The contributors
Anna Bochkovskaya is an Associate Professor at the Department of South Asian History, Institute of Asian and African Studies, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Russia. Her research interests include modern and contemporary history of India, Punjab studies and religious studies. She is the author of chapters on Sikhism and current trends in Hinduism in the Russian-language university textbooks The History of Religions (2019, 4th edition) and Religious Studies: BA Level (2017, 2nd edition); chapters and translations in Death in Maharashtra: Imagination, Perception and Expression (2012), Christianity and Society in Asia:History and Modernity (2019). She is a member of the interdisciplinary research project ‘Under the Skies of South Asia’ launched in 2011 jointly with colleagues from the Institute of Oriental Studies, Russia’s Academy of Sciences. She has contributed greatly to the volumes published under this project: Portrait and Sculpture (2014), Mobility and Space (2015), Censure andPraise(2017), and she edited Volume 3 (Underthe Skies of South Asia: Territory and Belonging (2016). Her most recent publications focus on religion and caste controversies in the Indian Punjab.
Marem Buzurtanova is a Lecturer and Researcher in the Department of Philosophy and Political Science at Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, Almaty. She has a Master’s degree in Public International Law and also in Human Rights from the School of Advanced Studies, Kazakhstan. She worked for the Institute for Strategic Studies, Kazakhstan, from 2011 to 2017 and taught in the Department of International Relations at AlFarabi KazNU from 2001 to 2015. Her research interests include
human rights, civil society, political processes, political stability and democratization in transitional societies. She has published articles on regional and global affairs in reputed research journals.
Suchandana Chatterjee is the Director (Programme), Tagore Centre for Natural Sciences and Philosophy, Kolkata, India. Her research interests include shared spaces and the connected histories of Central Asia and Eurasia. During 1993–2015, she was a Research Associate and Fellow in Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Institute of Asian Studies, Kolkata. Soon afterwards, she was engaged in research on Central Asia and its neighbourhood in China Centre, University of Calcutta. She was also engaged in the study of declassified files on Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose and the INA movement in Kolkata Police Museum. During 2016–2018, as Senior Academic Fellow of the Indian Council of Historical Research, New Delhi, she conducted research on the role of Indians in Central Asia and a reappraisal of Eurasian dynamics. Her publications include books, journal articles and edited volumes.
Nivedita Kapoor is a Researcher with the Strategic Studies Program at Observer Research Foundation, a leading Indian think tank. She obtained her PhD from Jawaharlal Nehru University. She tracks Russian foreign and domestic policy and Eurasian strategic affairs. Her research interests include international relations theory, global governance and regionalism with a strong focus on India, Central Asia and the post-Soviet space. She writes on these issues in peer-reviewed journals.
Mushtaq A. Kaw served as a Professor at the University of Kashmir and the University of Hyderabad, India. His research interests include peace studies, conflict management, border politics, globalization, intra-state trade, cultural pluralism, history and religion. He has authored four books and contributed several research papers in reputed national and international journals.
He has been the Director of Central Asian Studies and the Director of the Area Studies programme of Kashmir University. He was the Chief Editor of the Journal of Central Asian Studies, University of Kashmir, and has been member of the editorial boards of foreign journals published in Japan, Republic of Korea, Kazakhstan and Pakistan. He has represented India abroad in the India-Central Asia Foundation programmes and was associated as a Senior Fellow with a German research project on ‘Inter and Intraregional Cooperation, Europe, Central Asia and its Neighbourhood’.
Oxana Kharitonova is an Associate Professor in the Department of Comparative Politics at Moscow State Institute of International Relations (University). Her research interests are mainly in the area of political regimes, specifically non-democratic and hybrid regimes, regime transformations, revolutions and civil wars, management of ethno-cultural diversity and comparative institutions in the post-Soviet region. She teaches courses on comparative politics, political regimes and regime change, methods of comparative political research and quantitative research methods. She has written and lectured extensively on developments in Russia, Central Asia, Eurasia and the Soviet Union. Her latest book is Metamorphoses of Divided Societies (2020; author and co-editor).
Asma Kouser is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Economics, Bengaluru City University, Bengaluru, Karnataka. She obtained her PhD from Jawaharlal Nehru University. She specializes in the area of innovation economy of India and Russia. She teaches subjects such as Macroeconomics, Growth and Development Economics, Institutional Economics, Agricultural Economics and Indian Economy. Her research collaboration network extends to the Higher School of Economics, Moscow; the Chinese University of Hong Kong; the Indian Statistical Institute, Giridih; and the Hokkaido University, Japan.
Irina Kudryashova is an Associate Professor in the Department of Comparative Politics, Moscow State Institute of International Relations (University). Her research interests are in comparative politics and government, identity politics, religion and ethnonational conflicts. She has been involved in research projects on the transformation of sovereignty, de facto states in the Eurasian space, Islam and the political development of the Muslim states and Muslim political integration in Europe. Her current work focuses on state and nation building in transition societies and the relationship between historical and new institutional settings. She has many research articles to her credit. She is currently involved in a project on the transformation of Arab states after the Arab Spring. Her latest book is Metamorphoses of Divided Societies(2020; author and co-editor).
Viachaslau Menkouski is a Professor of History in the Department of the Belarusian State University (Minsk, Republic of Belarus) and Deputy Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Belarusian State University: History, and also Deputy Chairman of Dissertation Council (History) of Belarusian State University. He has been a Visiting Scholar at South Kazakhstan University, National Gumilev University, Al-Farabi Kazakh National University (Kazakhstan); South Federal University (Russia); Jawaharlal Nehru University (India); Matej Bel University (Slovakia); Indiana University Bloomington (USA); and Central European University (Hungary). He is a member of the editorial board of foreign proceedings in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Russia and Ukraine. He has published several scientific articles in research journals in Belarus, Belgium, Georgia, India, Kazakhstan, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Turkey, Turkmenistan and Ukraine. Among them are GULAG: Ideology and Economy of Forced Labour in the XX Century (2017), ‘Socialist City’: Idea and its Realization in the Soviet Union 1920s and 1930s (2019) and Ukrainian Famine of 1932–33inHistory,HistoriographyandHistoricalPolicy(2020).
