with a specialisation in international business and the globalisation of sport at Edge Hill University, UK. Jack has had 8 years’ experience working in the sport for development and peace field and has managed, coordinated, and researched such projects in Israel/Palestine, South Africa, West Africa, Jordan, Northern Ireland, and Fiji. Jack’s research interests continue to be based on the role that sport plays in both uniting and dividing people and groups. Jack has also worked at the British Council, coordinating international business and educational partnerships centred around the London 2012 Olympics.
John Sugden is the Academic Leader of the Sport and Leisure Cultures subject group at the University of Brighton’s School of Sport and Service Management, UK. He is well known for his work on sport and peace building in divided societies and for his investigative research into football’s underground economy.
Per G. Svensson is an Associate Professor in Sport Management within the School of Kinesiology at Louisiana State University, USA. His research is primarily focused on organisations operating sport-based programs aimed at addressing social issues. Specifically, his work examines organisational capacity and innovation in Sport for Development and Peace. Dr Svensson is a Research Fellow with the North American Society for Sport Management. He is also the Co-Editor of the Journal of Sport for Development and serves as the Chair of the Laureus Sport for Good Research Council.
Hayley Truskewycz is a PhD candidate in the Faculty of Education. Her current research focuses on examining sport policy and programs that target newly arrived and refugee women to achieve resettlement outcomes. Her areas of interest include understanding how sport is used as a policy tool to facilitate social outcomes (such as integration, resettlement, empowerment, mental health, and wellbeing) and developing strategies to increase engagement and inclusion of marginalised communities in sport and physical activity.
Stacy Warner is a Professor of Sport Management at East Carolina University, USA. Her research is primarily focused on organisational structures that optimise community building and development in a way that improves the life quality for participants, employees, and fans. She is one of the most highly cited community building and sense of community researchers (Google Scholar, 2022). Warner’s research has been awarded 15 grants (totalling $103,172) and has been recognised both nationally (CSRI, 2010; 2013) and internationally (NASSM, 2009; SMAANZ, 2011) for its impact and contribution to the field. Dr Warner achieved North American Society for Sport Management (NASSM) Research Fellow status in 2013, an honour and distinction for high standards of research within the discipline.
Abbreviations
ABCD Autoridade Brasileira de Controle de Dopagem
ACF advocacy coalition framework
ACHPER Australian Council for Health, Physical Education and Recreation
ACU Australian Catholic University
ADM athlete development model
AF Australian Rules football
AFL Australian Football League
AFLNZ Australian Football League New Zealand
AGSEP Asian-German Sport Exchange Program
ARTN attraction, retention/transition, and nurturing
ASADA Australian Sports Anti-Doping Agency
ASC Australian Sports Commission
BP blood pressure
CALD culturally and linguistically diverse
CBPR community-based participatory research
CGC Commonwealth Games Canada
DPAS Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity, and Health
ECB England and Wales Cricket Board
FARE Football Against Racism in Europe
FFA Fijian Football Association
FFSA Football Foundation of South Africa
FIFA Fédération Internationale de Football Association
FIY Future in Youth Program
F-MARC FIFA Medical Assessment and Research Centre
FTEM Foundations, Talent, Elite, Mastery framework
GAVI Global Alliance for Vaccination and Immunisation
GDP gross domestic product
GNI gross national income
HIC high-income country
HWC Homeless World Cup
IDS International Development through Sport
IF international federation
IGO international governing organisation
INGO international non-governmental organisation
IOC International Olympic Committee
IOR inter-organisational relationship
IPC International Paralympic Committee
IRC International Relations Committee
ITF International Tennis Federation
KPI key performance indicators
LGA local government authority
LIC low-income country
LMIC lower middle-income country
LTAD long-term athlete development
LTTE Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (Tamil Tigers) (Sri Lanka)
M&E monitoring and evaluation
MLB Major League Baseball
MOU memorandum of understanding
NA national academy
NADO National Anti-Doping Organizations
NCAA National Collegiate Athletic Association (USA)
NCD non-communicable disease
NGB national governing body
NGO non-governmental organisation
NOC National Olympic Committees
NPC National Paralympic Committees
NRL National Rugby League (Australia)
NSA national sporting association
NSC National Sports Council (Tanzania)
NSO national sporting organisation
NV Netball Victoria
NZRU New Zealand Rugby Union
NZSSSC New Zealand Secondary School Sports Council
ODA Olympic Development Academy
OTC Olympic Training Centre
PA physical activity
PE physical education
RBI Reviving Baseball in Inner Cities Program
RBV resource-based view
SD sport development
SDP sport for development and peace
SFD sport for development
SFDT sport-for-development theory
SME sporting mega-event
SNA social network analysis
SSA state sporting association
SSO state sporting organisation
SSUSA Street Soccer USA
TA Tennis Australia
UMIC upper middle-income country
UN United Nations
UNGA United Nations General Assembly
UNICEF United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund
UNOSDP United Nations Office on Sport for Development and Peace
US United States
USADA United States Anti-Doping Agency
USAR USA Rugby
USOC United States Olympic Committee
USSDA US Soccer Development Academy
UYA Urban Youth Academy
WADA World Anti-Doping Agency
WCA Women’s Cricket Association (England)
WHO World Health Organization
1 Introduction to Sport Development
Emma Sherry, Nico Schulenkorf, Pamm Phillips, and Katie Rowe
Introduction
Sport development is an area of exponential growth in the international sport industry. The significance of sport development is felt on sporting fields around the world where professional sport managers, development officers, programme coordinators, coaches, and volunteers are focusing on growing the potential of athletes and their sport communities to affect positive development outcomes. Against this background, graduates of sport management programmes are increasingly required to have expertise in the area of sport development.
