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Language fundamentally defines and distinguishes us as humans, as members of society, and as individuals. As we go through life, our relationship with language and with lear ning shifts and changes, but it remains significant.This book is an up-to-date resource for graduate students and researchers in second language (L2) acquisition who are interested in language lear ning across the lifespan.The main goal is to survey and evaluate what is known about the linguistic-cognition-affect associations that occur in L2 lear ning from birth through senescence (passing through the stages of childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and third age), the extent to which L2 acquisition may be seen as contr ibuting to healthy and active aging, the impact of the development of personalized, technology-enhanced communicative L2 environments, and how these phenomena are to be approached scientifically and methodologically The effects of certain specific var iables, such as gender, socio-economic background, and bilingualism are also analyzed, as we argue that chronological age does not deter mine the positioning of L2 lear ners across the lifespan: age is part of a complex web of social distinctions such as psychological and individual factors that intersect in the construction of a lear ner’s relative status and opportunities.
Simone E. Pfenninger is Professor of English Linguistics at the Univer sity of Zur ich. Her pr incipal research areas are var iationist SLA, psycholinguistics, and multilingualism, especially in regard to quantitative approaches and statistical methods and techniques for language application in education.
Julia Festman is Professor of Multilingualism at Univer sity College of Teacher Education Tyrol in Innsbr uck. Her main research focus is on multilingualism on the individual, cognitive, and educational level. She combines psycholinguistic, neurolinguistic, and neuroscientific methods for investigating lear ning and processing of multiple languages.
David Singleton is Emer itus Fellow at Tr inity College Dublin. He ser ved as Secretar y General of AILA and as President of EUROSLA. He is a EUROSLA Distinguished Scholar and an Honorar y Member of AILA.
Second Language Acquisition Research Ser ies
Susan M. Gass and Alison Mackey, Ser ies Editor s
Kimberly L. Geeslin, Associate Editor
The Second Language Acquisition Researc h Ser ies presents and explores issues bear ing directly on theor y constr uction and/or research methods in the study of second language acquisition. Its titles (both authored and edited volumes) provide thor ough and timely over views of high-interest topics, and include key discussions of existing research findings and their implications. A special emphasis of the ser ies is ref lected in the volumes dealing with specific data collection methods or instr u ments. Each of these volumes addresses the kinds of research questions for which the method/instr ument is best suited, offer s extended descr iption of its use, and outlines the problems associated with its use. The volumes in this ser ies will be invaluable to students and scholar s alike, and perfect for use in cour ses on research methodology and in individual research.
Questionnaires in Second Language Research
Constr uction, Administration, and Processing, Third Edition
Zoltán Dör nyei and Jean-Marc Dewaele
Long itudinal Studies of Second Language Lear ning
Quantitative Methods and Outcomes
Edited by Steven J Ross and Megan C Masters
Researching Creativity in Second Language Acquisition
Ashleigh Pipes
Communicative Competence in a Second Language
Theor y, Method, and Applications
Edited by Matthew Kanwit and Megan Solon
Second Language Acquisition and Lifelong Lear ning
Simone E. Pfenninger, Julia Festman, and David Singleton
The Role of the Lear ner in Task-Based Language Teaching
Theor y and Researc h
Edited by Craig Lamber t, Scott Aubrey, and Gavin Bui
For more infor mation about this ser ies, please visit: www.routledge.com/ Second-Language-Acquisition-Research-Ser ies/book-ser ies/LEASLARS
SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND LIFELONG LEARNING
Simone E. Pfenninger, Julia Festman, and David Singleton
The r ight of Simone E. Pfenninger, Julia Festman, and David Singleton to be identified as author s of this work has been asser ted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyr ight, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All r ights reser ved. No par t of this book may be repr inted or reproduced or utilised in any for m or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any infor mation storage or retr ieval system, without per mission in wr iting from the publisher s.
Trademark notice: Product or cor porate names may be trademarks or reg istered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infr inge
ISBN: 9780367769154 (hbk)
ISBN: 9780367769130 (pbk)
ISBN: 9781003168935 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003168935
Typeset in Bembo by Deanta Global Publishing Ser vices, Chennai, India
CONTENTS
1 I nt roduct ion: Sea son s of l i fe i n SL A 1
R efe ren ces 7
2 I n f a nt a nd ch i ld hood bi l i n g u a l i sm 10
2.1 Impa c t of early exposure to two language s on brain
de velopment, fun c tioning, and str uc ture 10
2.1.1 T he many shade s of child bilingualism: Early and late
bilingual s and be yond 10
2.1.2 Age of on set of exposure to a second language linked to
ultimate attainment only – but the re is more 12
2.1.3 Age of on set of exposure to a second language linked to
infl uen ce s on the brain 14
2.2 Chronologic al age and maturation 20
2.2.1 Chronologic al age, maturation, and the brain 20
2.2.2 Child language de velopment and var iability 22
2 3 L ear ning env ironment a s a complex soc io - cultural var iable:
S etting the stage for early L 2 lear ning 24
2 4 F ro m e n v iro n m e nt t o in p ut: E a rly e x p e r ie n c e s w ith
l a n gu a ge(s) a n d fo c u s o n in p ut de p e n de n c y (qu a ntit y a n d qu a lit y) 27
2.5 Child-inte r nal fa c tors 31
2.6 Idiosyn c ratic lear ne r trajec tor ie s – f rom early on? 32
2.7 Methodologic al envoi 33
R efe ren ces 34
3 Du a l l a n g u a ge development i n school- a ge
ch i ld ren a nd adole scent s 4 6
3.1 D ual language de velopment in school s 48
3.1.1 B rain de velopment a s a ba sic challenge in
adole scen ce 48
3.1.2 D ual language lear ne rs in school s 50
3 1 3 S ome note s on the bilingual advantage 52
3 2 T he “earlie r is bette r conundr um” in school settings 52
3 2 1 Star ting age e ff ec t s a c ross diff e rent lear ning context s 53
3 2 2 Intensity trumps quantity in foreign language instruction 57
3.3 Methodologic al envoi 60
R efe ren ces 63
4 L a n g u a ge lea r n i n g i n you n g adu lt hood a nd m id l i fe 74
4.1 Young adult s 75
4.1.1 Plur ilingual couple s 75
4.1.2 O ppor tunitie s for bi-/plur ilingual love 78
4.1.3 Planning and polic y 79
4.1.4 L ove and language use: T hree c a se s 80
4.1.5 Methodologic al envoi 83
4.2 L 2 a c quisition in midlife 84
4 2 1 He r itage language s 84
4 2 2 Adult cla ssroom lear ne rs in their home countr y or region 87
4 2 3 Adult migrant foreign language a c quire rs 90
4 2 4 Methodologic al envoi 92
R efe ren ces 93
5 Complex a nd dy n a m ic rea l it ie s of L2 lea r n i n g l ater i n l i fe 98
5.1 Additional language lear ning in the third age 99
5.1.1 Inte r-indiv idual var iation a c ross the life span 102
5.1.2 Intra-indiv idual var iation a c ross the life span 106
5.1.3 Intra-indiv idual var iation a s a source of infor mation 109
5.1.4 Methodologic al envoi 112
5.2 Cognitive decline or too much mileage? T he c ausal stor y behind
aging and cognitive change s – and it s implic ation s for SL A 115
5.3 B ene fit s of L 2 lear ning in olde r adulthood 118
5.3.1 Cognitive bene fit s of lifelong bilingualism 120
5 3 2 Cognitive con sequen ce s of foreign language lear ning in
old age 123
5 3 3 Methodologic al envoi 128
5.4 Implic ation s for the third age foreign language
cla ssroom 131
5.5 ICT usage among adult L 2 lear ne rs 134
5.6 S ug ge stion s for future re search on third age additional language
lear ning 135
5.6.1 R e f raming lifelong lear ning through pe rsonal
nar rative s 137
5 6 2 Nar rative s: Unde rstanding who we are, how to live, and
what to do 138
5 6 3 T he nar rative of decline a s a dominant ma ste r nar rative
of aging in We ste r n soc ietie s 140
5.6.4 T he value of staying young 140
5.6.5 E xample of a dialogic al nar rative analysis w ith third age
additional language lear ne rs 142
R efe ren ces 147
6 Re - ex a m i n i n g t h re shold hy pot he se s: Cont i nu it y v s.
c ut- off poi nt s t h roug hout t he l i fe spa n 169
6.1 T he (multiple) c r itic al pe r iod(s) hypothe sis a s a biologic ally
regulated thre shold 171
6.1.1 T he notion of “c r itic al pe r iod” 171
6 1 2 Neurolinguist s follow ing in the foot ste ps of Penfi eld and
L ennebe rg 172
6 1 3 D e fi nitive on set, offset, and te r minus? 173
6 1 4 Nativelikene ss and the c r itic al pe r iod 175
6 1 5 Nativelikene ss and the role of language
aptitude 178
6.1.6 Cr itic al age or c r itic al oppor tunity? 179
6.1.7 Methodologial envoi 181
6.2 T hre sholds for cognitive and brain re se r ve c apa c itie s 182
6.3 R etirement a s a potentially signifi c ant life e vent alte r ing the
proce ss of cognitive aging and language a c quisition, use, and
attr ition 184
6.3.1 E ff ec t s of oc cupation on cognitive fun c tioning 185
6.3.2 E xpe r ien ce s and pe rce ption s of continuity in the
tran sition f rom work to retirement 188
6.3.3 L anguage a c quisition, use, and attr ition a c ross
retirement age 190
6 3 4 Methodologic al envoi 195
R efe ren ces 199
7 Conclu sion s a nd f ut u re d i rect ion s of re sea rch on l i felon g L2
lea r n i n g
7.1 Par tic ipating in a rhetor ic of age a s an ingredient of pe rson s, an inte r nal fa c tor, the reby de-soc ializing age 214
7.2 Antic ipating, through the statistic al parlan ce about “age e ff ec t s”, age matte r- of-fa c tly and re por ting it a s a c ause of de fi c ient behav ior 215
7 3 E stimating aging in the ag gregate 217
7 4 Unde r the notion of “age”, lumping togethe r biologic al age and star ting age 219
7.5 Attempting to identif y cut- off point s 219
7.6 R elying on convenien ce sample s 220
R efe ren ces 221
1 INTRODUCTION
Seasons of life in SLA
T here a re m a ny re a son s to be c u r iou s about t he way people le a r n ad d it ion a l
l a n g u a g e s at d i fferent st a g e s i n l i fe. For one, u nder st a nd i n g t he n at u re of l i fe
lon g l a n g u a g e le a r n i n g – a nd rel ated to t h i s, t he a g e f ac tor – i s c r uc i a l for bot h second l a n g u a g e acqu i sit ion (SL A) re se a rch a nd ped a g og y, r a i si n g i mpor t a nt
concer n s about a l l a spec t s of c u r r ic u lu m development a nd it s ad apt at ion to d i f ferent a g e s. To wh at ex tent i s “a g e” a s a con st r uc t of it sel f of releva nce i n SL A i n l ig ht of t he hu g e a nd i nc re a si n g spre ad of i nd iv idu a l abi l it ie s a nd sk i l l s a s a g e prog re s se s? Doe s t he role pl ayed by a g e i n second l a n g u a g e ( L2) acqu i sit ion wa r r a nt “a n ent i rely sepa r ate t re at ment” compa red to ot her i nd iv idu a l le a r ner d i fference s, a s R E l l i s (2 0 0 4, p 53 0) su g g e sted? How c a n we fi nd out whet her it i s ac t u a l u se of a le a r ned L2 t h at m a ke s a cont r ibut ion , whet her d i rec t or i nd i rec t , to a potent i a l bi l i n g u a l adva nt a g e (at a ny a g e)? How doe s acce s s to va r iou s re sou rce s i mpac t on succe s s a nd cont i nu at ion w it h t he ende avor of le a r n i n g a new l a n g u a g e at d i fferent st a g e s i n l i fe? How f a r a re adu lt L2 le a r ner s t he s a me reg a rd le s s of a g e a nd to wh at ex tent doe s l a n g u a g e le a r n i n g i n l ater l i fe h ave it s ow n d i sti nc tive qu a l itie s?