Shubhra Nagalia is an Assistant Professor at the School of Human Studies, Ambedkar University, New Delhi. Her research interests revolve around Russian language and literature, international relations, human security and gender issues with particular focus on the interface between labour, health and gender. She has contributed several articles in national and international journals and chapters in edited volumes. She has also authored a book on Gender,IdeologyandState:TextualStrategies(2009).
Ajay Patnaik is a Professor at the Centre for Russian and Central Asian Studies and was formerly the Dean of the School of International Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. His research interests include nationality, ethnicity, urbanization and migration, gender roles, stability and security in the Central Asia/Eurasia region He has authored four books: Central Asia: Geopolitics, Security and Stability (2016), Nations, Minorities and States in Central Asia (2003), Central Asia: Between Modernity and Tradition (1995) and Perestroika and Women Labour Force in SovietCentralAsia(1989) and has edited/co-edited eight books. His latest research work is on ‘Globalisation and Resistance: A Study of the Nature and Forms of Protests in Central Asia’ and ‘BRICS: An Alternative Vision of Trans-regional Cooperation from the Global South’. He has been a Visiting Faculty at the Faculty of International Studies, Eurasian National University, Astana (2013); the Faculty of Oriental Studies (2010) and the Faculty of International Relations (2009) in Al Farabi Kazakh National University, Almaty. A member of the editorial board of several national and international journals, he was also the Executive Editor of the journal ContemporaryCentralAsia.
Meena Singh Roy is a Research Fellow at the Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses (IDSA) and is head of the West Asia Centre. Her area of specialization is Eurasia and West Asia. She was a visiting Research Fellow at the German Institute of Global and Area Studies Institute of Asian Studies (GIGA) in 2014. She has published several peer-reviewed articles and papers focusing on
West Asia and Central Asia. She has published a monograph entitled The Shanghai Cooperation Organization: India Seeking NewRoleintheEurasianRegionalMechanism(2014), and books including International and Regional Security Dynamics: Indian and Iranian Perspectives (ed.) (July 2009); Emerging Trends in WestAsia:RegionalandGlobalImplications(ed.) (2014), Persian Gulf 2016–17 India’s Relations with the Region (co-edited) (2017); Ideology, Politics and New Security Challenges in West Asia (ed.) (2018); Changing Security Paradigm in West Asia: RegionalandInternationalResponses(co-edited) (2020).
Bhaswati Sarkar is a Professor and Jean Monnet Chair at the Centre for European Studies, School of International Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. Her research interests focus on ethnicity, democratic transition and consolidation, multiculturalism, minority rights, secularism, European integration and European identity. She looks at Europe focusing particularly on Central and Eastern Europe and the Nordic states. Her latest publications are two edited volumes India and the Nordics in a Changing World (2018) and Hope Unlimited: The Hungarian Revolutionof1956(2016).
Anita Sengupta is an Area studies specialist and is currently Director, Asia in Global Affairs and Senior Fellow, Indian Council of Social Science Research. Her areas of research interest include issues of identity politics, migration, gender, borders, critical geopolitics and logistics from an Asian perspective. She has been involved with research on the Central Asian region, with Uzbekistan being her area of special interest. She has also worked extensively on Turkish politics and on the Syrian refugees in Turkey. She is the author of Symbols and the Image of the StateinEurasia(2016), MythandRhetoricoftheTurkishModel: Exploring Developmental Alternatives (2014), Heartlands of Eurasia:TheGeopoliticsofPoliticalSpace(2009), TheFormation of the Uzbek Nation-State: A Study in Transition (2003) and FrontiersintoBorders:TheTransformationofIdentitiesinCentral
Asia, (2002). Her most recent publication is Ranabir Samaddar and Anita Sengupta (eds), GlobalGovernance andIndia’s NorthEast:Logistics,InfrastructureandSociety(2019).
Deepak Singh is a Researcher at the Research Institute for Humanity and Nature (RIHN), Kyoto, Japan. He obtained his PhD in Science Policy from Jawaharlal Nehru University and was a Postdoctoral Fellow (2018–2019) at the Chinese University of Hong Kong. His research focuses on Innovations Policy for the Energy and Environment sectors through the streams of behavioural economics, material criticality, geospatial interfaces and STS studies. His latest research is on ‘Futures of Indian Transport and Power Sector’. He recently completed a visiting assignment at the Hokkaido University in Japan and has also worked on sponsored projects for the World Bank, the Institute of Development Studies (UK), the Economic and Social Research Council (UK), and central and state governments in India.
Kuldip Singh is a Professor in the Department of Political Science, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, India. He has been ICSSR India Chair (FGV, Rio), Head of the Department of Political Science, Director of the Centre for South Central Asian Studies and Editor of the PunjabJournalofPolitics.His research interests include the Central Asian region, environment and sustainable development, climate change and political economy of globalization. His most recent research work is on the defeat of Punjab militancy and its aftermath. He is associated with the Sussex Centre for Individual and Society, Zurich, Switzerland; the Ontario International Development Agency, Canada; the School of Arts and Science, University of Pittsburgh, USA; the School of Politics, Queen’s University, Belfast, UK; Ben Gurion University, Israel; and the National Cultural Centre of Turkmenistan, Ministry of Education of Turkmenistan, Ashgabat.
Sharad K. Soni is Professor and Chairperson at the Centre for Inner Asian Studies, School of International Studies, Jawaharlal
Nehru University. His research interests revolve around the geopolitics of Inner Asia; the history, culture and politics of Mongolia and China’s Inner Mongolia; post-socialist Mongolian foreign and security policy as well as its international relations with ‘proximate’ (Russia and China) and ‘third’ neighbours (particularly the USA, India and Japan). He is the author of Mongolia-Russia Relations: Kiakhta to Vladivostok (2002); Mongolia-China Relations in Modern and Contemporary Times (2006) and (with Ts. Batbayar) Modern Mongolia: A Concise History(2007). He is also the editor of MongoliaToday: Internal ChangesandExternalLinkages(2016) and co-editor of Mongolia in the 21stCentury: Society, Culture and International Relations (2010). His most recent research is on ‘Inner Asian Identity: Transformation in the 21st Century’.