In the second edition of this textbook, we invite readers to explore, learn, and discuss the latest concepts and trends in managing sport development. This is important because only when appropriately conceived and managed can sport development make a significant difference for professional athletes as well as grass-roots clubs and local communities.
Outline of This Chapter
This introductory chapter begins with a brief historical review of sport development and its evolution over time, including an overview of how the sport development landscape has shifted since our first edition of this text. This chapter then discusses what we describe as the two arms of sport development, that is: development of sport (sport development) and development through sport (sport for development). In doing so, the sport development field is introduced and analysed in the context of the wider sport management theory and practice. Next, this chapter briefly introduces the policy tensions in sport development, where differences in ideologies and political priorities result in struggles for funding and support between professional sport clubs and community sport initiatives. Finally, this first chapter introduces the remaining chapters that make up this textbook and identifies career opportunities in the sport development space. These should be of particular significance for young
and aspiring university graduates on their way towards securing employment in the sport development sector.
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
■ understand the history and evolution of sport development;
■ recognise the two arms of sport development and their specific contributions;
■ critically analyse ongoing tensions between the two arms of sport development;
■ appreciate the complexity of the sport development sector; and
■ consider and reflect on career opportunities in sport development.
Historical Background of Sport Development
In essence, sport development is about providing opportunities for individuals and communities to engage and grow in different types of physical activity (Shilbury et al., 2008). Sport development happens at different levels and in different social contexts; it spans from young children who are introduced to sport and play in schools and sport clubs to professional athletes who are trying to improve their skill levels to win medals at world championships and Olympic Games. Sport development even applies to the growing number of masters sport initiatives where the focus is placed on keeping our ageing population active and healthy. Overall, sport development is an important space for everyone involved in sport – from the young to the old, from grass roots to elite. However, as will be discussed in this book, the specific goals and objectives of sport development initiatives vary, and professionally educated sport managers are required to provide the most relevant and meaningful services and experiences needed for people to maximise their sport and community goals.
In the nineteenth century, reforms that took place in elite English public schools resulted in what we know today as modern, codified sports (Schulenkorf et al., 2012). The undisciplined, often violent behaviour of schoolboys was at odds with the goal of producing young men who, by virtue of their social position, were set to assume leadership roles in English society. They often had status on account of birth and privilege, but too many lacked the commitment to study and respect for authority. Sweeping reforms to this elite educational system were introduced during the mid-nineteenth century, part of which involved developing both the mind and the body of pupils (Holt, 1990). Sport, in the reformers’ view, was much more than a mere game: it provided important lessons for life, such as striving for victory and accepting defeat – both with good grace. Similarly, sport was thought to build character, provide a productive outlet for young boys to express themselves physically and represent their schools, and in the process, create feelings of community among students and promote a sense of loyalty to the institution (Chandler, 1991). These early forms of junior sport development, therefore, were about purposeful physical activity in the interests of inculcating moral values. The health dimensions of sport – that is, appropriate levels of exercise – were a secondary consideration.
Since then, much has changed. In the early twentieth century, the rise of the amateur ideal in sport – which became a cornerstone of the modern Olympic Games –provided an emphasis on participation for its own sake with a focus on selflessness and
4 Emma Sherry
community spirit (Jobling, 2000; Obel, 2005; Seynard, 2002). At that time, sport was understood as a common good that provided people of varying ages and backgrounds with valuable social experiences. However, the boundaries around the amateur ideal began to loosen by the last quarter of the twentieth century (Schulenkorf et al., 2012) and the commercialisation of sport began. This development towards the commercialisation of sport led to a new value system for sport within which community development is no longer inconsistent with commercial sponsorship, business-like operation, and remuneration of club representatives (Owen & Weatherston, 2002). Winning and elite performance became the new currency for sport.
While the professionalisation of sport organisations and the management of them has been documented at length elsewhere (Dowling et al., 2014), it is useful at this point to explore the place of sport development within the increasingly professional sport landscape. As Dowling et al. (2014) explain, professionalisation has occurred from a systemic, organisational, and occupational perspective. That is, professionalisation of sport has occurred due to: system changes – such as when an external force impacts sport; organisational factors internal to the organisation –such as governance, structure, and policy; and in terms of personnel where occupations become professions.
From a systemic perspective, many governments around the world have been a catalyst for the commercial development of sport and therefore the professionalisation of sport management in a range of ways. First, by increasing financial commitment to sport, some governments have invested in sports – albeit in many cases only a limited number of sports in which it is believed there will be international success – with the aim that the investment will lead to the development of athletes who can compete successfully nationally and internationally. Through doing so, governments anticipate that athletic successes will lead to national pride as well as international prestige when nations can embrace the victories and triumphs of their successful athletes. Governments have contributed to sport development through a range of activities that include building of community and elite facilities or providing direct funding to programming; in addition, some governments have also invested in hosting international-level high-profile sport events through which they seek to increase social, economic, and environmental rewards for host cities and communities. Aligned with this is the increased focus of many nations on the concept of sport diplomacy, using sport and sport events as a tool for international engagement and dialogue. Of course, in addition to government investment in sport, corporate businesses have increasingly invested in sport to enhance their own business success. In other words, as government investment has led to a more lucrative and popular sport market, businesses have sought to use sport to engage their customers. In particular, businesses have invested in sponsoring athletes, teams, sport programmes, facilities, and sport organisations, and they leverage their sponsorship of, and connection with, sport to engage sport consumers who they ultimately wish to secure as customers of their own businesses.