T h i s book a i m s to offer a comprehen sive rev iew of l a n g u a g e le a r n i n g ac ro s s t he l i fe spa n i n bot h t heor y a nd appl ic at ion We i ntend to demon st r ate t h at L2 le a r n i n g ac ro s s t he l i fe spa n i s not l i ke le a r n i n g ot her sk i l l s, but i s a u n ique ende avor t h at i s bot h con st r a i ned a nd f ac i l it ated by t he ps ycholog ic a l , soc i a l , a nd c u lt u r a l f ac tor s spec i fic to cer t a i n contex t s (e g. D ör nyei, 2 0 03, 2 0 05, 2 0 0 9; G a rd ner, 1985, 2 0 01, 2 010; Ush iod a & D ör nyei, 2 012). I n so doi n g, we t a ke a l i fe spa n approach to SL A , wh ich seek s to u nder st a nd cont i nu it ie s a nd d i scon t i nu it ie s i n g row t h a nd ch a n g e over t he whole of l i fe a nd prom i se s to m a ke a m ajor cont r ibut ion towa rd a u n i f y i n g a nd comprehen sive t heor y of SL A t h at i s
va l id ac ro s s t he l i fe spa n. I n so doi n g, we u se t he ter m “second l a n g u a g e acqu i si
t ion” to refer to a ny sit u at ion i n wh ich i nd iv idu a l s le a r n a new l a n g u a g e
T he l i fe spa n i s u su a l ly d iv ided i nto a g e r a n g e s. I n moder n soc iet ie s, a g e
i s st ron g ly rel ated to a nu m ber, t h at i s, t he nu m ber of ye a r s t h at h ave pa s sed si nce one ’ s ye a r of bi r t h. A g e i s t re ated a s a nu mer ic a l at t r ibute of a per son ,
t h at i s, a s clock- t i me a g e, completely i ndependent of t heoret ic a l con sider a
t ion s concer n i n g t he soc i a l con st r uc t ion a nd ut i l i z at ion of a g e a s a c ateg o
r i z at ion a nd ident i fic at ion dev ice ( Ru g h i n i ș & Hu m ă , 2 015). T h i s nu m ber
become s k now n to v i r t u a l ly a l l i nd iv idu a l s, i s recorded i n va r iou s med i a , a nd
i s a re sou rce for soc i a l org a n i z at ion i n field s a s d iver se a s educ at ion , he a lt h
c a re, rom a nce, sex u a l rel at ion sh ips, t r ade, spor t s, a nd m a ny ot her s. However, a s O x ford (2 018) note s, rel i a nce on ch ronolog ic a l or c a lend a r a g e i s problem
at ic i n m a ny re spec t s. A lt hou g h a g e i s u sed to de sc r ibe i nd iv idu a l s, it s n at u re
a nd i n fluence do not or ig i n ate solely w ithin t he i nd iv idu a l ; at a ny poi nt i n l i fe, t he i mpor t of a g e der ive s to a l a rg e ex tent f rom how l i fe i s soc i a l ly org a n i z ed (Gu l let te, 2 0 03). I n ot her word s, a lt hou g h ever yone ex per ience s a g i n g i n h i s/ her u n ique way, people a re a lway s “a g ed by c u lt u re” i n t he sen se t h at c u lt u r a l
a g i n g d i scou r se s del i m it ex per ience s ( Isopa h k a l a-Bou ret , 2 015). Tre at i n g a g e a s a nu mer ic a l at t r ibute of t he per son ig nore s con sider at ion s concer n i n g t he soc i a l ut i l i z at ion of a g e a s a c ateg or i z at ion a nd ident i fic at ion dev ice ( Ru g h i n i ș & Hu m ă , 2 015).
A s a con sequence, t here h a s recent ly been a “c u lt u r a l t u r n” i n g erontol og y ( Big g s, 2 0 05) i n t h at g et t i n g older i s perceived a s becom i n g i nc re a si n g ly homog eneou s i n ter m s of a g e bou nd a r ie s a s “ a g e it sel f ce a se s to d i st i n g u i sh one g roup f rom a not her” ( p. 119). T he a rg u ment t h at l i fe - cou r se c ateg or ie s a re becom i n g i nc re a si n g ly i nd i st i nc t wa s i n it i ated by Fe at her stone a nd Hepwor t h (1983, 1989, 19 91, 19 95) a nd h a s been fol lowed t h rou g h i n t he c u lt u r a l soc iol og y of Gi l le a rd a nd H ig g s (2 0 02 , 2 0 0 9, 2 010, 2 013). Moen (2 0 01), l i kew i se, c a l l s for t he con sider at ion of a lter n at ive, more flex ible l i fe pat h s. Accord i n g to Big g s (2 0 05) t he po s sibi l it y of v i r t u a l ident it ie s h a s mu lt ipl ied t he opt ion s open to older people no lon g er bou nd by soc i a l a nd biolog ic a l reference poi nt s. Big g s (2 0 05) spec u l ate s t h at t he su g g e st ion t h at g et t i n g older i s becom i n g i nc re a s i n g ly homog eneou s me a n s t h at soon t here m ay be l it t le re a son to st ud y m id d le or l ate l i fe sepa r ately f rom ot her pa r t s of t he l i fe - cou r se (wh ich i s probably t r ue for a ny l i fe st a g e). A s we w i l l show i n t h i s book , t h i s h a s i mpor t a nt i mpl ic at ion s for L2 le a r n i n g ac ro s s t he l i fe spa n , wh ich i s not on ly a st i mu l at i n g a nd complex cog n it ive sk i l l but a l so a soc i a l ly en g a g i n g a nd ecolog ic a l ly releva nt ac t iv it y At any a g e, t here i s a pronou nced deg ree of va r i abi l it y a mon g L2 le a r ner s, rel at i n g to va r i at ion i n l i fe st yle f ac tor s a nd me a su re of i nvolvement i n cog n i t ively st i mu l at i n g ac t iv it ie s (e g. en g a g ement w it h ad d it ion a l l a n g u a g e s), a nd t h i s va r i at ion h a s been show n to modu l ate cog n it ive per for m a nce A s a con se quence, ever y i nd iv idu a l le a r ner’s t r ajec tor y w i l l be id io s y nc r at ic a nd depend on t hei r pa r t ic u l a r ex per ience s w it h school i n g, work , f a m i ly a nd com mu n it y,
ac t iv it ie s, a nd more. W h at i s more, le a r ner s’ at t it ude s towa rd L2 acqu i sit ion c a n be ex pec ted to va r y con sider ably, not on ly bet ween you n g er a nd older le a r ner s but a l so ac t u a l ly among you n g er or among older i nd iv idu a l s. Re a son s for t h i s m ay stem f rom d i fference s i n employ ment st at u s, a mou nt of f ree t i me ava i l able, ch a n g e s t h at h ave occ u r red i n t he pol it ic a l sit u at ion , per son a l i ntere st s, per son a l it y t r a it s, or even soc i a l st ig m a. It i s one of t he g oa l s of t h i s book to show how “succe s s” i n ad d it ion a l l a n g u a g e le a r n i n g i s a f u nc t ion of t he qu a nt it y a nd qu a l it y of l a n g u a g e ex per ience r at her t h a n si mply a m at ter of m at u r at ion – i r re spec t ive of t he a g e of t he le a r ner. Fu r t her, t here i s not one st a nd a rd a g e at wh ich abi l it ie s ch a n g e i n a way t h at a ffec t s le a r n i n g a nd development. T he g ener a l a g e -rel ated t r ajec tor ie s i n abi l it ie s a re a f u nc t ion of reg u l a r a g i n g (a s oppo sed to memor y i mpa i r ment t h at i s a f u nc t ion of ps ychopat holog y, such a s dement i a or A l z hei mer’s d i se a se), a s we d i sc u s s i n Ch apter 5. T he c u r rent con sen su s a mon g cog n it ive sc ient i st s i s t h at t he br a i n rem a i n s pl a st ic throughout l i fe, a nd t h at t he br a i n i s mod i fied by expe r ien c e at a ny a g e (Green , 2 018; P fen n i n g er & Si n g leton , 2 019; Sch leg el et a l , 2 012). Rel ated to t h i s, Ba k (2 016) de sc r ibe s how t he po sit ive e ffec t s of mu lt i l i n g u a l i sm a re not con fi ned to ch i ld hood , but i n ste ad ex tend ac ro s s t he whole l i fe spa n.
T h at s a id , t here i s broad accept a nce of t he not ion of mu lt i-f ac tor i a l d i ffer ence s bet ween ch i ld a nd adu lt L2 acqu i sit ion , a nd l i kew i se t here a re a l so cl a i m s t h at t here a re re a son s why you n g er a nd older adu lt s shou ld be t re ated d i ffer ent ly i n t he SL A contex t. Accord i n g to L abov (2 0 01), a g e g roups reflec t “t he ch a n g i n g soc i a l rel at ion s ac ro s s spe a ker s’ l i fe h i stor ie s t h at a ffec t t hei r acqu i si t ion a nd u se of l i n g u i st ic nor m s a nd t hei r abi l it y to put t hem i nto pr ac t ice” ( p 101). He su g g e st s t h at t he l i fe st a g e s of moder n A mer ic a n soc iet y a re: a l ig n ment to t he pre - adole scent per g roup (a g e s 8 –9), mem ber sh ip i n t he pre - adole scent peer g roup (10 –12), i nvolvement i n hetero sex u a l rel at ion s a nd t he adole scent g roup (13 –16), complet ion of second a r y school i n g a nd or ient at ion to t he w ider world of work a nd /or col leg e (17–19), t he beg i n n i n g of reg u l a r employ ment a nd f a m i ly l i fe (2 0 –29), f u l l en g a g ement i n t he work force a nd f a m i ly re spon si bi l it ie s (3 0 –59), a nd ret i rement (6 0 s). T hu s, i n Ch apter s 2 –5, we ex plore le a r ner popu l at ion s at d i fferent poi nt s i n t hei r l i fe spa n , du r i n g ch i ld hood , adole scence, adu lt hood , a nd at a m at u re a g e I n Ch apter s 2 a nd 3, we d i sc u s s pol it ic a l ly sen sit ive topic s t h at per t a i n to ch i ld ren g row i n g up bi l i n g u a l , a re pa r t of a lon g c u lt u r a l t r ad it ion a nd a re of tent i me s u sed to ju st i f y a nd r at i f y dec i sion s of L2 pol ic y m a ker s: du a l l a n g u a g e development i n a n i m mer sive home set t i n g ; a nd t he “e a rl ier i s bet ter” conu nd r u m , i e. t he rel at ion sh ip bet ween t he a g e at wh ich le a r ner s le a r n a foreig n l a n g u a g e a nd t hei r u lt i m ate level of profic ienc y i n t h at l a n g u a g e. I n Ch apter s 5 a nd 6, we d i sc u s s st r uc t u r a l a nd f u nc t ion a l ch a n g e s i n t he a g i n g br a i n bet ween you n g er a nd older adu lt hood , a s wel l a s re se a rch wh ich su g g e st s t h at such ch a n g e s i n fluence cog n it ive f u nc t ion i n g a nd t he br a i n ’ s abi l it y to le a r n. L a n g u a g e le a r n i n g i n t he t h i rd a g e i s of ten f r a med i n
ter m s of “cog n it ive decl i ne ” , wh ich i s s a id to be a n i nter m i n able con sequence
of a g i n g (c f. e.g. t he Li ne a r Decl i ne Hy pot he si s a s de sc r ibed i n L enet et a l., 2 011). Cog n it ive decl i ne h a s t r ad it ion a l ly been v iewed a s a con sequence of st r uc t u r a l ch a n g e s i n i nd iv idu a l s’ br a i n s, such a s t he decl i ne of wh ite m at ter,
cor t ic a l t h i n n i n g, or t he lo s s of f u nc t ion a l br a i n con nec t iv it y ( Da moi se au x et a l , 2 0 0 8). T he se ch a n g e s t hen le ad to reduced cog n it ive c apac it ie s such a s a g ener a l ly lower work i n g memor y c apac it y ( M ackey & Sach s, 2 012), wh ich pl ace s older l a n g u a g e le a r ner s at a d i s adva nt a g e a s compa red to you n g er le a r n er s. At tenu at i n g t he development of old - a g e d i sorder s i s t herefore a m ajor cl i n i
c a l a nd soc iet a l ch a l len g e. A ny prog re s s i n ret h i n k i n g t he c au se s of cog n it ive
decl i ne i n com bi n at ion w it h t he c re at ion of novel approache s to i nter vent ion
t hu s m a ke s a sig n i fic a nt cont r ibut ion to publ ic he a lt h i n t he l ig ht of i nc re a sed
c a re co st s a s soc i ated w it h a g i n g (G a n g u l i et a l , 2 0 02; L eib son et a l , 2 015)
It i s t hu s not su r pr i si n g t h at m a ny cou nt r ie s h ave been developi n g prog r a m s
g e a red towa rd promot i n g t he he a lt h a nd wel l- bei n g of t he a g i n g popu l at ion
(e.g. For mo s a , 2 010).