Aleksei Zakharov is a Research Fellow at the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow. He holds a PhD in History from Saratov State University. His areas of research include India’s foreign policy, Russia-India and India-US relations and the geopolitics of South Asia. He is a regular contributor to the Valdai Discussion Club, the Russian International Affairs Council (RIAC) and Carnegie Russia. In 2017–2018, he was a Visiting Fellow at the Observer Research Foundation and the Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses, the two leading Indian think tanks based in New Delhi, India.
Preface and Acknowledgements
The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 resulted in the restructuring of the social, economic and political infrastructure of not just the countries that emerged from it but also the regions beyond. The vast Eurasian landmass witnessed repeated reconfigurations of its geopolitical and geoeconomic landscape resulting in repercussions that were clearly global in more ways than one. The fall of communism in Russia unleashed a process of transition that in some countries entailed elements of re-democratization, re-privatization of property and re-liberalization of social relations as a whole. Meanwhile, in other countries it was about the rediscovery and recovery of native memory, indigenous traditions and also about remodernization. The varying transitional experiences of these newly emerged countries in the former Soviet space are, despite their common past, clearly the most defining feature of the transition that this region has experienced. The distinct political journeys of the individual states have displayed trajectories ranging from initial power struggles among competing elites to a period of marked political pluralization in some instances and also to excessive centralization and the reconsolidation of authoritarian rule in many cases. These variations are also evident in the foreign policy choices of these states as they negotiated with the outside world in a drastically changed international environment. The engagement pattern of these states with one another and with the outside actors has come to shape the political and economic contours of the Eurasian region in significant ways. Eurasia as a meta-geographical entity across two continents has a powerful meaning in a variety of real-world contexts and has emerged as a zone of profound global interest. As a macro-continent, Eurasia is both a historical-
geographical entity and a system of linkages stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from the Arctic to the Indian Ocean.
Eurasia, thus, has emerged as the theatre where a multitude of processes are shaping the national and international architecture of the twenty-first century. Russia, the USA, China and the Central Asian states have emerged as key actors in the region. Other states, both in the immediate and extended neighbourhood of the region, are also stakeholders. The vast expanse of Greater Eurasia spanning across two continents presents both opportunities and challenges. Therefore, the strategic environment in the region greatly impacts the political and economic choices of the key actors as they pursue their national and strategic objectives. The transformations taking place within individual countries of the region on account of the internal political dynamics and the societal responses have also impacted the existing patterns of international relations and engagements in a profound way. Of all the linkages, infrastructure, namely transportation routes and energy transportation networks, especially stand out. It is these structural relations among states that are shaping the regional contours of Eurasia. In addition, there are other important issues that have been impacting the strategic landscape of the region. These include nation building strategies, identity, ethnic conflicts, security, democratization, marketization, international migration, climate change and energy extraction. With contemporary world politics marked by persistent competition between diverse states, regions and civilizations, post-Soviet Eurasia presents an interesting mix of all these components.
Russia occupies a pivotal geopolitical place in the region. Historically, the region has accorded Russia its geopolitical weight, and politically, economically and militarily the region continues to remain critical to Russia’s security and prosperity. Psychologically too, Eurasia remains central to Russia’s self-identity as a great power. Significantly, the geopolitical and civilizational aspects of Eurasianism creates both opportunities and anxieties for all stakeholders. As post-Soviet Eurasia navigates through the complexities of contemporary global politics seeking solutions to some of the most pressing national, regional and global concerns,
the fact remains that the region has emerged as a very important arena for international collaboration and competition The transformations that are underway on the Eurasian landmass form the central theme of this book. The volume is a sincere effort to understand the different geographical configurations of Eurasia in a comprehensive way by offering fresh perspectives and approaches to the understanding of the history, politics and culture of the region. It examines the contours and characteristics of power politics in the region by exploring the dynamics of the contending and competing interests that have played out in the Eurasian landscape.
This book is dedicated to the memory of Prof. Hari Vasudevan, a profound scholar and leading Eurasianist of our times. As a historian and theorist of rare calibre his enthusiasm and devotion to Eurasian studies contributed greatly towards the enrichment of the field in more ways than one. Many of the ideas discussed in the volume emerged from the perspectives he shared with colleagues and students during his last visit to Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, in October 2018.
There are several institutions and individuals to whom I would like to express my gratitude for their crucial role in the production of the book. First and foremost I wish to thank the authors of the chapters for their central role in this endeavour, for the quality of their analyses and their positive responses to suggestions for revision. The academic backgrounds of the contributors have added diversity to the analysis of the core theme of the volume.
The genesis of the book emerged from the numerous academic interactions and discussions on Eurasian issues that I had the privilege to be a part of in different locations in India, Russia, Central Asia and the Baltic states. I am grateful for the generous support that I received from the Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR), New Delhi and the UPOE II Project grant of Jawaharlal Nehru University that enabled me to travel and work on this project.
I would like to thank all those experts and academics who graciously shared their thoughts during my ‘listening tours’ to the region. I am thankful to colleagues at Moscow State University (Moscow), the Russian State University for the Humanities
(Moscow), the University of Latvia (Riga), Tartu University (Estonia), Tallinn Technical University (Estonia), Tallinn University (Estonia), AlFarabi University (Almaty) and Coimbra University (Portugal) for giving me the opportunity to test my ideas in classrooms, discussions, colloquia and conferences.
I am forever grateful to Prof. Anuradha Chenoy for her passionate encouragement for all my academic undertakings and for being a big source of inspiration.
My deepest gratitude is reserved for my two former colleagues and mentors in Assam—Prof. A.N.S. Ahmad and Prof. A.U. Yasin. But for their unflinching faith in me, I would not be where I am today.
Reflecting back, I appreciate more than ever the consistent support that I have received from the office staff at the Centre for Russian and Central Asian Studies (JNU). I owe an enormous debt of gratitude to Balram, Amit and Sonu.
I would also like to thank my friend Prof. Deepak Kumar Mishra for his sound advice and valuable insights related to the book.