From an organisational perspective, the increasing investment in sport by both government and business has led to the need for sport organisations to professionalise. That is, they have been required to develop policy and governance practices that are formal and to structure themselves in ways that allow them to approach the development and delivery of their products and services in a
business-like manner – regardless of whether their sport business is aimed at a local club or at a professional-level championship match or event. Further, they have had to engage with the government and the corporate sector in ways that reflect professional practice.
From an occupational perspective, there is an increasing number of specialist roles required in the business of sport, including in sport development, upon which this textbook focuses. Later in this chapter, the reader can explore the different specialist roles that are available to individuals who choose a career in sport development.
Through this textbook, the reader will explore the impact that the professionalisation of sport is having on sport development at all levels of delivery – from grass roots to elite. For example, governments are increasingly realising that sport provides opportunities beyond winning gold medals and international success. Investing in sport can prove to be a wise investment in community because sport – if managed appropriately – has the ability to facilitate the achievement of many social and community goals that may have nothing to do with competition and winning. Sport development, as a field of endeavour and academic enquiry, challenges governments, businesses, and sport organisations to define and value sport for a range of different outcomes beyond winning. The following section starts to unpack what sport development means and provides a platform for readers of this textbook to continue the journey of understanding sport development.
Conceptualising the Two Arms of Sport Development
Sport development, for the purposes of our textbook, includes both the development of sport (SD) and sport for development (SFD). These two arms of sport development have much in common and they are certainly related; however, they are distinct in their specific purpose and focus. While SD aims to create pathways for professional participation and talent identification, SFD focuses on the role that sport can play in contributing to specific social outcomes and overall community well-being. In other words, SD aims at improving the sport-related skills of particular athletes, while SFD refers to improvement of sport and other skills achieved through sport participation. In SD, individuals and groups participate with the focus on achieving mastery and potentially excellence in the sport. In SFD, individuals and groups participate to achieve more than just physical outcomes: they also participate with aspirations to realise certain social, cultural, psychological, educational, and/or economic goals. It is essential to understand however that this is best understood as a continuum rather than two completely distinct and separate ideas in both theory and practice. We will discuss this overlap further in the following sections.
Traditionally, the management and delivery of SD are the responsibilities of each individual sport organisation and are usually planned by a national sport organisation. That is, as readers will discover through this text, SD requires a range of elements from the macro to the micro level of organisation to be in place in order to provide appropriate SD. This includes the provision of appropriate facilities for individuals to have an opportunity to participate; programmes that offer appropriate experiences depending on age, skill, and other factors; pathways so that participants can transition to various programmes at different levels to meet their needs; and personnel to facilitate
the delivery of programmes and the development of participants. Of course, all of these activities require financial investments and relevant budget appropriations. Traditionally, sport organisations have each developed their own facilities, programmes, pathways, and personnel in order to achieve SD, and hence have been internally focused on achieving this goal. However, as the reader will see in this textbook, sport organisations are sometimes turning to external organisations in order to successfully achieve SD outcomes.
The management and delivery of SFD can be a little more complex than that of SD, because SFD goes beyond sport per se, and instead links to the wider field of community development. The management and delivery of SFD focus on using sport as a tool to achieve broader aims that are most often outside the scope of the sport itself. This might include using participation in sport to achieve wide-ranging aims such as social development, local empowerment, or peace objectives (Coalter, 2010; Schulenkorf, 2012; Sugden, 2010). As such, the achievement of SFD outcomes often requires that managers take a much more externally focused view and develop partnerships with other organisations who might offer greater skills, experience, and qualifications in the broader goals desired (Figure 1.1).
Although SD and SFD are different in the way that they are defined, as the reader will see from the information presented throughout this textbook, sport programmes are not necessarily exclusively focused on either SD or SFD. It is true that while some programmes are aimed specifically at SD and others may specifically be aimed at achieving SFD outcomes, others find a balance between SD and SFD. Case studies throughout this textbook allow the reader to explore a variety of different permutations of programmes that deliver SD and/or SFD outcomes.
Overall, an easy and practical way of distinguishing whether a sport programme focuses on SD or SFD, or is perhaps a combination of both, is by asking the following question:
Are the intended outcomes of the sport programme to develop participants’ skills and athletic performance, or to develop participants beyond the sport itself?
The answer to this question will determine if the programme is focused on SD or SFD, or perhaps a combination of both. For any SD programme initiative, success is closely linked to outcomes that are related to the particular sport in question. For example, a programme that is focused on specific training to develop skills, techniques,
FIGURE
and competition tactics related to winning is most likely an SD programme. In contrast, in the case of any SFD programme initiative, success is not linked to sport-related outcomes. For example, to achieve social inclusion outcomes for recently arrived immigrants, the type of sport played is less important than how the programme is managed and delivered so that it provides opportunities for social interaction and the like. In some cases, programmes are designed to deliver both SD and SFD outcomes. In all chapters of this book, we will refer specifically to the two arms of sport development and provide examples through case studies from the field.
Sport Development: A Space for Ongoing Tensions
As the reader will note from this introduction, it is possible to deliver programmes that have SD and SFD outcomes simultaneously; however, for the most part, SD and SFD have not sat easily alongside one another. In many cases, practical delivery of programmes becomes either SD or SFD. The different foci of SD and SFD programmes often cause debate about what should be funded and supported by local, regional, and national governments, who are often the most significant financial contributors to sport development programmes. Further, SD and SFD are often debated within sport organisations themselves as individuals struggle to give up on the traditional trappings of competitive sport for goals that are often seen as more lofty and idealistic. As the reader will discover throughout this textbook, there are strong arguments to support both of the arms of sport development.