A l so, t he e ffec t s of l a n g u a g e ex per ience va r i able s on cog n it ion m ay be d i f ferent at d i fferent l i fe spa n st a g e s. Li felon g u se of t wo g r a m m a r s a nd lex icon s
m ay re su lt i n l a n g u a g e s y stem s t h at a re i nter t w i ned , r at her t h a n i n compet i t ion , where a s you n g adu lt bi l i n g u a l s of si m i l a r profic ienc y level s m ay h ave
more sepa r ate l a n g u a g e s y stem s (G or a l et a l , 2 015). However, a s we w i l l d i s c u s s i n t h i s book , (1) not ever y t r a i n i n g -rel ated i nc re a se or dec re a se of f u nc t ion a l ac t ivat ion nece s s a r i ly re su lt s i n st r uc t u r a l br a i n ch a n g e s, a nd t here i s sub st a nt i a l i nter - a nd i nt r a-i nd iv idu a l va r i at ion (see Breh mer et a l , 2 014); a nd (2) it i s ver y h a rd to e st abl i sh d i rec t , c au s a l l i n k s bet ween a spec i fic t r a i n i n g a nd a cer t a i n cog n it ive out come. How do we k now whet her t h i s i s i ndeed due to SL A a nd not due to en g a g i n g i n ac t iv it y i n g ener a l? It cou ld be t h at t he e ffec t t h at i s bei n g ob ser ved for t he se t r a i n i n g cond it ion s i s i n f ac t a n e ffec t of i nc re a sed soc i a l pa r t ic ipat ion , a feel i n g of belon g i n g a nd me a n i n g, t h at i s f ac i l it ated t h rou g h l a n g u a g e le a r n i n g, but m ig ht equ a l ly be f ac i l it ated t h rou g h ot her t y pe s of me a n i n g f u l ac t iv it y. T h i s re son ate s w it h M a r i nova-Tod d et a l (2 0 0 0, p. 9), who a rg ued t h at “a g e d i fference s reflec t d i fference s i n t he sit u at ion of le a r n i n g r at her t h a n i n t he c apac it y to le a r n”. (3) Rel ated ly, Ser a fi n i (2 017 ) poi nt s out t h at adu lt s a re not “a t abu l a r a s a ” , si nce schol a r s h ave lon g a s ser ted t h at t hei r d i fferent i a l l a n g u a g e le a r n i n g succe s s m ig ht be ex pl a i ned by t he va r y i n g ex pec t at ion s, abi l it ie s, per son a l it y t r a it s, a nd at t it ude s t hey br i n g to t he l a n g u a g e le a r n i n g ende avor. A s adu lt s look back at a l i fe fi l led w it h ex per ience s a nd ch a l len g e s, t hei r i nd iv idu a l d i fference s a s wel l a s d ay- to - d ay or even w it h i n- d ay fluc t u at ion s h ave to be t a ken i nto accou nt , m a k i n g adu lt s a h ig h ly heterog eneou s g roup. Fu r t her more, older adu lt s i n g ener a l show lower cog n it ive f u nc t ion i n g a nd g a i n le s s f rom cog n it ive i nter vent ion s t h a n you n g er adu lt s, a lt hou g h “ some older adu lt s show rel at ively i nt ac t cog n it ive f u nc t ion i n g t h at i s clo ser to you n g er adu lt s’ per for m a nce t h a n to t h at of t hei r low-per for m i n g a g e -m at ched peer s” ( Breh mer et a l , 2 014, p. 798). T h i s m a ke s g ener a l
a s su mpt ion s about cog n it ive abi l it ie s i n t he t h i rd a g e h a rd to m a ke. L a n g u a g e
pl ay s a n i nt r ic ate role i n t he a g i n g proce s s; bec au se of t he i nter ac t ion s w it h
soc i a l , cog n it ive, a nd phy sic a l f ac tor s “ it i s a met hodolog ic a l ly d i ffic u lt f ac tor to ex t r ac t f rom ot her soc i a l a g i n g proce s se s” ( Pot et a l., 2 018, p. 2).
T he env i ron ment s i n wh ich people le a r n a l so va r y a s t hey prog re s s t h rou g h
t he l i fe spa n For i n st a nce, once t hey complete t he compu l sor y por t ion of t hei r educ at ion , wh at a nd how much t hey le a r n i s l a rg ely d i rec ted by t hei r ow n choice s a nd c i rc u m st a nce s. L2 le a r n i n g i n adu lt hood m ay occ u r i n con nec t ion w it h for m a l prog r a m s a i med at profe s sion a l development adu lt le a r ner s, but much adu lt le a r n i n g – whet her i n per son a l l i fe or on t he job – t a ke s pl ace i n i n for m a l t r a i n i n g env i ron ment s: for i n st a nce, i n t he le a r n i n g of a n L2 t h at t a ke s pl ace when a per son fi nd s love w it h someone f rom a cou nt r y d i fferent f rom t hei r ow n , a s d i sc u s sed i n Ch apter 4. Wit h t he i nc re a si n g u rg e i n tod ay ’ s soc iet y to t r avel a s wel l a s to en g a g e a nd com mu n ic ate w it h people f rom a l l over t he world , m a ny adu lt s fi nd t hem selve s l iv i n g i n a n i nterc u lt u r a l , bi-n at ion a l rel a t ion sh ip. W h i le it i s a rg ued t h at such a c ro s s - c u lt u r a l exch a n g e c a n offer m a ny adva nt a g e s, such a s t he sh a r i n g of t r ad it ion a l c u stom s, people i n i nterc u lt u r a l rel at ion sh ips of ten fi nd t hei r ow n c u lt u r a l u nder st a nd i n g to be ch a l len g ed , a s t hey a re con f ronted w it h t he ju g g l i n g of ident it ie s a nd t he ideolog ie s a s soc i ated w it h t hem People a l so g ener a l ly ad apt t hei r ide a s about wh at t hey wa nt to le a r n a nd do i n t he f ut u re a s t hey a g e (Ca r sten sen et a l., 2 0 03), a nd t hey tend to choo se env i ron ment s t h at a l ig n w it h t hei r e st abl i shed k nowled g e a nd sk i l l s. Spec i fic a l ly, i n mu lt i l i n g u a l i sm re se a rch, ch a n g e of l a n g u a g e preference s t h rou g hout l i fet i me a nd t hei r d i fferent i a l u se i n spec i fic contex t s (e g. f a m i ly/ f r iend s ver su s school /work) i s wel l doc u mented (de Br u i n & Del l a Sa l a , 2 016).