Finally, I would like to offer my love and gratitude to my family and friends for their exceptional support in all my academic ventures. A very special thank you goes to my sister Vandana for her tireless assistance in the organization of this book. She is the vital unnamed editor of this volume. Our shared intellectual and emotional lives have subtly influenced the way that I think and write.
On behalf of the authors I wish to thank all those who have contributed to the publication of this volume, in particular the editorial and production staff at Routledge.
List of abbreviations
AIIB Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations
ASEM Asia-Europe Meeting
APEC Asia -Pacific Economic Cooperation
ATTA Afghanistan Pakistan Transit Trade Agreement
BRI Belt and Road Initiative
BRICS Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa
BSG Belarusian Socialist Gromada
BNR Belarusian National Republic
CACO Central Asia Cooperation Organization
CASA- 1000 Central Asia-South Asia power project
CICA Conference on Interaction and Confidence Building Measures in Asia
CAR Central Asian Region
CARs Central Asian Republics
CBDR Common but Differentiated Responsibilities
CIS Commonwealth of Independent States
CMEA Council for Mutual Economic Assistance
CNPC China National Petroleum Corporation
COW Correlates of War Project
COVID-19 Coronavirus disease 2019
CPC Caspian Pipeline Consortium
CPEC China-Pakistan Economic Corridor
COP Conference of the Parties
CPEC China-Pakistan Economic Corridor
CPSU Communist Party of the Soviet Union
CSCE Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe
CSTO Collective Security Treaty Organization
EBRD European Bank for Reconstruction and Development
EPCA Enhanced Partnership and Cooperation Agreement
EAEU Eurasian Economic Union
EIU Economist Intelligence Unit
EU European Union
GUAM Georgia-Ukraine-Azerbaijan-Moldova
FDI Foreign Direct Investment
FTA Free Trade Agreement
FTZ Free Trade Zone
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GEP Greater Eurasian Partnership
GII Gender Inequality Index
GNP Gross National Product
HDI Health Development Index
INDC Intended Nationally Determined Contribution
INSTC International North–South Transport Corridor
IGC Intergovernmental Commission
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
IPI Iran-Pakistan-India
JIA Japan-India-America
LitBel Lithuanian-Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic
LLC Lapis Lazuli Corridor
LoC Line of Control
MENA Middle East and North Africa
MFN Most-Favoured-Nation
MNC Multinational Corporationc
MPR Mongolian People’s Republic
NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement
NAM Non-Aligned Movement
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NMD National Missile Defense
NRDCI National R&D Capacity Index
OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
OEF Operation Enduring Freedom
OIC Organization of Islamic Cooperation
OEC Observatory of Economic Complexity
OSCE Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe
PAK Pakistan-Administered Kashmir
PiS Law and Justice Party
PO Civic Platform
PRC People’s Republic of China
PRIO Peace Research Institute Oslo
PRMZ Pol’skaya Rada Minskoy Zemli (Polish Rada of the Minsk Land)
RAW Research and Analysis Wing
R&D Research and Development
RCM Russian Council of Muftis
RCEP Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership
RIC Russia, India, China
ROC Russian Orthodox Church
RSFSR Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic
SAARC South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
SAFTA South Asian Free Trade Area
SCO Shanghai Cooperation Organization
SEZ Special Economic Zone
SNK Soviet narodnykh kommissarov (Council of People’s Commissars)
SPIEF St. Petersburg International Economic Forum
SREB Silk Road Economic Belt
SSRB Soviet Socialist Republic of Belarus
STI Science, Technology and Innovation
TAC Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia
TAPI Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India
TCO Tengiz Chevroil
TPP Trans-Pacific Partnership
TTP Tahrikh-i Taliban Pakistan
TRACECA Transport Corridor Europe Caucasus Asia
UCDP Uppsala Conflict Data Program
UK United Kingdom
UN United Nations
UNAOC United Nations Alliance of Civilizations
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNR Ukrainian National Republic
UNSRP US New Silk Road Project
USA United States of America
USCENTCOM United States Central Command
UNGA United Nations General Assembly
USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
V4 Visegrad 4
WFP World Food Programme
WTO World Trade Organization
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Concerning. About, regarding, in relation to, respecting, in respect to, relative to, of.
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Confession. Admission, avowal, acknowledgment; creed, doctrines, tenets, catechism, subscription.
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Confront. Oppose, threaten, encounter, challenge, face, intimidate.
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Confuse. Mingle, confound; derange, disturb, perplex, embarrass, obscure, mortify.
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Congenial. Kindred, similar, sympathetic, suited, natural, proper, agreeable.
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Conjecture, n. Supposition, surmise, guess, hypothesis, theory, notion, divination.
A . Calculation, inference, deduction, proof; fact, surety, certainty, security.
Conjuncture. Combination, concurrence; emergency, crisis, exigency, juncture.
A . Provision, preparation, arrangement. Connection. Conjunction, combination, union, association, dependence.
A . Independence, disjunction, dissociation, dissolution.
Conquer. Overcome, subjugate, master, vanquish, subdue, rout, defeat, overpower, overthrow, prevail over, reduce, win, surmount, worst, checkmate, beat, crush, down, discomfit.
A . Surrender, capitulate, cede, forfeit, fly, yield, retreat, withdraw, retire, submit, succumb, fall, lose, resign, fail.
Conquest. Victory, subjugation, triumph.
A . Defeat, failure, surrender, submission.
Conscience. Moral sense, intuition, integrity, principle.
A . Irresponsibility, laxity, undutifulness, unscrupulousness.
Conscientious. Scrupulous, exact, upright, high-principled, honest, honorable, equitable, incorruptible, fair, faithful.
A . Lax, unprincipled, unscrupulous, reprobate, dishonorable, faithless.
Conscious. Sensible, cognizant, aware, intelligent, advised, apprised, assured, sure, certain, informed; thinking, reflecting, rational, intellectual.
A . Insensible, unaware, ignorant, dead, cold, deaf; irrational, thoughtless.
Conscription. Drafting, impressment.
A . Volunteering, enlistment.
Consecrate. Dedicate, ordain; sanctify, hallow.
A . Desecrate, defile.
Consecutive. Sequent, continuous, orderly, following.
A . Disordered, rambling, discursive, illogical.