Often, due to limited funding and personnel available to them, sport organisations and policymakers need to make difficult decisions regarding resources that can be directed to SD and/or SFD initiatives. Ideally, both SD sport and SFD initiatives would be funded and supported to secure: (1) sustained international success for club and country; and (2) involvement of the community in regular physical activity and play. Unfortunately, the total amount of sport funding available rarely satisfies the demand for both arms of sport development, and hence political ideologies and strategies – as well as behind-the-scenes bargaining – tend to inform and influence the final sport development funding policies implemented.
Sport Development: The New Landscape
Since our first edition of this text, the field of SD and SFD has shifted and evolved as both those who study the field and those who invest, manage, and work in the field continue to adapt to new challenges and opportunities. The distinction between SD and SFD has become increasingly blurred, with greater understanding of the variety of new models of sport development, new ways of managing, and more sophisticated organisation structures. Research by a number of authors (c.f. Raw et al., 2019; Svensson & Mahoney, 2020; Svensson & Raw, 2022) has noted the emerging importance of organisational hybridity – that is, organisations that balance both arms of sport development to achieve social development outcomes and sport delivery and performance. In both SD and SFD, there has also been an increasing focus on the importance of capacity building for successful delivery of programmes, initiatives, and
events. A growing body of work and investment in the sport industry is focused on managing resources – particularly staff and volunteers – in a way that ensures the ongoing sustainability of sport in all its forms. This second edition will also note changes in the sport development and sport industry landscape, with a particular focus on evolving trends such as the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, greater alignment with and focus on sport’s contribution to the sustainable development goals, and an increasing focus on and calls to action for environmental sustainability and the impact of sport on and by climate change. We note these changes in the short time between the first and second editions of this text to illustrate for the reader that the field of sport development is ever evolving, changing, and responding to external pressures.
Sport Development Careers
Sport development offers a range of employment opportunities and career paths for individuals who are looking for a career in the sport industry. Sport development is unique in that it can offer an individual the opportunity to work either on or off the field of play, or perhaps to combine both on- and off-field roles. Sport development careers can be found in a wide variety of sport and non-sport organisations, including the following:
■ international sport federations;
■ national sport organisations;
■ state or regional sport organisations;
■ professional sport clubs and teams;
■ community sport clubs;
■ non-profit sport for development organisations;
■ social ventures and non-governmental organisations;
■ government sport and active recreation departments and statutory authorities;
■ institutes of sport; and
■ schools, colleges, and universities.
On the field, for example, sport coaches, fitness instructors, sport development officers, and community workers contribute to the delivery of sport programmes, and through their expertise at the coalface, they can facilitate the development of participants in terms of sport and personal skills. Their work can be very hands-on with participants to achieve physical and/or emotional development.
Off the field, sport development officers and game coordinators, as well as school programme managers and youth development staff, are involved in planning, managing, and implementing sport programmes, events, and activities for teams and communities. These are only a handful of examples of roles in the sport development industry.
Additional career opportunities and positions related to the field of sport development are listed as follows:
■ sport development officer;
■ sport programme manager;
■ international sport advisor;
■ community development officer;
■ sport policymaker;
■ professional coach;
■ junior coach;
■ player development expert;
■ school attendance officer;
■ after-school programme coordinator;
■ sport science manager;
■ exercise and health specialist;
■ customer service manager;
■ community safety and youth development coordinator;
■ sport for development and peace coordinator;
■ competition and scheduling manager;
■ sport event manager;
■ coach education officer/manager; and facility manager.
Almost all of the sport development positions listed above require jobseekers to hold a sport-related university degree and/or have significant work experience in the sector; moreover, professional management knowledge is needed to be competitive. Hence, this textbook is designed to equip readers with the theoretical and applied knowledge necessary to secure – and succeed in – their chosen careers.
About This Textbook
This textbook is comprised of 12 chapters that are subdivided into 4 separate but interdependent sections. First, the “Theory and Policy Context” section –Chapters 1, 2, and 3 – provides an understanding of the definition of sport development with its two arms: the SD and SFD. In doing so, it explains the significance of the sport development field, its breadth, opportunities, and tensions in both theory and practice. Second, the “Sport Development” section –Chapters 4, 5, 6, and 7 – focuses on the priority areas for sport development (Chapter 4). This section provides an overview of the different institutions and organisations that manage and/or support elite and grass-roots sports (Chapters 5 and 6). It covers a large spectrum of sport development providers and highlights the different goals and foci of professional and community sport. In doing so, the chapters highlight the different systems and pathways in high-performance sport, as well as opportunities and tensions that arise as a result of the professionalisation of sport, for example, through special technology or the use of drugs. The final chapter in this section outlines the managerial considerations in sport development (Chapter 7).
The third section focuses on “Sport for Development” – Chapters 8, 9, and 10. These chapters focus on specific social development outcomes that can be intentionally achieved through sport via a chapter outlining the contribution of sport to the sustainable development goals (Chapter 8), followed by a focus on priority areas for SFD (Chapter 9) and managerial considerations of SFD (Chapter 10).
10 Emma Sherry et
Finally, the fourth section – Research, Evaluation and Future Trends – reflects on the previous ten chapters and asks two questions: “How do we know that we have been successful?” and what does the future hold? Chapter 11 provides an overview of different evaluation and measurement options and uses two case studies, for which evaluation was conducted, to reflect on the tension between people’s expectations and actual sport development outcomes. The final chapter (Chapter 12) outlines and discusses future trends in both SD and SFD to provide the reader with some insights into the next evolution of sport development.