Si m i l a rly, a lt hou g h t he defi n i n g f ac tor of bi l i n g u a l profic ienc y for you n g adu lt bi l i n g u a l s i n i m m ig r a nt contex t s m ay be t hei r u se of t he non-m ajor it y l a n g u a g e, t he s a me i s not nece s s a r i ly t r ue of older adu lt s (A nder son et a l., 2 017 ). I n f ac t , older adu lt immigrant s who at one poi nt u sed t he m ajor it y l a n g u a g e f re quent ly i n t he work pl ace m ay ex per ience a d rop i n t hei r u se of , a nd t herefore profic ienc y i n , t h at l a n g u a g e a f ter ret i rement ( Keijz er, 2 011; Sch m id & Keijz er, 2 0 0 9). A s we d i sc u s s i n Ch apter 6, however, l i fe - cou r se t heor y ( E lder, 19 92 , 19 95, 19 98) emph a si z e s t h at ret i rement i s not a n i sol ated event , but a t r a n si t ion a nd proce s s em bed ded i n a per son’s biog r aphy of pr ior a nd c u r rent role s a nd rel at ion sh ips a s wel l a s i n st it ut ion a l i z ed log ic s sh api n g ex pec t at ion s. From t h i s it fol low s t h at e st abl i sh i n g a c au s a l e ffec t of ret i rement on cog n it ion a nd l a n g u a g e u se i s empi r ic a l ly ch a l len g i n g. W h i le t he a s soc i at ion s bet ween con t i nued employ ment a nd cog n it ive f u nc t ion i n g a re cle a rly su g g e st ive, t hey h ave to be t a ken w it h a g r a i n of s a lt , a s potent i a l ly i mpor t a nt endog eneit y i s sue s c aut ion a g a i n st a c au s a l i nter pret at ion (e g. Coe et a l , 2 012). I n ot her word s, ident i f y i n g a c au s a l e ffec t of cont i nued employ ment on cog n it ive f u nc t ion i n g requ i re s exog enou s va r i at ion i n job retent ion to r u le out potent i a l ly con fou nd i n g e ffec t s f rom cog n it ion on employ ment
O ne of ou r g oa l s i n t h i s book i s a l so to show how t he concept s of “ decl i ne ” , “ i ndependence”, “t y pe of per son”, “eter n a l yout h ” , a nd “succe s sf u l a g i n g” show up i n people’s n a r r at ive s about L2 le a r n i n g ac ro s s t he l i fe spa n. Some schol a r s h ave su g g e sted t h at “succe s sf u l a g i n g” i s a f u nc t ion of selec t i n g a g e - appropr i ate g oa l s, opt i m i z i n g ex i st i n g re sou rce s, a nd compen s at i n g for a g e -rel ated decl i ne s u si n g soc i a l or tech nolog ic a l re sou rce s ( Ba lte s & Ba lte s, 19 9 0; Heck h au sen et a l., 2 010). However, wh i le lon g - ter m ac t ive u se of t wo l a n g u a g e s may be neu roprotec t ive (e.g. A nton iou et a l., 2 013; Green , 2 018; Pa rk & Reuter - L oren z , 2 0 0 9; Rön n lu nd et a l , 2 0 05), we l ack st ud ie s of t he potent i a l neu roprotec t ive e ffec t s of t he le a r n i n g a nd u se of a n L2 l ater i n l i fe T here a re on ly a few ex i st i n g st ud ie s i nve st ig at i n g t he rel at ion sh ip bet ween SL A i n older adu lt s a nd t he e ffec t s of such L2 t r a i n i n g on cog n it ion. We d i sc u s s i n t h i s book how such re se a rch h a s to be rel at ively complex i n it s de sig n i n ter m s of s a mple si z e, nu m ber of me a su rement s per pa r t ic ipa nt , t y pe s of cont rol g roups, i nten sit y of L2 t r a i n i n g, su it abi l it y of L2 te ach i n g met hod s, t heoret ic a l a nd st at i st ic a l model for mu l at ion , a nd i nter ac t ion s bet ween t he pred ic tor s u nder i nve st ig at ion
F i n a l ly, e ach ch apter wa l k s bot h t he se a soned SL A re se a rcher a nd t he g r adu ate st udent t h rou g h be st pr ac t ice s for conduc t i n g, repor t i n g, a nd i nter pret i n g d at a g at hered u si n g va r iou s qu a l it at ive a nd qu a nt it at ive met hod s. I n pa r t ic u l a r, we d i sc u s s va r iou s d i ffic u lt ie s w it h t he n at u re of t he a g e f ac tor a s a “cont a i ner va r i able”, wh ich i s com mon nom i n at ion for a mu lt it ude of po s sible cond i t ion s, po s sibly even on sever a l concept u a l level s (e.g. t he i nd iv idu a l ’ s soc io econom ic st at u s, wh ich i nclude s, a mon g m a ny ot her a spec t s, c u lt u r a l c apit a l , fi n a nc i a l re sou rce s, educ at ion a l a nd , hence, cog n it ive d i fference s, d i fference s w it h re spec t to nut r it ion a nd he a lt h, but po s sibly even g enet ic selec t ion e ffec t s due to selec t ive m at i n g ). It i s wel l-k now n t h at t he a g e f ac tor of ten i nter ac t s w it h ex ter n a l va r i able s, t hu s c re at i n g a joi nt i mpac t on t he out come va r i able
For i n st a nce, Mu ñoz & Si n g leton (2 011) a rg ue t h at much of t he e ffec t of st a r t i n g a g e i s t he con sequence of it s co -va r y i n g rel at ion sh ip w it h non- biolog ic a l f ac tor s. Si m i l a rly, Bi rd son g (2 018) de sc r ibe s a g e of on set of L2 acqu i sit ion a s a “ prox y for t he L2 acqu i sit ion i n it i a l st ate” ( p. 2), i.e. t he su m of a n i nd iv idu a l ’ s cog n it ive, neu rolog ic a l , a nd l i n g u i st ic development , a lon g w it h mot ivat ion a l , ident i fic at ion a l , at t it ud i n a l , a nd ex per ient i a l ch a r ac ter i st ic s at t he poi nt at wh ich L2 le a r n i n g beg i n s. I n t h i s sen se, a g e of acqu i sit ion i s u nder stood not a s t he deter m i n a nt of “a g e f ac tor” but r at her a s a “met a-va r i able” ( F leg e, 19 9 9). F i n a l ly, t he a g e f ac tor of ten ac t s a s a con fou nd i n g va r i able (i e a com mon c au se of bot h X a nd Y or cor rel ated w it h e ach), wh ich, i f not cont rol led , m ay le ad to spu r iou s re su lt s i n qu a nt it at ive re se a rch. I n su m , we a rg ue i n t h i s book t h at de spite t he heig htened at tent ion to a g e i n bot h sc ient i fic d i scou r se a nd pol ic y de sig n – whet her t re at i n g a g e a s a cent r a l va r i able (i e. t he m a i n foc u s of i nter e st) or a s a soc io - demog r aph ic cont rol , i ncluded i n st at i st ic a l model s to a s si st t he st ud y of somet h i n g el se – t here h a s been a m a rked f a i lu re to at tend to t he u nder st a nd i n g of t he soc i a l proce s s of a g i n g.
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I sopa h k a l a -Bou ret , U. (2 015). Gr adu at ion at a g e 50+: C onte sted e ffor t s to con st r uc t “t h i rd a g e” ident it ie s a nd neg ot i ate c u lt u r a l a g e stereot y pe s. Jour n al of Aging S tudie s, 35, 1–9
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2
INFANT AND CHILDHOOD BILINGUALISM
In th is th i rd decade of the 21st cent u r y, it is clea r that the world ’ s cit i zen s i ncrea s i ng ly f u nct ion i n more tha n one la ng uage – a nd more a nd more i nd iv idua l s acqu i re more tha n one la ng uage f rom bi r th or i n ea rly ch i ld hood W hat is more, la ng uage sk i l l s a re essent ia l to a ch i ld ’ s abi l it y to com mu n icate a nd develop. Th is chapter’s pr i m a r y goa l is to u nder score the va r iabi l it y of the bi l i ng ua l ex per i ence i n i n f a nt s a nd you ng ch i ld ren, i n ter m s of both la ng uage ex per iences a nd la ng uage outcomes. It beg i n s w ith a d iscussion of the ava i lable i nterd iscipl i na r y ev idence on i n f a nt a nd ch i ld hood bi l i ng ua l ism to prov ide a n up -to - d ate pict u re of wh ich f actor s promote the acqu isit ion of t wo or more la ng uages i n i n f a nc y a nd ch i ld hood. We hold the v iew that i n order to u nder st a nd the i mpact of the age f actor on i n f a nt a nd ch i ld hood bi l i ng ua l ism, we need to st a r t w ith a d iscussion of the power f u l cha nges of ea rly ex posu re to t wo la ng uages on the develop ment, st r uct u re, a nd f u nct ion i ng of a newbor n ’s/i n f a nt’s bra i n. Speci fica l ly, we w i l l show how the st udy of la ng uage lea r n i ng a nd la ng uage processi ng offer s a n except iona l w i ndow i nto neu ra l pla st icit y mecha n ism s across the l i fespa n. These sect ion s w i l l a l so shed l ig ht on some of the most d i fficu lt issues i nvolved i n empi r ica l resea rch w ith you ng mu lt i l i ng ua l lea r ner s
2 .1 Impac t of early exposure to t wo languages on brain development, func tioning, and struc ture
2.1.1 The many shades of child bilingualism : Early and late bilinguals and beyond
Bet ween t he ph a se of bei n g newly bor n a nd enter i n g school , t here a re a nu m ber of a g e -rel ated ter m s to c ateg or i z e ch i ld ren: newbor n s (0 d ay s –1 mont h), i n f a nt s (1 mont h –1 ye a r), tod d ler s (1–3 ye a r s), a nd ch i ld ren ( pre schooler s w it h
3 - 6 ye a r s of a g e a nd school- a g e ch i ld ren w it h 6 –12 ye a r s of a g e). Rel ated to
bot h t he a g e at wh ich second l a n g u a g e ( L2) acqu i sit ion st a r t s a nd t he d i fferen
t i a l c i rc u m st a nce s i n wh ich t he you n g ster s acqu i re a nd le a r n l a n g u a g e(s), t here
m ay be a more nu a nced c ateg or i z at ion , but note t h at a g e of acqu i sit ion /ex po
su re to L2 i s on ly one po s sible f ac tor to con sider when look i n g at bi l i n g u a l i sm
a nd L2 le a r n i n g ; m a ny ot her va r i able s such a s profic ienc y le ad to more c ateg o
r ie s for spec i f y i n g a spec t s of bi l i n g u a l i sm (see e.g. But ler, 2 013 for over v iew).
T he not ion of e a rly bi l i n g u a l s i s u su a l ly spl it i nto t wo subc ateg or ie s. O n
t he one h a nd , t here i s t he mo st cle a r - c ut c a se of newbor n s, who st a r t w it h t he si mu lt a neou s development of t wo l a n g u a g e s f rom bi r t h; t h i s t y pe of l a n g u a g e acqu i sit ion i s com mon ly refer red to a s “e a rly si mu lt a neou s bi l i n g u a l i sm” or “ bi l i n g u a l fi r st l a n g u a g e ( L1) acqu i sit ion” ( BF L A ; see e g. de Houwer, 19 9 0; Mei sel , 1989; Swa i n , 1976). O n t he ot her h a nd , t here a re i n f a nt s a nd tod d ler s who st a r t to acqu i re t he L2 somet i me a f ter bi r t h but st i l l du r i n g e a rly ch i ld hood (for t he upper a g e l i m it t here a re va r iou s su g g e st ion s, r a n g i n g f rom r ig ht a f ter bi r t h to t he a g e of 2 ye a r s; de Houwer, 2 0 0 9), a l so k now n a s “e a rly con sec ut ive/sequent i a l /succe s sive bi l i n g u a l i sm”. I n t he l at ter c a se, L2 acqu i si t ion t a ke s pl ace when t he i n f a nt s/tod d ler s h ave a l re ad y acqu i red some of t he proper t ie s of t hei r L1 i n a n at u r a l i st ic env i ron ment , i e i n i m mer sive, i n for m a l set t i n g s at home. Con sequent ly, t hey a re l i n g u i st ic a l ly s l ig ht ly more adva nced compa red to newbor n s, who acqu i re t wo L1s f rom bi r t h.