Consent. Assent, approve, agree, yield, comply, acquiesce.
A . Refuse, resist, decline, dissent.
Consequence. Result, issue, sequel, effect, outgrowth, event, end, upshot; importance, dignity, moment.
A . Cause, occasion, origin; axiom, postulate, premise, antecedence; insignificance, paltriness.
Consequential. Following, resulting, coherent, cogent, connected; pompous, self-conceited, arrogant, vainglorious.
A . Incoherent, illogical; affable, accessible, humble, considerate.
Conservation. Protection, perpetuation, preservation, maintenance.
A . Neglect, exposure, destruction, abolition.
Conservative. Stationary, traditional, opposed to change.
A . Radical, progressive, changeable, transitional, modifiable, innovating.
Consider. Think, ponder, meditate, reflect, investigate, weigh, deliberate, observe, attend, regard.
A . Guess, conjecture, ignore, chance, hazard.
Considerate. Kindly, thoughtful, reflective, careful, prudent, deliberate, serious, charitable, forbearing, cautious.
A . Rash, careless, imprudent, thoughtless, rude, selfish, overbearing, injudicious.
Consignment. Custody, commission, delegation; sending, shipping.
A . Miscommitment.
Consistency. Density, solidity, compactness, coherence; agreement, congruity, correspondence, uniformity, harmony, invariableness.
A . Tenuity, subtility, volatility; incoherence, incongruity, contrariety, contradiction.
Console. Comfort, condole with, sympathize, encourage, soothe, assuage, solace.
A . Distress, grieve, disturb, annoy, sadden, trouble, wound, hurt.
Consolidate. Solidify, harden, condense, compress, compact; thicken, strengthen, solder, cement, fuse; conjoin, combine.
A . Dissolve, melt, vaporize, weaken, dissipate, sublimate, pulverize; dissect, disjoin.
Conspicuous. Visible, apparent, discernible, plain, clear, perceptible, noticeable; eminent, distinguished, prominent,
famous, noted, manifest.
A . Invisible, microscopic, hidden, imperceptible, unseen; ordinary, mediocre, commonplace.
Conspiracy. Intrigue, treason, cabal, plot, machination, combination; sedition.
A . Legislation, congress, parliament, synod.
Constant. Fixed, immutable, invariable, unchanging, permanent, perpetual; resolute, firm, steady; persevering, assiduous; incessant, unbroken, continuous; faithful, true, loyal, devoted.
A . Irregular, exceptional, casual, incidental, fickle, faithless, broken, treacherous, untrustworthy, false.
Consternation. Amazement, terror, alarm, dismay, panic, bewilderment.
A . Fearlessness, boldness, composure, presence of mind.
Constituent. Elector, patron, voter, supporter, sender; ingredient, component, element.
A . Representative, nominee; constitution, system, compound, whole.
Constitution. Organization, formation; quality, character, temperament, peculiarity, characteristic; charter, law.
A . Conspiracy, rebellion, tyranny, anarchy, despotism, destruction, disorganization; disposition, mood, frame of mind, temper.
Construct. Build, erect, invent, form, shape, combine.
A . Demolish, overthrow, destroy, derange.
Construction. Building, erection, composition, fabrication; structure, formation, form, figure; explanation, version, rendering, interpretation.
A . Dislocation, dismemberment, dissolution; misunderstanding, misconception.
Consult. Deliberate, take counsel, confer, advise with, canvass, question, consider, regard.
A . Dictate, counteract, contradict.
Consume. Eat up, devour; destroy, lavish, dissipate, waste, spend.
A . Discard, reject, throw aside; preserve, replenish, supply, provide.
Consummate, a. Perfect, excellent, supreme, finished, complete.
A . Common, faulty, defective, ordinary, mediocre.
Consummation. Achievement, attainment, completion, termination, accomplishment, fulfilment, realization, close, finish, finale.
A . Beginning, attempt, inception, initiation, source, origin.
Consumption. Expenditure, use, waste, extinction, destruction.
A . Development, increase, growth, enlargement, augmentation.
Contact. Touch, junction, contiguity, closeness, union.
A . Adjacence, proximity; separation, distance, isolation.
Contagion. Infection; contamination, taint, pestilence, corruption.
A . Prevention; antisepsis, disinfection.
Contain. Include, embody, comprehend, comprise, embrace; restrain, hold.
A . Omit, exclude, drop, discharge; yield, give way.
Contaminate. Taint, defile, corrupt, sully.
A . Cleanse, purify.
Contemn. Despise, scorn, disdain, slight.
A . Venerate, respect.
Contemplate. Meditate, study, ponder, survey, reflect; intend, design.
A . Overlook, waive, abandon; execute, complete, do.
Contemptible. Despicable, abject, base, worthless, mean, low.
A . Respectable, venerable; worthy, estimable, important, grave.
Contend. Strive, fight, struggle, combat; debate, argue, dispute; affirm, assert, maintain, claim.
A . Concede, allow, surrender.
Content. Satisfied, pleased, easy, willing, resigned, gratified.
A . Reluctant, unwilling, unsatisfied, rebellious, discontent.
Contention. Strife, dissension, quarrel, rupture, dispute, debate, controversy, altercation.
A . Peace, amity, harmony, concord, reconciliation.
Contingent, a. Casual, happening, fortuitous, dependent, incidental, provisional, uncertain.
A . Independent, absolute, positive, uncontrolled, uninfluenced, unaffected.
Continual. Incessant, ceaseless, invariable, perpetual, constant, uninterrupted, unbroken, unremitting, continuous.
A . Exceptional, irregular, casual, contingent, intermittent, interrupted, suspended.
Continually. Constantly, perpetually, ever, always, repeatedly, frequently, continuously.
A . Occasionally, rarely, sometimes.
Continue. Remain, endure, persist; abide, stay, tarry; persevere, be constant or steadfast.
A . Stop, cease, fail, pause.
Contract, n. Compact, stipulation, agreement, arrangement, bargain, covenant, pact, obligation, pledge, engagement, bond.
A . Promise, parole, assurance, understanding, assumption.
Contract, v. Narrow, abbreviate, abridge, lessen, reduce, compress; shrivel, shrink; agree, stipulate, bargain.