Summary
Sport development is an exciting, fresh, and important element of sport management. In this first chapter, we have provided our rationale for compiling a textbook on managing sport development. We have briefly reviewed the history and evolution of sport development over time and have discussed our conceptualisation of the two arms of sport development, namely the SD and development through sport, or SFD. We have pinpointed key opportunities and tensions for the sport development field, both in terms of theory and praxis. Finally, we have established how this textbook – and its constituent sections and chapters – proposes to discuss the different aspects of sport development and their application to theory and practice.
We are confident that by using this textbook, readers will explore, learn, and discuss the latest concepts and trends in managing sport development. We also believe that they will subsequently be equipped with the necessary knowledge to appropriately conceive and manage sport development assignments that can make a significant difference for elite athletes, as well as grass-roots clubs and local communities.
References
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this change, it may be asked, less hazardous than one which purposes only to guard against the corruption, and to correct those abuses which have almost imperceptibly crept into the representation?—As the existence of corruption in the representative is too probable, so is its prevalence in the constituent body too notorious:—election by ballot, it has been supposed, will provide a remedy against this evil;—it will remain unknown to the candidates for whom the voters may poll, the application of bribery therefore will be ineffectual, as, notwithstanding his acceptance of a bribe, the voter may still poll, according to his inclination or his conscience, without the fear of a discovery.
In regard to the universal suffrage, it must be acknowledged that every individual, in the state, has an interest in the proper administration of its affairs, and that Government will, sometimes, need the support, even of its meanest subjects; if, therefore, they are interested in, and contribute to the support of Government, they are entitled to a participation in its privileges;—the privilege they claim is the Elective Franchise, and as the lower house is called the Commons House of Parliament, why should not the members, instead of representing property, be in fact the representatives of the People?—At the same time such material changes adopted on a sudden, might produce tumult and disorder, they might occasion convulsions, attended with far more dreadful effects, than the evils they purpose to remedy;—but when a minister acknowledges corruption in his own conduct;—when the sale of Boroughs is notoriously practised;—when, in some instances, the representatives of a County are returned by the influence alone of a few powerful individuals;—when the late convictions, in the House of Commons, for bribery, prove that it is frequently, if not generally practised by the candidates for seats in that house, and that it has a pernicious influence upon the constituent body;—it cannot be disputed, but that some remedy ought instantly to be applied, in order to eradicate, or at least to check the wide spreading infection.
Lord Grey, Lord Grenville, the Whig party, even the members of the opposition are collectively abused by this Author; Lord Grey and Lord Grenville, however, together with many other individuals whom
he severely censures, are men of acknowledged talents and information, as is evident from their general conduct, and the speeches they have delivered in various Parliamentary debates; but they differ in opinion from his Reverence, if however, every man, who thinks differently from the learned Author, be a profligate or a blockhead, we suspect that, besides himself, he will scarcely find a wise or a virtuous individual throughout the great Empire.
He again resumes his attacks upon the Catholics, we shall, however, in the first instance, notice three questions, one particle of which he so confidently defies them to refute:
1st. “Does not a Papist kneel down before, pray and bow to images, pictures, and pieces of old wood representing our Blessed Saviour, the Virgin Mary, and many Saints, and does he not do this for the purpose either of paying adoration to these identical pieces of wood, old sheets of oil cloth, with faces smeared on them, almost as hideous as most of those you will see at the Catholic Board, on reading one of Robert Peele’s Anti-catholic speeches, or to their likenesses?”—In answer to this question we beg leave to refer to the catechisms of the catholics, in which occur the following questions and answers:—Is it lawful to adore the blessed Virgin or the saints? —No: for by adoration is here meant the honor due to God alone.— Do the commandments forbid us to honor the Saints?—No: for the honor we give them is different from that which we pay to God, we honor the Saints as friends and faithful servants to God.—If it is forbid in Catholics to worship the Saints, can it be supposed that they will pay adoration to their image, pictures or representations?— Or, is it consistent with probability that the same Church will direct them, in their riper years, to practise, what it has taught them when pupils, to reject and avoid?—The council of Trent has, without doubt, declared, that due honor and respect be given to images of Christ, the Virgin Mary, and the other Saints;—and who can deny that that degree of honor and respect, to which they are entitled, should be paid these, or any other representations?—It is natural to be affected at the Representation of a dear departed friend and benefactor; the Catholics look upon them as their best of benefactors, they therefore pay them a due degree of honor and respect, should they, however,
exceed this degree, they are not only culpable, but obnoxious likewise, to the censures of their own Church:—the Protestants themselves regard King William III. as their benefactor, of course they honor and drink to his memory, some even have been so far inflamed with enthusiasm, as to drink to his glorious and immortal memory on their bare knees, are not these Protestants equally idolatrous with the Catholics?
Secondly, “He wishes to know whether a Papist does not pray to Saints and Angels, and invoke their intercession, thereby making Gods, not only of Angels, but even of dead men, although expressly informed, by God himself, that there is but one mediator with the Father, not only of redemption but of intercession also, which is our blessed Saviour, and in doing so is he not guilty of idolatry?” That the Roman Catholics intreat of Saints and Angels to forward petitions in their behalf, for obtaining the divine mercy, is acknowledged, but that, in doing so, they mean to worship them as Gods, or to incur the guilt of idolatry, is as confidently denied:—they dread through an humble confidence of their own demerits, to offer from themselves an immediate address to the Deity:—and as Christ himself has given an example of praying for others, even his persecutors, in those memorable words, “Pardon them O Lord, for they know not what they do;” so the Catholics may probably imagine that the Saints and Angels whom they address, will petition in their behalf, and as they are pure in comparison with themselves, these petitions will have greater effect, than the immediate addresses of a polluted sinner— we think also, that the answer to the first, is a sufficient answer to this question.