E a rly bi l i n g u a l i sm i s com mon ly cont r a sted w it h ch i ld ren’s “ l ate bi l i n g u a l i sm ” Schu l z a nd Gr i m m (2 019) propo se t he not ion of “e a rly second l a n g u a g e acqu i sit ion” for a g e of L2 on set bet ween t he a g e s 2 a nd 4 ye a r s (c f Schu l z & Tr ac y, 2 011) so a s “to c apt u re t he f ac t t h at ch i ld ren who a re ex po sed to t he second l a n g u a g e a f ter t he a g e of 24 mont h s h ave a l re ad y developed sub st a nt i a l lex ic a l a nd g r a m m at ic a l k nowled g e i n t hei r fi r st l a n g u a g e a nd c a n not be con sidered ‘si mu lt a neou s le a r ner s’ a ny more” (Schu l z & Gr i m m , 2 019, p. 2) – note, however, t h at ot her s (e.g. Schwa r t z , 2 0 03) su g g e sted a st a r t i n g a g e for L2 ex po su re for ch i ld L2 le a r ner s bet ween t he a g e s of 3 – 4 a nd 7 ye a r s
I r re spec t ive of t he ex ac t t i me f r a me, t he a s su mpt ion i s t h at t he k nowled g e a nd wel l- developed proce s si n g rout i ne s a l low for e a rly e ffec t s of L1 t r a n sfer. I n ad d it ion , ch i ld L2 le a r ner s were fou nd to show h ig her r ate s of acqu i sit ion i n t he lex ic a l dom a i n , acc u r ac y i n ver b mor pholog y a nd u se of complex sen tence s compa red to ch i ld ren who h ad st a r ted to acqu i re t hei r L2 before t he a g e of 5 (e g. G olberg et a l , 2 0 0 8; Pa r ad i s, 2 011; Pa r ad i s et a l , 2 017 ) Schu l z a nd Gr i m m (2 019, p. 2) st ate a “g ener a l a g reement t h at t he acqu i sit ion of a second l a n g u a g e a f ter a g e seven qu a l it at ively d i ffer s f rom fi r st l a n g u a g e acqu i sit ion” (c f. Mei sel , 2 0 0 8). T h i s i s a l so more com mon ly k now n a s “sequent i a l bi l i n g u a l i sm” (see de Groot , 2 011). Mo st i mpor t a nt ly, sequent i a l bi l i n g u a l s h ave a l re ad y e st abl i shed one l a n g u a g e before le a r n i n g a not her one. T hei r cog n it ive c apac it ie s (e.g. ver ba l memor y a nd a n a ly t ic re a son i n g ) i mprove w it h a g e (see Berk , 2 015 for a recent over v iew); hence, sequent i a l L2 ch i ld ren h ave acce s s
and childhood bilingualism
to super ior cog n it ive mech a n i sm s for upt a ke of t he i nput compa red to e a rly bi l i n g u a l s T he bel ated st a r t of L2 le a r n i n g i s m a i n ly ( but not nece s s a r i ly) l i n ked to
le a r n i n g a n L2 i n i n st it ut ion a l i z ed , more for m a l set t i n g s (e.g. i n k i nderg a r ten , i n ot her for m s of d ay c a re or i n pre school). Note t h at t he st a r t of i n st it ut ion a l i z ed le a r n i n g, i nclud i n g l a n g u a g e u se a nd ex po su re i n t h i s new contex t , i s
dependent on n at ion a l educ at ion a l pol ic y a nd d i ffer s ac ro s s c u lt u re s; for ch i l d ren w it h a fi r st l a n g u a g e d i fferent f rom t he m ajor it y l a n g u a g e, st a r t of l a n g u a g e ex po su re to a n ad d it ion a l l a n g u a g e (t hei r L2) of ten coi nc ide s w it h t hei r at tend a nce of d ay c a re
2.1. 2 Age of onset of e xposure to a second language linked to ultimate attainment only – but there is more
A g e of on set of L2 ex po su re h a s lon g been con sidered t he mo st dec i sive f ac tor for succe s s i n l a n g u a g e le a r n i n g (c f. L en neberg, 1967; Pen field & Rober t s, 1959; see Hu, 2 016 for a rev iew), ba sed on t he a s su mpt ion t h at t here i s a cle a rc ut c r it ic a l per iod du r i n g wh ich a you n g ch i ld c a n autom at ic a l ly acqu i re a
l a n g u a g e w it h e a se a nd at t a i n “n at ive” l a n g u a g e profic ienc y, where a s once t h i s w i ndow clo se s (a st a g e of ten l i n ked to puber t y), l a n g u a g e le a r n i n g succe s s i s con st r a i ned , a nd “n at ive” l a n g u a g e profic ienc y c a n no lon g er be ach ieved (see
Ch apter 5 for a n i n- dept h d i sc u s sion of t he c r it ic a l per iod hy pot he si s; CPH; c f
P fen n i n g er & Si n g leton , 2 02 2). O n t he one h a nd , t h i s a s su mpt ion of e ffor t le s s
L1 acqu i sit ion h a s been ex tended to t he acqu i sit ion of t wo l a n g u a g e s i n pa r a l lel , wh i le e ffor t f u l le a r n i n g h a s been l i n ked to l ater le a r n i n g (e g. Mei sel , 2 011). O n
t he ot her h a nd , it h a s been spec u l ated t h at le a r n i n g a n L2 at a n older a nd more
m at u re a g e cou ld m a ke t he proce s s e a sier, a s t he i nd iv idu a l i s a l re ad y f a m i l i a r
w it h t he le a r n i n g of a l a n g u a g e it sel f , h av i n g acqu i red a n L1 a l re ad y. L a n g u a g e
acqu i sit ion ex per ience s cou ld help a nd f ac i l it ate L2 le a r n i n g, a nd s l ig ht ly older le a r ner s cou ld profit f rom ex tended , more m at u re cog n it ive abi l it ie s.
These cont rad ict i ng v iews led to a quest for d i fferences bet ween ea rly a nd late bi l i ng ua l s. O ver the yea r s, th is quest ion of the i mpact of a ge of on set on la ng ua ge m a ster y ha s encou ra ged resea rch to a g reat ex tent a nd led to “cla ssic” cross- sec t iona l t wo -g roup compa r ison s of ea rly vs. late bi l i ng ua l s. Hence, a ge of on set of acqu isit ion (AoA) ha s f requent ly been used a s a n i ndependent va r iable to defi ne the t wo g roups a nd to deter m i ne the d i fferent ia l outcome of la ng ua ge m a ster y of the t wo cont ra sted g roups. However, there is d isa g reement a s to at what age a la n g ua ge lea r ner wou ld be categor i zed a s “ late” – there is a ra nge bet ween the AoA of 3 or 6 yea r s or puber t y, a nd ou r d iscussion i n Sect ion 2 1 1 above ha s show n that subg roups have been sug gested w ith i n the ea rly a s wel l a s the late g roup.
I n it i a l compa r i son s of pre - a nd po st-puber t y L2 le a r ner s h ave sh i f ted to g roup -w i se cont r a st s bet ween e a rly ( bi r t h to 3 ye a r s) a nd l ate (a g e s 3 or 6 a nd older) bi l i n g u a l s. To g ive ju st one recent ex a mple of t he on g oi n g u ncer t a i nt y
reg a rd i n g t he t i me f r a me, a recent st ud y by H a r t shor ne et a l. (2 018; see a l so
Chen & H a r t shor ne, 2 021) h a s su g g e sted a c ut- off (i e. t he end of a c r it ic a l per iod) a rou nd 17 ye a r s of a g e for t he mo st e ffec t ive acqu i sit ion of L2 g r a m m a r, r a n g i n g bet ween l ate ch i ld hood to l ate adole scence ( but see Her n a ndez et a l., 2 021 for c r uc i a l c r it ic a l rem a rk s)
A not her poi nt of c r it ic i sm i s t h at some CPH ch i ld - st ud ie s i nve st ig ated wh at t hey deemed “u lt i m ate at t a i n ment”, a lt hou g h t hei r pa r t ic ipa nt s (e.g. ch i ld ren i n k i nderg a r ten) m ig ht ac t u a l ly st i l l h ave been le a r ner s a nd not h ave yet re ached t hei r u lt i m ate at t a i n ment – a nd one m ig ht wonder i f t here i s such a t h i n g a s u lt i m ate at t a i n ment i n t he m i nd set of a l i felon g le a r ner O t her re se a rch er s foc u sed on t he rate of L2 acqu i sit ion , u si n g beh av ior a l te st i n g of on ly one spec i fic l a n g u a g e dom a i n (e g. phonolog y or g r a m m a r or lex ic a l development ; see Ku h l , 2 010 for a shor t su m m a r y), a lt hou g h le a r n i n g r ate s (a) a re k now n to d i ffer ac ro s s l i n g u i st ic sub - dom a i n s (c f. But ler, 2 013 for over v iew; Si n g leton & L e ś n iew sk a , 2 021; Snow & Hoef n a g el- Höh le, 1978; Za f a r & Meen a k sh i, 2 012; see Sec t ion s 2 4 a nd 2 5 on le a r n i n g env i ron ment s a nd on ch i ld -i nter n a l f ac tor s), a nd ( b) depend on l a n g u a g e -level proper t ie s w it h f ac tor s i nclud i n g f re quenc y, d i st r ibut ion , a nd complex it y (e.g. f requent ly occ u r r i n g reg u l a r mor pholog ic a l st r uc t u re s a re f a ster acqu i red t h a n i r reg u l a r, i n f requent one s, see e g. Ya n g, 2 018) Fu r t her more, t he poi nt of compa r i son of L2 l a n g u a g e le a r n i n g succe s s wa s u su a l ly t he monol i n g u a l “n at ive - spe a ker profic ienc y” (for a c r it ic a l
rev iew, see A nd r i n g a , 2 014; DeLuc a et a l., 2 019a ; Mu ñoz & Si n g leton , 2 011; Si n g leton & L e ś n iew sk a , 2 021), wh ich i nclude s t he a s su mpt ion s t h at a l l “ n at ive spe a ker s” a re monol i n g u a l a nd t h at t hey m a ster t hei r l a n g u a g e per fec t ly de spite t he nowad ay s “a mply doc u mented i nd iv idu a l va r i at ion i n l a n g u a g e compe tence, bot h i n adu lt n at ive spe a ker s, a nd ac ro s s l a n g u a g e development” a s wel l a s i n a l l ch i ld ren at a g iven a g e ( Vu lch a nova et a l , 2 02 2 , p. 1)
AoA i s a l so of ten con fou nded w it h t he soc io - c u lt u r a l contex t i n wh ich acqu i sit ion or le a r n i n g t a ke pl ace:
Spec i fic a l ly, e a rl ier ex po su re to t he L2 m ay a l low t he you n g er le a r ner to be ex po sed to t he g re ater va r iet y of for m a l a nd i n for m a l cont ac t sou rce s w it h i n bot h profe s sion a l a nd per son a l dom a i n s w it h g re ater f requenc y a nd con si stenc y of per son a l cont ac t. T h i s re su lt s i n more pr ac t ice oppor t u n it ie s a nd i nc re a sed fluenc y a nd profic ienc y i n t he L2 ( E lise, 2022, pp. 2 –3)
T h i s cou ld a l so be t r ue for adu lt L2 le a r ner s who h ave st ron g ly en g a g ed i n a clo se, a ffec t ive, i nten se rel at ion sh ip w it h a per son who se L2 s/ he i s le a r n i n g (for a n i n- dept h d i sc u s sion of love t r ig g er i n g L2 le a r n i n g, see Ch apter 3), ch a r ac ter i z ed by a mu lt it ude of oppor t u n it ie s for ver ba l i nter ac t ion. A nd , a s we d i s c u s s i n Ch apter 3, “t he way s i n wh ich t he educ at ion a l s y stem s a re i nt roduc i n g second l a n g u a g e educ at ion need to be recon sidered ” (A z ieb, 2 021, p. 2 0). T h i s
i s even more i mpor t a nt a s t he pa r t ic ipa nt s of m a ny e a rl ier st ud ie s were mo st of ten f rom L2 popu l at ion s “not ex po sed to t he t a rg et l a n g u a g e i n a way si m i l a r to ch i ld L1 acqu i rer s (e g. adu lt s tend to be cl a s sroom le a r ner s a nd ch i ld ren tend to be n at u r a l i st ic le a r ner s)” ( DeLuc a et a l., 2 019a , pp. 170 –171).