A . Expand, amplify, dilate; reverse, cancel, abandon. Contradict. Deny, gainsay, dispute, impugn, controvert; oppose, counteract, annul, thwart, abrogate.
A . Maintain, argue, confirm, state, affirm, endorse.
Contrary. Opposite, opposed, adverse, counter; conflicting, contradictory, antagonistic, repugnant; perverse, obstinate, stubborn, headstrong.
A . Compatible, agreeing, kindred, compliant, submissive; consistent.
Contrast, v. Differentiate, discriminate, oppose, compare.
A . Resemble, be like or similar, liken, harmonize. Contribute. Add, give, coöperate, assist, subscribe, supply.
A . Refuse, withhold, deny.
Contribution. Donation, offering, gift, subscription, subsidy, aid, assistance.
A . Withholding, retention, reservation.
Contrive. Plan, design, devise, invent, project, form, frame, scheme, plot, consider; manage, make out; concert, adjust.
A . Hit, chance, venture, bungle, hazard; mismanage, miscontrive.
Control, v. Direct, manage, rule, command, sway, superintend; hinder, repress, restrain, curb, check.
A . License, free; neglect, abandon; mismanage, misconduct.
Controversy. Dispute, altercation, contention, disagreement.
A . Agreement, unanimity, coincidence.
Contumacy. Obstinacy, stubbornness, perverseness, pertinacity, obduracy; disobedience, insolence.
A . Docility, tractableness, flattering, fawning, servility.
Contumely. Obloquy, reproach, opprobrium, insolence, abuse, contempt, scorn, disdain, arrogance.
A . Regard, consideration, adulation, obsequiousness.
Convene. Assemble, meet, congregate, summon, master, collect.
A . Dismiss, disperse, disband, dissipate.
Convenient. Suitable, fit, appropriate, proper, adapted; advantageous, commodious, comfortable, useful, serviceable.
A . Inconvenient, useless, awkward, superfluous; inopportune.
Convention. Assemblage, conference, meeting, concourse, session, synod, congress, convocation; treaty, compact.
A . Recess, dissolution, prorogation; dispersion, scattering; promise, understanding, parole.
Conventional. Usual, customary, ordinary, habitual, regular, wonted, prevalent, social, everyday; stipulated.
A . Unusual, erratic, extraordinary; legal, compulsory.
Conversant. Familiar, skilled, acquainted, proficient, versed.
A . Strange, ignorant, unversed, unlearned.
Conversation. Converse, communion, intercourse, parley, talk, chat, conference, communication, discourse, colloquy, dialogue.
A . Speech, oration, harangue, soliloquy, apostrophe, monologue, silence, taciturnity.
Converse, a. Opposite, reverse, contrary, counter, contradictory.
A . Identical, one, same, indistinguishable; direct, primary.
Conversion. Alteration, transmutation, change, transformation.
A . Permanence, identity, persistence, conservation.
Convertible. Equivalent, interchangeable, identical; reversible.
A . Variant, contrary, incommensurate.
Convey. Take, transfer, move, change, carry, shift, transmit, transport, remove, consign, relegate.
A . Retain, preserve, hold, cling to, possess.
Conviction. Belief, assurance, persuasion; confutation, refutation; proof, detection.
A . Doubt, disbelief, misgiving; vindication, justification.
Convince. Persuade, satisfy, enlighten, indoctrinate, inoculate.
A . Mislead, mystify, perplex, puzzle, unsettle, upset; turn, convert.
Convivial. Social, festive, hospitable, jovial, jolly, companionable, gay.
A . Inhospitable, unsocial, unneighborly, churlish; abstemious, ascetic, austere.
Convocation. Convention, congress, assemblage, council, synod.
A . Dispersion, disruption, dismission, dismissal.
Convolution. Coil, involution, spiral, twist, contortion.
A . Unfolding, evolution, unraveling, explication.
Convoy. Escort, guard, attendance, protection.
A . Capture, betrayal, onset, onslaught, hold up.
Convulse. Disturb, shake, agitate.
A . Calm, compose, soothe, assuage.
Cool. Somewhat cold, chilling, frigid, freezing; unimpassioned, composed, collected, unruffled, self-possessed, sedate, placid,
quiet; indifferent, unconcerned, apathetic.
A . Hot, warm, burning, heated, excitable, ardent, eager.
Coöperate. Assist, abet, help, conspire, concur, co-labor.
A . Oppose, thwart, rival, counteract, conflict, hinder, defeat, frustrate.
Coördinate. Equal, equivalent, proportionate, commensurate, tantamount, equipollent.
A . Subordinate; disparate, extraneous; inferior, superior.
Copy. Portraiture, facsimile, duplicate, imitation, likeness, image, transcript, counterfeit.
A . Model, original, pattern, example, prototype, archetype, exemplar.
Cordial. Earnest, warm, hearty, ardent, affectionate, sincere, invigorating, refreshing, pleasing, grateful.
A . Cool, formal, ceremonious, distant, reserved, disinclined.
Corner. Angle, bend, crotch, knee; nook, recess, niche, retreat.
A . Abutment, protrusion, prominence, convexity, projection.
Corollary. Inference, conclusion, deduction, consequence.
A . Problem, proposition.
Corporal, Corporeal. Fleshly, bodily, material, physical.
A . Spiritual, mental, intellectual, moral, ethereal, immaterial.
Corps. Body of troops, division of army, squadron, band, company.
A . Aggregate, army, host, mass, force, organization.
Corpse. Remains, dead body, cadaver, carcass, dust.
A . Soul, spirit, individual, personality, mentality.
Corpulent. Fat, fleshy, plump, obese, portly, round, stout.
A . Lean, thin, attenuated, emaciated, slight, slender, frail.
Correct. True, exact, accurate, proper, faultless, right.
A . False, untrue, wrong, inexact, inaccurate, fallacious, defective.
Corrective. Regulative, preventive, alterative, preservative, rectifying, modifying, improving, reformatory.
A . Confirmative, stimulative, intensitive, provocative, conducive.
Correlation. Interrelation, correspondence, apposition, interdependence, mutuality, reciprocation, interchange, reciprocity.