Thirdly, “He is induced to enquire whether a Papist does not pay divine adoration to a mixture of flour and water, made up by the hands of an illiterate and possibly profligate priest, contrary to the figurative sense and meaning of the Holy Scripture, and in direct opposition to reason and common understanding? does he not believe that a Popish Priest has the power of making a God? and does he not bow down and worship this worse than golden image?”—It may be asked the Revd. Baronet if he ever enquired before administering the holy Communion to his own flock, whether
the bread provided for the purpose, were made by pure and undefiled hands, whether the wine were genuine, or brewed by some rascally vintner;—and is not the term profligate, equally applicable to a minister of the establishment, as to a Popish Priest, particularly, if the minister devotes much of his time to the joys of the chase, and (we may naturally suppose) its consequent festivity; whilst the Priest is laboriously and almost constantly employed in the conscientious discharge of his sacred functions? as to the adoration paid to the Host, the Catholic believes that the Body and Blood of Christ (acknowledged to partake of the Godhead) are actually present, and can he justly be called idolatrous for paying adoration to the presence of Divinity?—the learned gentleman may also be requested to explain what he means to impress upon the mind of a Catechumen, by the following words: “the Body and Blood of Christ are verily and indeed taken and received by the faithful in the Lord’s Supper.”—Let it be understood, that we by no means, recommend these doctrines, they may possibly give occasion of offence to such tender consciences as the Baronet possesses, they are matters of belief, and therefore left to every man’s own determination;—since, however, some particles of his questions have been absolutely and with truth denied, whilst others have been so far answered, we hope, as to exculpate the Catholics from all criminality either in act or intention, we may conclude, that should a Cardinal’s hat be now engaged to the Revd. Baronet, he will perhaps, not only be almost, but altogether inclined to renounce his own faith, and turn Papist.
In treating of the monstrous doctrines ascribed by Sir Harcourt Lees to the Catholics, we may premise that their own general conduct sufficiently refutes his accusation:—his strong assertions however, may seem to demand some farther enquiry.
The 4th Lateran council was held in the year 1215, at which were present, most of the christian sovereigns;—this council therefore may be properly termed a general congress of the temporal, as well as spiritual Powers of Christendom; they assembled for the purpose of suppressing the heresy of the Manchæans, or Albigenses, whose doctrines were (according to Mosheim) not only subversive of morality, decency, and good order, but even destructive to the
human species,—it was supported by the Counts of Thoulouse, Cominges, Foix, and aided by numerous bodies of banditti, hired for this purpose.—The heresy was condemned by the spiritual authority of the church; and the Fiefs of the princes encouraging it, were declared forfeitures to their liege lords, by the authority of the sovereigns, there assembled:—the censures of this council or rather congress were never promulgated, and scarcely known in this island, but were directed (we believe, solely) against the Manchæans or Albigenses, and the princes above mentioned, who encouraged and protected the votaries of this pernicious heresy
The council of Constance, held in the year 1414, expressly declares that it is heretical to affirm it lawful for a subject to kill his prince, on any pretence whatsoever, session 15. One solitary instance of the contrary doctrine being maintained, occurs in Mariana, whose book was condemned, and publicly burnt by a provincial council of her own order; this Mariana was a Spaniard, born at Talavera, in the year 1537, who became a Religious in the year 1554;—he was also condemned by the parliament of Paris, and by the doctors of Sorbonne, and his book burnt by the hands of the common hangman.
The council of Trent assembled in the year 1545, and continued to the year 1563, declares, that to violate the least point of public faith given to heretics, is a crime punishable by the laws of God and Man; session, 15 and 18. The doctrine then of the Catholics teaches them that no power on earth can absolve them from allegiance to their sovereigns and civil magistrates, and obliges them to keep faith with all men:—when therefore, the Revd. Author asserts, that according to the 4th Lateran council, oaths taken contrary to the interest of the Popish church are not to be called oaths, but perjuries, and that it is still in force, we must question the accuracy of his information, in regard to its being a received doctrine among the catholics;—the council of Constance, and subsequently the council of Trent decreed the very reverse, and the doctrine of the last general council must now be like the prevailing one:—the oaths taken by the priests and Bishops regard only spirituals, that part which refers to the Rights, Honors, State and Power of the Pope is confined (as the Catholics
assert) to such as live under the Pope’s temporal jurisdiction, or the jurisdiction of a Catholic Sovereign;—Our own sovereigns are bound (the author proceeds) by the coronation oath “to the utmost of their power to maintain the true profession of the gospel,” but by gospel, we are enjoined to do unto all men as we would they should do unto us; persecution therefore, in the slightest degree, is a departure from this precept,—“and the Protestant reformed religion as established by the laws”—whether will the Protestant Religion be better maintained by an observance of, or a deviation from, the doctrine contained in the Gospel? “to preserve the Bishops and Clergy of this Realm, and to the churches committed to their charge, all such rights and privileges as by law, do or shall appertain to them, or any of them,” Catholic Emancipation will not encroach upon these rights and privileges, it will only procure an equal participation of civil rights and privileges for the Catholics, which in compliance with the Gospel, the Protestants are bound to grant, as they in a like situation, would wish to obtain the same privileges for themselves.