In sum, the way of th in k ing about early vs. later acqu isit ion is quest ionable when l i m ited to age effect s on ly. Rather there are a number of factor s, nota bly lear ner s’ ind iv idua l d i fferences (e.g. lang uage apt it ude, lear n ing mot ivat ion, per sona l it y, gender, socio-econom ic stat us, lear n ing h istor y etc.), wh ich need to be considered a s they have been found to g reat ly in fluence the lear n ing pro cess and success and to modu late age effect s. Before consider ing these factor s in more deta i l, it seem s ind ispensable to have a closer look at what bra in research ha s found out about the age var iable being one of the prom inent categor ies for g roup compar isons. More i mpor tant ly, hav ing been ex posed to t wo lang uages in para l lel f rom early on compared to later lear n ing of a second lang uage t r igger s changes in bra in st r uct ure, development and f unct ion ing in newbor ns and in fant s, and numerous st ud ies ba sed on bra in i mag ing and bra in mapping have prov ided sol id ev idence for th is. Therefore, th is ex plorat ion of the changes of the bra in is intended to prov ide the ba sis for a bet ter under stand ing of why late bi l ing ua ls may have less opt i ma l star t ing cond it ions, and an ex planat ion of why sat isfactor y u lt i mate at ta in ment is nonetheless possible; the path may si mply be d i fferent
2.1.3 Age of onset of e xposure to a second language linked to influences on the brain
T h i s sec t ion i l lu st r ate s t he re su lt s of st ud ie s u nder t a ken i n t he que st for a g erel ated i n fluence s on t he br a i n. To a nt ic ipate t he m a i n re su lt , rou g h ly t he s a me key st r uc t u re s a re com mon ly rec r u ited i n t he br a i n by e a rly a nd l ate bi l i n g u a l s for l a n g u a g e proce s si n g ; t here a re on ly fi ne - g r a i ned d i fference s i n ter m s of f u nc t ion a l ac t iv it y, con nec t iv it y, a nd st r uc t u r a l ch a r ac ter i st ic s of t he se l a n g u a g e a re a s. T hu s, i n for m at ion about e a rly l a n g u a g e ex per ience of si mu lt a neou s bi l i n g u a l s set s t he st a g e for ou r u nder st a nd i n g how t wo l a n g u a g e s c a n be m a s tered i n t he s a me br a i n sub st r ate s, how t hey a re sc u lpted a nd i ntercon nec ted
L et u s beg i n by look i n g i nto re su lt s f rom st ud ie s of pat holog ie s, a s t hey
h ave c r uc i a l ly f u r t hered ou r u nder st a nd i n g of t he br a i n. Po st-mor tem ex a m i n at ion s of pat ient s’ br a i n s were u sed to ch a l len g e t he for merly held v iew t h at t he br a i n a lway s ac t s a s a whole. Pau l Broc a wa s t he fi r st to prov ide ev idence of a re a- spec i fic it y by loc a l i z i n g t he repre sent at ion of l a n g u a g e(s) i n t he br a i n i n 1861 T here h ave si nce been f u r t her fi nd i n g s about bi l i n g u a l aph a sic pat ient s’ lo s s of on ly one of t hei r l a n g u a g e s or d i fferent i a l recover y pat ter n s a s wel l a s cor t ic a l st i mu l at ion st ud ie s reve a l i n g d i st i nc t l a n g u a g e - spec i fic a re a s (for a rev iew, see e.g. Fabbro, 2 013; Giu s s a n i et a l., 2 0 07; Luc a s et a l., 2 0 0 4; Pa r ad i s, 1977; Po łcz y ńsk a & Book hei mer, 2 02 0). T h i s l i ne of re se a rch h a s i n fluenced
l i n g u i st ic t heor i z i n g i n re spec t of L2 acqu i sit ion a nd le a r n i n g a nd cont r ibuted
Infant and childhood bilingualism 15
to sh api n g ide a s about t he repre sent at ion a nd proce s si n g of l a n g u a g e(s) i n t he
br a i n. T he v iew of br a i n a re a s bei n g d i fferent i a l for e a rly v s. l ate l a n g u a g e pro
ce s si n g po st u l ated by U l l m a n su g g e sted t h at t he le a r n i n g of a n L2 , i n pa r t ic u l a r
t he g r a m m a r, wou ld not depend on t he s a me br a i n mech a n i sm s a s a re re spon sible for acqu i r i n g a nd proce s si n g t he L1 (c a l led t he D i fferent i a l Hy pot he si s by U l l m a n , 2 0 01). T h i s h a s led to t he a s su mpt ion t h at wh i le l a n g u a g e s a re repre sented i n prec i sely t he s a me a re a of t he br a i n i n t he c a se of e a rly, si mu l t a neou s acqu i sit ion , t h at t here a re spat i a l ly sepa r ated cor t ic a l a re a s accord i n g to l a n g u a g e (i e. l a n g u a g e - spec i fic reg ion s i n Broc a ’ s a re a) i f a second l a n g u a g e i s le a r ned l ater ( K i m et a l , 19 97 ) Po łcz y ńsk a a nd Book hei mer (2 02 0, p. 10) conclude f rom t hei r met a- a n a ly si s on si n g le - subjec t st ud ie s ba sed on lex ico sem a nt ic t a sk s w it h neu ro su rg ic a l bi l i n g u a l pat ient s: “I n su m , t he rev iewed st ud ie s su g g e st t h at t he a g e of acqu i sit ion of L2 seem s to be a robu st va r i able a ffec t i n g t he a mou nt of overl ap bet ween L1 a nd L2”. T hey a rg ue t h at t he sec ond l a n g u a g e acqu i red e a rly i s more l i kely to neu roa n atom ic a l ly overl ap w it h L1, wh i le a n L2 le a r ned l ate i s more l i kely to be org a n i z ed sepa r ately f rom t he L1 (i n concord w it h fi nd i n g s for mu lt i l i n g u a l pat ient s i n Fer n a ndez - Coel lo et a l., 2 017 ). However, a lt hou g h pat ient st ud ie s a re i n for m at ive, t hey m ig ht not nece s s a r i ly a l low for g ener a l i z at ion to t he he a lt hy popu l at ion of bi- a nd mu lt i l i n g u a l s; moreover, pat ient br a i n m appi n g re su lt s do not nece s s a r i ly con verg e w it h br a i n i m a g i n g re su lt s (for a n i n- dept h d i sc u s sion of t he d i fferent i a l re su lt s, see M a r t í n-Fer n á ndez et a l., 2 02 2). I mpor t a nt ly, by put t i n g weig ht on t he i mpor t a nce of t he a g e f ac tor, t hey ad d :
t here a re l i kely more f ac tor s t h at cont r ibute to t he deg ree to wh ich t wo l a n g u a g e s overl ap i n t he br a i n , i nclud i n g t he a mou nt of ex po su re to L1 a nd L2 , whet her l a n g u a g e s a re acqu i red for m a l ly or i n for m a l ly or whet her t he l a n g u a g e s a re or a l or sig ned . I n f ac t , pr ior neu roi m a g i n g st ud ie s on he a lt hy bi l i n g u a l s h ave show n t h at e ach of t he se f ac tor s c a n a ffec t t he ex tent to wh ich l a n g u a g e s co -loc a l i z e
( Po ł czy ń sk a & B ookhe ime r, 2020, p. 15)
I ndeed , fi ne - g r a i ned a nd tech n ic a l ly s av v y i nve st ig at ion s of br a i n f u nc t ion i n g h ave led to f u r t her adva nce s i n ou r u nder st a nd i n g of t he br a i n , it s pl a st ic it y, a nd t he revel at ion of sever a l ad d it ion a l f ac tor s i n fluenc i n g t he br a i n m appi n g spec i fic it ie s for l a n g u a g e s a nd , i n pa r t ic u l a r, t he deg ree of overl ap bet ween L1 a nd L2 . Spec i fic a l ly, f u nc t ion a l m a g net ic re son a nce i m a g i n g (f M R I ) h a s become a popu l a r met hod to show how t he br a i n work s. T h i s non-i nva sive tech n ique i m a g e s met abol ic f u nc t ion s a nd i s t herefore u sed to reve a l proce s se s i n t he br a i n , e.g. when a pa r t ic ipa nt i s exec ut i n g a l a n g u a g e - t a sk such a s n a m i n g a pic t u re, i.e. reg ion a l ch a n g e s i n blood ox yg en at ion a re mon itored wh ich re su lt f rom neu r a l ac t iv it y. By cont r a st , M R I show s a n atom ic a l st r uc t u re s a nd pat hway s i n t he br a i n , i e. it reve a l s how t he br a i n i s st r uc t u red
Infant and childhood bilingualism
Tod ay, t he m a i n v iew i n t he field of br a i n i m a g i n g for he a lt hy bi l i n g u a l s
hold s t h at br a i n ac t ivat ion overl aps to a l a rg e deg ree for mono - a nd bi l i n g u a l s
a s wel l a s for e a rly a nd l ate bi l i n g u a l s ( Ba n ich & Compton , 2 018; Pa r ad i s, 2 0 0 4). I n Ba n ich a nd Compton’s (2 018, p. 241) word s, “t here i s no ev idence
t h at r ad ic a l ly d i fferent br a i n reg ion s a re u sed for L2 t h a n for L1”, not even for L2 acqu i sit ion a l proce s se s ( Per a n i & A but a lebi, 2 0 05). Q u ite to t he cont r a r y, a
recent met a- a n a ly si s poi nt s to a “sh a red neu r a l net work for L1 a nd L2 w it h few d i fference s depend i n g on t he l i n g u i st ic level ” (Su lpi z io et a l., 2 02 0 b, p. 83 4)
a nd “a lter at ion s i n reg ion a l br a i n ac t ivat ion r at her t h a n i n t he loc a l i z at ion of i nvolved l a n g u a g e a re a s” ( Berken et a l , 2 016, p. 4)
W h i le AoA h a s for me r l y b e e n con s id e r e d t he ke y f a c t or for l a n g u a g e r e p
r e s e nt a t ion i n t he br a i n , b a s e d on cont r a s t s b e t we e n e a r l y a nd l a t e bi l i n g u a l s
s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t he d e g r e e of ove r l a p of br a i n r e g ion s i s h i g he r for l a n g u a g e
r e pr e s e nt a t ion whe n L 2 i s a cq u i r e d e a r l y r a t he r t h a n l a t e r (e.g. S a k a i e t a l .,
2 0 0 9), t o d ay t he r e i s a m ple e v id e nce t h a t i n flue nt i a l f a c t or s wh ich c a n mo d u
l a t e r e pr e s e nt a t ion a l d e t a i l s a r e mor e nu me r ou s a nd t h a t t he s it u a t ion i s mor e
com ple x A mon g t he s e f a c t or s a r e l a n g u a g e pr o fic ie nc y, a mou nt of e x p o s u r e
t o t he l a n g u a g e s a s wel l a s a mou nt /t y p e of l a n g u a g e u s e a nd s p e a ke r e nv i r on
me nt a s t he mo s t f r e q ue nt l y i nc lud e d v a r i a ble s i n c u r r e nt i m a g i n g s t ud ie s (for
r e v ie w, s e e A but a le bi e t a l , 2 0 01; Del M a s ch io & A but a le bi , 2 019; DeL uc a e t a l ., 2 0 2 0; Pe r a n i & A but a le bi , 2 0 0 5). For e x a m ple, Su l pi z io e t a l . (2 0 2 0) h ave su g g e st e d t h at
a g e of L2 on set m ay spec i fic a l ly cont r ibute to br a i n f u nc t ion i r re spec t ive of t he h ig h profic ienc y level at t a i ned (see Berken , Gr acco, & K lei n , 2 017; Liu & Cao, 2 016), i nd iv idu a l va r i abi l it y i n l a n g u a g e le a r n i n g apt it ude a nd development of lex ico - sem a nt ic f u nc t ion s bei n g g r a nted (see Gr a nt & Li, 2 015)
I n st a rk cont r a st , M a r t í n-Fer n á ndez et a l. (2 02 2 , p. 559) fol low A but a lebi et a l. (2 0 01) when conclud i n g i n t hei r recent rev iew about t he neu r a l ba se s of mu l
t i l i n g u a l l a n g u a g e proce s si n g t h at “t he ava i l able ev idence show s t h at , a lt hou g h m a ny f ac tor s c a n a ffec t t he mu lt i l i n g u a l l a n g u a g e s y stem , t he deg ree of profi c ienc y seem s to be more i mpor t a nt t h a n a g e of L2 acqu i sit ion”.