A . Contradiction, independence, opposition, inconsistency, incongruity.
Correspond. Agree, suit, match, fit, tally, harmonize, answer, correlate, stand counter; communicate, write.
A . Vary, disagree, clash, jar; ignore, disregard, neglect.
Correspondence. Adaptation, agreement, congruity; writing, letter, despatches, communication.
A . Conversation; withdrawal, non-intercourse; incongruity, discord, disagreement.
Corroborate. Strengthen, establish, sustain, support, confirm.
A . Weaken, confute, rebut, invalidate, shake, enfeeble, overthrow.
Corrode. Consume, eat away, waste, impair, rust, canker, wear, crumble.
A . Renew, restore.
Corrupt, v. Defile, pollute, infect, taint, vitiate, demoralize, contaminate, debase, spoil, deteriorate.
A . Cleanse, purify, better, correct, ameliorate.
Corruption. Decay, decomposition, pollution, defilement, infection, contamination, adulteration; depravity, immorality, laxity, wickedness; dishonesty, bribery.
Cost. Price, worth, expenditure, expense, charge, disbursement, outlay; preciousness, richness, splendor; loss, damage, pain.
Costume. Dress, livery, robes, uniform.
A . Disguise, incognito; nudity, nakedness.
Council. Cabinet, bureau, chamber, conclave, synod, convocation, meeting, conference, parliament, consultation, convention.
A . Cabal, league, conspiracy; multitude, mob.
Counsel. Advice, consultation, opinion, suggestion, recommendation, instruction, caution, admonition; deliberation, forethought; plan, design, scheme; purpose; lawyer, barrister, attorney.
Count. Compute, reckon, add, tell, estimate, number, enumerate, sum, calculate.
A . Guess, conjecture, surmise, think, fancy.
Countenance, v. Approve, support, sanction, help, aid, abet, encourage, patronize, befriend, assist, favor.
A . Oppose, confront, discourage, browbeat, face, compare, disparage.
Counter. Contrary, opposed, opposite, against.
A . Accordant with, coincident, consonant.
Counteract. Oppose, foil, baffle, thwart, hinder, rival, resist, defeat, cross, frustrate, neutralize.
A . Aid, coöperate, subserve, promote, advance, assist.
Counterfeit, n. Forgery, fraudulent copy, cheat, artifice, pretense, sham, fabrication.
A . Exposure, detection; verity, fact, truth, reality.
Countermand. Abrogate, annul, revoke, rescind, recall, make void.
A . Order, command, bid, charge, enjoin, direct, instruct.
Counterpart. Duplicate, copy; correlative, complement, supplement, obverse; match, mate, tally, twin.
A . Antithesis, contradiction, contrast.
Countervail. Balance, compensate, make up, counterbalance, offset.
A . Overthrow, unbalance, weigh down.
Countryman. Rustic, agriculturist, farmer, swain, yeoman, laborer, peasant, husbandman; clown, boor.
A . Citizen, townsman; alien.
Couple, v. Link, unite, connect, join, clasp, tie, yoke, buckle, pair, splice, button; marry, wed.
A . Loose, part, separate, detach, isolate, unclasp; divorce.
Courage. Bravery, valor, fearlessness, spirit, heroism, fortitude, hardihood, boldness, daring, mettle, pluck, resolution, intrepidity.
A . Cowardice, timidity, fear, dread, terror, dismay, consternation.
Course. Route, way, road, track, race; direction, bearing, progress, process; career; succession, order, regularity; deportment, conduct; series, system.
A . Deviation; disorder, discursion; hindrance, error.
Court, v. Woo, flatter, seek, invite, solicit.
A . Avoid, shun, repudiate, repel, antagonize.
Courtesy. Politeness, affability, urbanity, civility, complaisance.
A . Rudeness, incivility, churlishness, ungraciousness.
Courtly. Polished, elegant, polite, ceremonious, formal, respectful.
A . Undignified, unrefined, coarse, awkward, boorish, plebeian.
Covenant. Agreement, stipulation, bond, compact, contract, bargain, arrangement, concordant, pact, treaty.
A . Promise, understanding, assurance, parole.
Cover, v. Hide, conceal, overspread, overlay, secrete, cloak, veil, screen, mask, shroud, disguise; invest, clothe, wrap; protect, shelter, shield, guard, defend; comprehend, comprise, embrace; balance, compensate, countervail.
A . Expose, reveal, produce, exhibit; betray, divulge; omit, exclude.
Covet. Desire, long for, wish for, aim after, aspire to.
A . Dislike, despise; undervalue.
Covetous. Eager, avaricious, desirous, greedy, grasping, acquisitive, rapacious.
A . Liberal, unselfish, generous, bountiful.
Coward. Craven, recreant, dastard.
A . Hero, champion; daredevil, desperado.
Coy. Bashful, shy, modest, reserved, retreating, shrinking.
A . Bold, forward, impertinent, pert, brazen, flippant. Crack. Split, break, chop, rend, cleave, snap; craze, madden.
A . Mend, unite, repair; restore, heal.
Craft. Skill, ability, power, talent, dexterity, aptitude, tact; artifice, shrewdness, guile, deception, cunning, deceit; art, trade, employment, vocation, calling; vessel.
A . Inaptitude, tactlessness; fairness, openness, candor, sincerity, frankness, ingenuousness, straightforwardness.
Cramp. Restrain, hinder, check, confine, hamper, clog, fetter, cripple.
A . Free, liberate, loose, expand, ease, relieve, extricate.
Crash. Jar, uproar, clash, rending, noise, clang, resonance.
A . Murmur, whisper; silence.
Crassitude. Grossness, thickness, density, corpulence, obesity.
A . Tenuity, agility, activity; spareness, slightness.
Crave. Intreat, beg, beseech, implore, supplicate, desire, long for, hunger for, yearn.
A . Demand, insist, require.
Crazy. Shattered, broken, tottering; distracted, mad, lunatic, insane, delirious, cracked, demented, deranged.
A . Sound, robust, vigorous, sane, whole.
Create. Form, produce, make, originate, cause, occasion, appoint, constitute; beget, engender, generate; imagine, compose, fashion, design.