As Sir Harcourt Lees is so very liberal in his application of censure upon individuals, upon Parties, upon Sects, who may differ from himself in opinion, with respect to the three natural points which concern human Life, Religion, Morals and Politics, we presume that he bears in mind and accords with the assertion of Demosthenes,[1] “that all men are, by nature, prone to delight in detraction and invective,” but that, through the multiplicity of his studious pursuits, the remainder of the sentence, in which this assertion is contained, has entirely escaped his recollection, “but to be disgusted with those who praise themselves,” as he is no less liberal in self Commendation;—The Athenian Orator indeed recounts to his Audience the services he had rendered the State, during his Administration, but handsomely, apologizes for this conduct, by premissing that he was obliged to pursue this method, in order to refute the Calumnies of his Adversary, and that therefore the odium, naturally attendant upon self Praise, ought to rest upon the Individual, who had compelled him to bring forward such a Relation: Sir Harcourt Lees, however had no adversary to contend with; no one disputed his merits; of course he had no Calumnies to refute; we
must conclude therefore, that he expects some material Reward for his present and former Exertions, and therefore points out his peculiar claims lest they should remain unknown and extinguished; his success we wish not to prevent; our aim is to guard the Public (since men are naturally inclined to delight in censure) from imbibing prejudice through the agreeable medium of invective.
To give advice, without giving offence, is a serious difficulty;—it has been pertinently observed, that to give advice is to seize an occasion of displaying our own wisdom, at the expence of others, and however readily a superiority in all other respects, may be admitted, the assumption of superior sense and understanding is universally offensive; the learned Baronet has made a pompous display of his diligence, his research, his consequent information, and urges his claim to attention, from the mortifying circumstance of our inferiority in understanding, when compared with his own:— making no pretensions to superiority of intellect, claiming only the free exercise of reason and common sense, and suspecting that some ingredients in the Rev. Baronet’s prescription (should it be adopted) might prove injurious to the general system; We are anxious to preserve the constitution sound and vigorous, and being members of the public, we look upon ourselves as included in the number of patients, we shall therefore take the liberty, without further ceremony, of examining (as far as we can understand it) into the composition of his Antidote.
The Revd. Author thus expresses himself: “to the superintending care of an energetic, firm, and most popular administration, I with confident security resign the civil and constitutional difference of my country; the established government in state, may in such hands be saved from destruction;” we must beg leave in this particular, to dissent from his prescription (of which we deem this an ingredient, since he recommends it by the authority of his own example) as, however energetic, firm, popular, and even strenuously devoted to public liberty the present ministers may be, they are but men, of
course liable to error and assailable by the temptations of power and interest we would, on the contrary, recommend a jealous vigilance with respect to every measure of every administration;—the immediate interests of a minister may be distinct from those of the people, he may therefore, in some instances be induced to sacrifice all considerations for the public good, to the prevailing motives of avarice and ambition:—and here we will repeat our dissent from a Right Honorable Gentleman, should he have asserted (which however, we gather only from a News-paper report) that the people have no right to enter into discussions concerning civil Polity in general, or the immediate measures of government; his legal experience we presume, will inform him that a Trustee is accountable for the proper management of his trust;—both the executive and legislative bodies are trustees of the people, to whom they are responsible, for the due discharge of the sacred trust reposed in them; the more they enquire into the effects resulting from the measures of every administration, the more competent will they become in appreciating the merits of their respective trustees, and the more clearly will they discern the propriety of conferring upon, or withholding from them their farther confidence.
He considers “unrestricted Emancipation to be impossible, so long as the Constitution in Church and State shall be Protestant” and asserts “that the necessity of excluding Papists from Parliament, and from the great offices of State, is imperious, in order to preserve both from destruction.” Neither can we subscribe to this opinion of the Revd. Author;—We have endeavored to prove (and hope with success) that the Authorities he quotes are unfounded, or obsolete and at present of no force:—an equal Participation in the same rights and privilege produces union and harmony, even among those who, from the circumstance of receiving different educations, may have imbibed different religious tenets; whilst a partial preference, and distinct privileges annexed to the profession of a particular faith, encourage the growth of jealousy and discussion:—Divide and impera is the boasted maxim of a crooked policy;—a well constituted Government consults for, and endeavours to promote the common welfare of all its subjects:—what have been the measures of policy pursued with regard to Ireland? The bulk of its population is Catholic,
and has during a century groaned under the arbitrary sway of a Protestant Government, partial to professors of its own faith, and arming them with distinct privileges;—the Catholics have been subject to an Oligarchy, composed of their declared opponents;— they have been debarred from acquiring real property;—their Estates have been liable to confiscation, for refusing to swear contrary to their consciences;—they have been restricted in the free exercise of their religion, and from educating their children in that faith which they esteemed the true one;—can it be expected, that these circumstances should attach them to the constitution? they acknowledge its excellence, and that its subjects enjoy a greater portion of liberty, than the subjects of any other state in Europe;— they look upon themselves, however, not as its subjects, but its slaves:—instead of interminable hostility against the Catholics, we would earnestly recommend conciliation;—let them be once admitted to all the privileges of subjects, they will (we dare affirm) become equally zealous in their attachment to the Constitution, as the Protestant himself.—In maintaining the contrary opinion, we regret that the Revd. Sir Harcourt Lees, should forget his character as a gentleman and a scholar, for, however he may vent his spleen in gross and vulgar abuse, a sinner against good-breeding, and the laws of decency will no more be esteemed a good author, than will a sinner against grammar, good argument, or good sense.