To g ive ju st one ex a mple to st ren g t hen t h i s poi nt: for t wo g roups of h ig h ly profic ient bi l i n g u a l s (i e. bi l i n g u a l s f rom bi r t h v s. L2 acqu i sit ion bet ween t he a g e s of 3 a nd 6 ye a r s, a nd bot h g roups h av i n g h ig h ex po su re to bot h l a n g u a g e s, It a l i a n a nd Fr i au l i a n), Con son n i et a l. (2 013) fou nd t h at when profic ienc y a nd ex po su re a re kept h ig h, a complete overl ap cou ld be fou nd for comprehen sion of bot h l a n g u a g e s; for nou n a nd ver b produc t ion t he rec r u it ment of t he s a me neu r a l net work s for L1 a nd L2 wa s ob ser ved , i ndependent ly of AoA . T h i s pro v ide s suppor t for t he Neu r a l Converg ence Hy pot he si s (Green , 2 0 03) wh ich su g g e st s t h at qu a l it at ive d i fference s bet ween L1 a nd L2 spe a ker s d i s appe a r w it h
i nc re a si n g L2 profic ienc y: “L2 w i l l receive converg ent neu r a l repre sent at ion w it h i n t he repre sent at ion of t he l a n g u a g e le a r ned a s L1” ( Per a n i & A but a lebi, 2 0 05, p. 2 0 4)
W h at i s more, L2 le a r n i n g seem i n g ly i n fluence s t he a n atomy of t he br a i n (see Li et a l , 2 014 for a rev iew). W hen a complex sk i l l i s acqu i red a nd t hen
u sed , t he br a i n re ac t s to t he se i nc re a sed dem a nd s by re st r uc t u r i n g t he re spec
t ive a re a i n order to cope w it h t h i s sit u at ion. I nter n a l re st r uc t u r i n g i s done
v i a st r uc t u r a l ch a n g e s of g rey m at ter. St ud ie s com mon ly repor t on ch a n g e s i n
g rey-m at ter den sit y or cor t ic a l t h ick ne s s. St r uc t u r a l ch a n g e s i nvolved i n l a n
g u a g e proce s si n g (e g. i n t he lef t i n fer ior f ront a l cor tex a nd lef t i n fer ior pa r iet a l cor tex) were reflec ted i n ch a n g ed g rey-m at ter den sit y (see t he sem i n a l st ud y by Mechel l i et a l , 2 0 0 4) when a l a n g u a g e wa s le a r ned l ater i n l i fe, a lt hou g h
t he d i fference s a l so cor rel ated w it h level of profic ienc y. Re su lt s f rom a recent
lon g it ud i n a l voxel- ba sed mor phomet r y st ud y ( Liu et a l., 2 021) su g g e st a g re ater dec re a se of g rey-m at ter volu me (i n lef t a g ene si s of t he cor pu s c a l lo su m) for t ho se pa r t ic ipa nt s who h ad st a r ted to le a r n t hei r L2 at a n e a rly a g e, wh ich i s con si stent w it h t he fi nd i n g s i n Mechel l i et a l. (2 0 0 4)
I nc re a sed l a n g u a g e proce s si n g dem a nd s a s a f u nc t ion of L2 le a r n i n g a l so le ave s t hei r i mpr i nt s on wh ite -m at ter d i fference s bet ween l a n g u a g e -rel ated br a i n a re a s. P roce s si n g of sever a l l a n g u a g e s requ i re s effic ient com mu n ic at ion bet ween l a n g u a g e a nd l a n g u a g e cont rol a re a s, wh ich a re spre ad ac ro s s t he br a i n. Ch a n g e s i n wh ite -m at ter i nteg r it y a re one rel i able way to i nd ic ate t h at , reflec t i n g i nc re a sed myel i n at ion of t he con nec t i n g t r ac t s. I nc re a sed i nteg r it y of wh ite m at ter h a s been fou nd for bot h e a rly, l i felon g bi l i n g u a l s ( Lu k et a l , 2 011) a nd sequent i a l , h ig h ly i m mer sed bi l i n g u a l s (w it h L2 - acqu i sit ion du r i n g school- a g e; Pl i at si k a s et a l , 2 015), compa red to monol i n g u a l s. I f bot h AoA a nd profic ienc y a re i ncluded a s f ac tor s i n a com bi ned f M R I- DT I st ud y, t hey bot h i ndependent ly ex pl a i n neu r a l d i fference s i n L2 a nd reve a l t h at “ bot h f u nc t ion a l ac t iv it y a nd wh ite -m at ter i nteg r it y pl ay a role i n L2 le a r n i n g […] a nd t h at u lt i m ate succe s s i n L2 le a r n i n g h i n g e s bot h on a g e - dependent a nd a g ei ndependent f ac tor s” ( Nichol s & Joa n i s se, 2 016, p. 24).
T he D y n a m ic Re st r uc t u r i n g Model ( DR M) put for wa rd by Pl i at si k a s (2 02 0) su g g e st s t h at L2 le a r n i n g fi r st t r ig g er s a nu m ber of neu r a l ch a n g e s: fi r st i n cor t ic a l , t hen i n subcor t ic a l st r uc t u re s a nd fi n a l ly i n wh ite -m at ter t r ac t s
Cor t ic a l t h ick ne s s (i n pa r t l i n ked to t he nu m ber of s y n apse s) h a s been fou nd to depend on AoA , a nd i nc re a sed cor t ic a l t h ick ne s s h a s been su g g e sted to be rel ated to h ig her level s of sk i l l development a nd ex per ience (e g. Wei et a l , 2 011). To g ive a n ex a mple, ch i ld ren w it h h ig her i ntel l ig ence showed a g re ater r ate of cor t ic a l t h icken i n g when you n g, but f a ster cor t ic a l t h i n n i n g l ater i n t hei r development , su g g e st i n g a cor rel at ion bet ween h ig her i ntel l ig ence a nd f a ster
r ate s of ch a n g e i n s y n apt ic prol i fer at ion a nd pr u n i n g (c f Ba n ich & Compton , 2 018; see Sec t ion 2 . 2 .1 for a more det a i led d i sc u s sion of pr u n i n g ). Ev idence i n suppor t of t he DR M model i s acc u mu l at i n g, a nd more recent st ud ie s (e g.
Infant and childhood bilingualism
Pl i at si k a s et a l., 2 02 0 w it h a g e s 3 –21) repor t a g e -rel ated ch a n g e s: e a rly bi l i n
g u a l s h ad t h i n ner cor tex t h a n monol i n g u a l s (m a i n ly i n f ront a l a nd pa r iet a l a re a s) when you n g, wh i le i n adole scence a nd adu lt hood , t hey h ad a t h icker cor tex t h a n monol i n g u a l s (see a l so Cl au s sen iu s - K a l m a n et a l., 2 02 0, for a recent st ud y compa r i n g e a rly a nd l ate bi l i n g u a l s on g r ay-m at ter den sit y, volu me, a nd t h ick ne s s w it h a l a rg e s a mple of adu lt s). Li n k i n g AoA to L2 sk i l l s, sequent i a l
bi l i n g u a l s (6 –13 ye a r s old) h ad a t h icker cor tex i n lef t-hem i sphere l a n g u a g erel ated a re a s (A rch i l a- Suer te et a l., 2 018) when L2 En g l i sh sk i l l s were h ig h. I n
t he s a me vei n , Vau g h n et a l. (2 021) fou nd a t h i n ner cor tex for bi l i n g u a l s t h a n for monol i n g u a l s a s wel l a s g re ater f ront a l a nd pa r iet a l cor t ic a l t h ick ne s s when
L2 u se wa s h ig h a nd g re ater f ront a l a nd tempor a l cor t ic a l t h ick ne s s w it h g re ater
L2 voc abu l a r y
I n ad d it ion to con nec t iv it y w it h i n t he l a n g u a g e net work a nd t ho se a re a s i nvolved i n l a n g u a g e cont rol , a g e -rel ated f un c tion al d i fference s h ave been repor ted :
Con nec t iv it y a n a ly se s reve a l t he wh ite m at ter t r ac t s for med by bu nd le s of fiber con nec t ion s, c a l led by neu ro sc ient i st s “ i n for m at ion h ig hway s” i n t he br a i n. Con nec t iv it y a n a ly se s c a n be i n for m at ive w it h re spec t bot h to how a ch i ld i s ach iev i n g a pa r t ic u l a r level of beh av ior a l per for m a nce, a nd w it h re spec t to wh ich development a l pat hway s were i mpor t a nt i n at t a i n i n g t h at pa r t ic u l a r level of per for m a nce.
(G oswami, 20 08, p. 384)
Br a i n re se a rch i s adva nc i n g qu ick ly a nd h a s reve a led neon at a l wh ite -m at ter m ic ro st r uc t u re va r i abi l it y to be rel ated to l ater l a n g u a g e a nd cog n it ive devel opment (see e.g. Gi r au lt et a l., 2 019; Sket et a l., 2 019).
F u nc t ion a l con nec t iv it y h a s been i nve st i g at ed u s i n g re st i n g - st at e f M R I to det er m i ne e ffec t s of l a n g u a g e ex per ience s such a s AoA w it hout t a sk-rel at ed br a i n ac t iv it y (see B erken et a l., 2 016 for a rev iew). Re su lt s showed g re at er con nec t iv it y (a) bet ween lef t a nd r i g ht I FG, ( b) bet ween I FG a nd l a n g u a g econt rol- a re a s i n s i mu lt a neou s compa red to sequent i a l bi l i n g u a l s , a nd (c) a more d i st r ibut ed net work bet ween br a i n -l a n g u a g e - a re a s t he e a r l ier t he L2 i s acqu i red . I n su m , t h i s i nd ic at e s g re at er neu r a l e ffic ienc y bei n g neg at ivel y cor rel at ed w it h a g e of L2 acqu i s it ion , i e. t here i s i nc re a sed e ffic ienc y for e a r l y bi l i n g u a l s (c f DeLuc a et a l , 2 019b) B erken et a l (2 016) d r aw t he conclu s ion t h at t he development a l t i mel i ne i n fluence s L2 acqu i s it ion i n t h at it det er m i ne s whet her t he bi l i n g u a l- to - be h a s a more opt i m i z ed mech a n i sm (i n c a se of e a r l y s i mu lt a neou s l a n g u a g e acqu i s it ion) to ach ieve L2 profic ienc y (i n t he c a se of sequent i a l le a r n i n g ), a conclu s ion suppor t ed by t he fi nd i n g s of Kou s a ie et a l. (2 017 ). However, a s repor t ed i n l a n g u a g e i nve st i g at ion s w it h neu roi m a g i n g t ech n ique s , it h a s been ob ser ved t h at t he br a i n ad apt s to new bi l i n g u a l ex per ience s (i n t he c a se of l at er L2 le a r n i n g ) to suppor t l a n g u a g e profic ienc y
Infant and childhood bilingualism 19
(Green & A but a lebi, 2 013; Stocco et a l., 2 014). T hu s , it m ay be l i kel y t h at for
l a n g u a g e proce s s i n g, l at er bi l i n g u a l s do not ac t ivat e t he neu r a l net work s a s e ffic ient l y a s e a r l y bi l i n g u a l s or t h at l a n g u a g e proce s s i n g depend s on d i fferent i nt ercon nec t ion s , i.e. d i fferent development a l pat hway s , wh i le beh av ior a l per for m a nce me a su re s a re u n a ffec t ed (for a n ex a mple see Sh ay w it z & Sh ay w it z , 2 0 05). Not e t h at sk i l l t heor y ( F i scher et a l , 2 0 07 ) i ncor por at e s t he a s su mp t ion t h at profic ienc y c a n be re ached t h rou g h mu lt iple development a l pat hway s ( H i nton et a l., 2 0 0 8 , p. 8 8). T h i s bei n g s a id , “t he br a i n rem a i n s much more m a l le able t h rou g hout t he l i fe spa n t h a n prev iou s l y cl a i med , me a n i n g t here i s no sh a r p decl i ne i n neu rolog ic a l pl a st ic it y c u l m i n at i n g a rou nd puber t y i n g ener a l (see F uch s & F l ü g g e, 2 014) a nd cer t a i n l y not a s rel at ed to l a n g u a g e”
( DeLuc a et a l , 2 019a , p. 175). O n t he ba s i s of cont i nued neu ropl a st ic it y, l at er
l a n g u a g e le a r ner s cou ld acce s s compen s ator y mech a n i sm s to ach ieve L2 pro fic ienc y (c f . B erken et a l., 2 016 for a n ex a mple of L2 a r t ic u l ator y profic ienc y).