A . Destroy, demolish, annihilate.
Creature. Created being, being, animal, man, person; dependent, vassal, parasite; wretch, miscreant.
A . Chimera, ghost, hallucination, fantasy, phantom, conceit, crotchet.
Credence. Belief, trust, faith, acceptance, confidence, reliance.
A . Denial, distrust, disbelief, doubt, skepticism. Credentials. Diploma, missive, title, warrant, vouchers, certificates, testimonials.
Credible. Probable, possible, reliable, trustworthy, likely.
A . Improbable, unlikely, incredible, unreliable, untrustworthy.
Credit. Trust, belief, faith, confidence, credence, reliance; reputation, influence, power; esteem, regard; loan, securities.
A . Insecurity; distrust; shame, disgrace, censure.
Credulity. Gullibility, credulousness, simplicity.
A . Skepticism, suspiciousness, incredulity, shrewdness.
Creed. Belief, catechism, confession, articles of faith, tenets, dogmas, doctrines.
A . Protest, abjuration, disbelief, recantation, retraction.
Crestfallen. Downcast, dispirited, dejected, disheartened, depressed, desponding, low-spirited, down-hearted.
A . Exuberant, elated, confident, inspirited.
Crew. Gang, set, band, horde, crowd, mob, throng.
A . Supercargo; bevy, galaxy, cream, élite.
Crime. Offense, misdeed, wrong, felony, sin, iniquity, misdemeanor, enormity, transgression, wickedness, delinquency.
A . Good deed, well-doing, exploit, achievement, duty, service, benefit, benefaction, heroism.
Criminal, a. Immoral, iniquitous, sinful, unlawful, wicked, wrong, vile, nefarious, culpable, abominable, illegal, vicious.
A . Virtuous, moral, innocent, just, honorable, praiseworthy, lawful, legal, right, meritorious.
Criminate. Charge, accuse, arraign, impeach.
A . Acquit, absolve, extricate.
Cripple, v. Weaken, disable, impair, break down, cramp, curtail.
A . Renovate, strengthen, augment, liberate, ease, expedite.
Criterion. Standard, test, rule, touchstone, measure, canon, proof.
A . Eye, glance; intention, conjecture.
Critic. Judge, censor, reviewer, connoisseur; caviller, carper; arbiter, savant.
A . Artist, author, writer, performer, maker, poet, composer.
Critical. Accurate, nice, exact; decisive, crucial, determining, important; dangerous, hazardous, imminent, momentous, dubious, precarious.
A . Inexact, loose, undiscriminating; unimportant, inconclusive; safe, sure, settled, decided, retrieved, redressed.
Criticism. Censure, stricture, animadversion, review, critique.
A . Approbation, praise, approval.
Criticize. Examine, estimate, judge, discuss, analyze, anatomize, scan, animadvert.
A . Survey, overlook, slur, skim, slight, neglect.
Crooked. Bent, curved, bowed; distorted, twisted, wry, askew, deformed, disfigured; perverse, contumacious, capricious; dishonest, unfair, unscrupulous, knavish, deceitful, tricky.
A . Straight, linear, upright, direct, honest, straightforward.
Cross. Fretful, petulant, peevish, snappish, touchy, morose, illnatured, sullen, snarling, cynical, sour, out of humor, captious, crabbed, sulky.
A . Amiable, genial, good-tempered, good-natured, blithesome, charming, winsome, attractive, benign.
Crowd. Throng, multitude, concourse, press, horde, herd, host, rabble, mob, populace.
A . Cream, élite, bevy, constellation, galaxy; solitude, solitariness.
Crown, n. Diadem, coronet, garland, chaplet, wreath, laurel, bays; reward, honor, distinction, dignity; summit, crest, top, head, brow, apex.
A . Base, bottom, floor, foot, pedestal, foundation, sole; infamy, shame.
Crown, v. Complete, consummate, conclude, seal, achieve, accomplish.
A . Mar, spoil, frustrate, fail.
Crucial. Severe, trying, searching, decisive, critical, momentous, strategic.
A . Superficial, indifferent, mild, lenient, lax, unimportant.
Crude. Raw, immature, unripe; coarse, unrefined; undigested, unconsidered, unpolished, uncouth, awkward.
A . Mature; refined, sensitive; well-considered, finished, classical, highly wrought, elaborate.
Cruel. Inhuman, merciless, unfeeling, dire, ruthless, pitiless, relentless, savage, brutal, ferocious, blood-thirsty, sanguinary; severe, sharp, bitter, hard.
A . Gentle, mild, merciful, humane, forbearing, generous.
Crush. Pound, crumble, demolish, overpower, squeeze, compress, bruise, shatter, raze, pulverize.
A . Consolidate, compact, amalgamate, solidify, stabilitate.
Culmination. Zenith, success, consummation, acme, completion, apex.
A . Failure, downfall, defeat, descent, decline.
Culpable. Blameworthy, blamable, censurable, reprehensible, faulty, wrong.
A . Innocent, blameless, laudable, praiseworthy.
Culprit. Criminal, delinquent, felon, malefactor, offender.
A . Hero, example, pattern, model, saint, upright man. Cultivate. Till; fertilize; improve, refine, train, discipline, develop; study, pursue, investigate; nourish, foster, cherish, promote.
A . Neglect, blight, blast; uproot, eradicate, extirpate; stifle, abandon, prevent, discourage.
Cunning. Craft, artifice, deceit, intrigue, subtlety, chicane.
A . Candor, guilelessness, sincerity.
Cupidity. Longing, greed, lust; covetousness, avarice, acquisitiveness, stinginess.
A . Prodigality, liberality, generosity, extravagance. Curb. Restrain, check, control, repress, bridle.
A . Indulge, emancipate, loose, release, free, liberate.
Cure, n. Remedy, antidote, restorative, corrective, help, specific; healing, restoration, convalescence, alleviation, renovation.
A . Complaint, contagion, disease, ailment; aggravation, confirmation; inoculation.
Curiosity. Inquisitiveness, wonder, marvel, rarity, celebrity; inquiry, investigation, scrutiny, research.
A . Indifference, heedlessness, disregard, abstraction; apathy.