He is scarcely less abusive in his animadversions upon the Fanatics or Evangelical, and if they, in reality, maintain such tenets as he attributes to them, we must acknowledge that they are objectionable; they tend to diminish the general benevolence of mankind, and to render them regardless of moral rectitude; but persecution is still more dangerous, and in proposing a strong test, in addition to the Thirty-nine Articles he seems actuated, in some measure, by a spirit of persecution; even Bishop Burnet (whose orthodox we presume will not be disputed) confesses that the requiring subscription to the Thirty nine Articles, is a great imposition: —and, would you, Revs. Sir, impose a more grievous test of orthodoxy?—be assured, that the strength of your test, and its embracing a multitude of objects will not tend to confirm your establishment:—it may and probably will flourish, in power and
wealth, with the government of which it forms a part, but the superior excellence of the doctrines you profess, your own exemplary deportment in private life, together with a zealous exertion in the discharge of your sacred functions, will also render its influence extensive, or its duration permanent:—here we would recommend (but with the utmost deference and humility) the co-operation of Government,—were the gradations in preferment allotted to gradations in merit,—were the dignities of the Church, exclusively, appropriated to eminence in virtue, piety, learning, the clergy in early life would be stimulated to exertion for the attainment of these good qualities, their exertions would, in general, be crowned with success, and thus, at a more advanced period, they would become illustrious ornaments to their profession; whilst the people instructed by the impressive exhortations, and influenced by the upright conduct of their clergy, would be far more inclined to the practise of morality and good-order.
In regard to the radical reformers, their views may possibly be directed to tumult and anarchy, but the ostensible object of their contemplation do not appear to us visionary and impracticable, such material changes, however, admitted at once into the system, might be attended with danger and convulsion, we wilt by no means venture to deny that it might be so, yet Burnet (zealously devoted to Government in his time) recommends the annual Election of Representatives as an effectual expedient to stem the progress of corruption, which had, even then, made great inroads among all ranks of people: Election by ballot would defeat all the purposes which, at present, induce many of the candidates to resort to bribery; whilst universal suffrage would disable them from tampering with all the voters:—corruption has moreover in some instances, and at some periods, insinuated itself into the representative body;—the expediency of reform, therefore, can be no longer doubtful;—and that reform is necessary, the most eminent characters in our Empire have, long since, acknowledged, they have likewise on several occasions attempted to introduce it;—whilst Foreigners contemplating the excellence of the British Constitution, and enumerating the beneficial consequences, resulting to the several Nations of Europe, from the example of a free and independent
State, flourishing among themselves, have deeply lamented the existence of a vice in the system, which must gradually undermine it; —O Honte (says Raynal) l’Homme riche achete les suffrages de ses Commettans, pour obtenir l’Honneur de les representer; la Cour achete les suffrages des Representans gouverner plus despotiquement; une Nation sage ne travailleroit elle pas a prevenir l’une & l’autre corruption? N’est il pas etonnant que cela ne se soit pas fait, le jour qu’un Representant eut l’impudence de faire attendre ses Commettans dans son Antichambre, & de leur dire ensuite, je ne sais ce que vous voulez, mais je n’en ferai qu’a ma tete; je vous ai achetés fort cher, & j’ai bien resolu de vous vendre le plus cher que je pourrai:—we here confidently recommend a radical reform in ourselves, for the purpose of insuring to the body politic a sound and perfect recovery—Let every member of the state correct his own vices—and the voters should not only correct themselves; but it is their duty to examine into the qualifications which can entitle a candidate to their approbation;—is he frugal in his expences without meanness?—is he liberal, without profusion or ostentation?—is his private life marked by no destructive vice?—they may safely conclude that such a representative, unassailable by corruption, will discharge his trust with fidelity.
In consequence of the demise of our late and regretted Monarch, the period is at hand when the people will have a legal opportunity of freely and openly expressing their sentiments, in regard to the measures lately adopted by Administration;—if, in their opinion, the good and loyal subject is farther protected, by these means, in the unmolested enjoyment of his rights and privileges;—if the cottage of the meanest peasant still remains his castle, from which he may legally repel all violent intrusion;—if the Press restrained only in its licentiousness, is confirmed in the full exercise of its liberty (the great Bulwark of the British Constitution)—then will their former members, who supported such enactments, be returned to Parliament, as deserving objects of their preference:—but should they think that encroachments on civil liberty are substituted as safeguards to the Constitution;—that the habitation of every British subject is exposed, even, to nightly visitations, at the capricious will of a Magistrate;— that the liberty of the Press is essentially violated, under a specious
pretext of correcting its abuses, and preventing the dissemination of blasphemous and seditious libes;—the people will be aroused to a consideration of the danger impending over themselves, and therefore be cautious in their choice of Representatives;—in either case, however, we finally recommend inviolable abstinence from corruption:—Let no views of present emolument, no promises of further patronage,—let neither threats, nor intreaties prevail on you to depart from the conscientious discharge of your duty as voters:— the corruption of the constituent, will serve as an apology for the corruption of the Representative body:—exhibit in yourselves a generous example of reform:—your Representatives, chosen for the good qualities you have discerned in them, will copy the example and thus will the pernicious disorder, preying upon your very vitals, be in some measure checked, if not entirely eradicated from your constitution.
We have thus far obtruded upon the Public, in consequence of our objections to the Antidote of Sir Harcourt Lees, and conclude with an anxious wish that, whatever application may be adopted by them, it may most conduce to the advancement of civil and religious liberty, and may best contribute to the present and future welfare of the people.
PHILODEMUS.