O r i n L i et a l.’s (2 014, p. 3 0 2) word s , “ i n cont r a st to pred ic t ion s of t he c r it i c a l per iod hy pot he s i s , L2 le a r n i n g, even i f it occ u r s l at e i n adu lt hood , le ad s to bot h beh av ior a l a nd neu r a l ch a n g e s t h at m ay approx i m at e t he pat t er n s of n at ive or fi r st l a n g u a g e ” .
A nu m ber of st ud ie s doc u ment t h at compa red to L1 acqu i sit ion , L2 le a r n i n g requ i re s i nc re a sed neu r a l re sou rce s (due to m at u r at ion a l ch a n g e s i n neu r a l pl a st ic it y), m a n i fe sted i n i nc re a sed ac t ivat ion i n some l a n g u a g e -rel ated reg ion s (e.g. A but a lebi, 2 0 0 8; Ca rg nelut t i et a l., 2 019; Her n a ndez & Li, 2 0 07; Nichol s & Joa n i s se, 2 016) a s wel l a s i n reg ion s i nvolved i n exec ut ive proce s se s ( Ba n ich & Compton , 2 018, p. 241; see Liu & Cao, 2 016 for rev iew). T h i s cor rel at ion bet ween ex ten sivene s s i n br a i n ac t ivat ion a nd a mou nt of ex po su re to, a nd u se of , a l a n g u a g e h a s been reve a led i n t he sem i n a l st ud y by Per a n i et a l. (2 0 03) even for e a rly bi l i n g u a l s who show le s s ex ten sive br a i n ac t ivat ion for t he e a r l ier l a n g u a g e to wh ich t hey were ex po sed to a g re ater ex tent. More ex ten sive ac t ivat ion i s t a ken a s a reflec t ion of le s s autom at ic, more e ffor t f u l l a n g u a g e u se, requ i r i n g t he i nvolvement of ad d it ion a l reg ion s ( Liu & Cao, 2 016; Pa lom a rG a rc í a et a l., 2 015; see a l so t he Ad apt ive Cont rol Hy pot he si s by A but a lebi & Green , 2 0 07; Green & A bu lt a lebi, 2 013). Some st ud ie s repor t t h at t he pro ce s si n g i n sequent i a l bi l i n g u a l s i nvolve s ad d it ion a l reg ion s to a g re ater ex tent compa red to e a rly bi l i n g u a l s ( Liu & Cao, 2 016) a nd t h at t he l ater t he AoA t he l a rg er t he deg ree of i nvolvement of ad d it ion a l br a i n a re a s (e.g. for L2 re ad i n g, see Berken et a l , 2 015)
Su m m i n g up, t h i s sec t ion h a s de sc r ibed com mon a g e -rel ated i n fluence s of ex po su re to mu lt iple l a n g u a g e s y ield i n g ch a n g e s i n br a i n a n atomy a nd f u nc t ion i n g. Ch ronolog ic a l a g e i s t herefore one f ac tor to con sider when de a l i n g w it h br a i n development , but it i s by f a r not t he on ly f ac tor releva nt for t he spec i fic it ie s of i nd iv idu a l br a i n development. It h a s been show n i n nu merou s empi r ic a l st ud ie s t h at t here a re biolog ic a l f ac tor s l i n ked to proce s se s wh ich, i n g ener a l , a re exec uted fol low i n g a rou g h ly out l i ned sequence (see below, e g.
Infant and childhood bilingualism
bloom i n g a nd pr u n i n g i n Sec t ion 2 . 2 .1). However, con sider i n g t he se biolog i
c a l f ac tor s a lone wou ld mo st l i kely be t a k i n g accou nt of on ly pa r t of t he stor y
Bi l i n g u a l i sm re se a rch h a s acc u mu l ated a n i mpre s sive a mou nt of k nowled g e, i n pa r t ic u l a r by ex plor i n g i n fluent i a l f ac tor s (e.g. qu a l it y a nd qu a nt it y of i nput , soc io - econom ic a nd c u lt u r a l contex t s for acqu i sit ion a nd le a r n i n g of l a n g u a g e s,
i nter ac t ion a l com mu n ic at ive scen a r io s a nd contex t s) for bi l i n g u a l s’ l a n g u a g e
development , t hu s t r y i n g more completely to c apt u re t he complex it y of bi l i n g u a l i sm . Q ue st ion i n g t he ex i stence of a st r ic t c r it ic a l per iod for l a n g u a g e le a r n i n g a nd su g g e st ion s of sen sit ive per iod s (see Ch apter 6), a s wel l a s i nc re a sed r ig or i n re se a rch de sig n s a nd a n a ly se s, s a mpl i n g, a nd g roup ch a r ac ter i z at ion s, tog et her w it h t he i nclu sion of i nd iv idu a l d i fference s accou nt s a nd t he doubt about “n at ive” a nd “n at ivel i ke” profic ienc y a s t he ide a l u lt i m ate at t a i n ment for bi- a nd mu lt i l i n g u a l i sm , h a s led to novel contempl at ion a nd i nve st ig at ion of t he i n it i a l e a rly–l ate - d ichotomy.
2 . 2 Chronological age and maturation
I n t he fol low i n g sec t ion s, we w i l l h ave a clo ser look at wh at “e a rly acqu i sit ion” a nd “e a rly L2 le a r n i n g” me a n i n br a i n ter m s a nd i n l i n g u i st ic development. Rel at ive to m i le stone s of development , t here i s a cer t a i n ex pec t at ion concer n i n g wh at a ch i ld shou ld k now a nd do at a cer t a i n a g e. T he compel l i n g i s sue i s whet her m at u r at ion c a n i n a ny way be con sidered sepa r ately f rom t he e ffec t s of ex per ience.
2. 2.1 Chronological age, maturation, and the brain
T he i mpre s sive abu nd a nce of l iter at u re on t he development of t he br a i n a f ter bi r t h c a n be out l i ned i n ter m s of some m ajor proce s se s i nvolved i n neu r a l development (e g. Ca sey et a l , 2 0 05), e ach w it h it s ow n t i me cou r se ( Ba n ich & Compton , 2 018, p. 457 ). I n a nut shel l , neu ron s a re t he bu i ld i n g block s of t he br a i n T hey h ave t wo pa r t s, t he cel l bod y a nd t he a xon T he cel l bod y produce s a nd col lec t s elec t r ic a l sig n a l s, where a s t he a xon t r a n sfer s i n for m at ion f rom t he cel l bod y to ot her cel l s. Sy n apse s a re loc ated at t he end of a n a xon. T hey con nec t t wo or more neu ron s a nd pa s s i mpu l se s f rom one neu ron to t he ot her(s).
T he g rey m at ter of t he br a i n i s m ade up of cel l bod ie s, t he wh ite m at ter of a xon s (when myel i n ated , see below)
Hu m a n br a i n development of newbor n s t h rou g h you n g adu lt hood d i rec t ly cont i nue s t he e a rly proce s se s l au nched a f ter concept ion , e g. t ube for m at ion a nd development i nto t he vent r ic u l a r s y stem , cel l prol i fer at ion (i e. t he g ener a t ion of new ner ve cel l s clo se to t he vent r icle), a nd cel l m ig r at ion to bu i ld t he d i fferent cor t ic a l l ayer s. A f ter bi r t h, t he m a ny neu ron s a l re ad y ava i l able c a n st a r t to con nec t t h rou g h s y n apse s (i e. s y n aptog ene si s) w it h dend r ite s i n cor t ic a l a re a s g re at ly i nc re a si n g i n nu m ber. Accord i n g to Ba n ich a nd Compton (2 018,
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number should be raised above their situation,” may become a very inconvenient one if the doctrines of Modern Equality and competition should render the other half desirous of parallel promotion.
It is now just sixteen years since Mr. Greg’s present philosophy of Expenditure was expressed with great precision by the Common Councilmen of New York, in their report on the commercial crisis of 1857,4 in the following terms:—
“Another erroneous idea is that luxurious living, extravagant dressing, splendid turn-outs, and fine houses, are the cause of distress to a nation. No more erroneous impression could exist. Every extravagance that the [346]man of 100,000 or 1,000,000 dollars indulges in, adds to the means, the support, the wealth of ten or a hundred who had little or nothing else but their labour, their intellect, or their taste. If a man of 1,000,000 dollars spends principal and interest in ten years, and finds himself beggared at the end of that time, he has actually made a hundred who have catered to his extravagance, employers or employed, so much richer by the division of his wealth. He may be ruined, but the nation is better off and richer, for one hundred minds and hands, with 10,000 dollars apiece, are far more productive than one with the whole.”
Now that is precisely the view also taken of the matter by a large number of Radical Economists in England as well as America; only they feel that the time, however short, which the rich gentleman takes to divide his property among them in his own way, is practically wasted; and even worse, because the methods which the gentleman himself is likely to adopt for the depression of his fortune will not, in all probability, be conducive to the elevation of his character. It appears, therefore, on moral as well as economical grounds, desirable that the division and distribution should at once be summarily effected; and the only point still open to discussion in the
views of the Common Councilmen is to what degree of minuteness they would think it advisable to carry the subsequent subdivision.
I do not suppose, however, that this is the conclusion [347]which Mr. Greg is desirous that the general Anti-Christian public should adopt; and in that case, as I see by his paper in the last number of the ‘Contemporary,’ that he considers the Christian life itself virtually impossible, may I recommend his examination of the manners of the Pre-Christian? For I can certify him that this important subject, of which he has only himself imperfectly investigated one side, had been thoroughly investigated on all sides, at least seven hundred years before Christ; and from that day to this, all men of wit, sense, and feeling have held precisely the same views on the subjects of economy and charity in all nations under the sun. It is of no consequence whether Mr. Greg chooses the experience of Bœotia, Lombardy, or Yorkshire, nor whether he studies the relation of each day to its labour under Hesiod, Virgil, or Sydney Smith. But it is desirable that at least he should acquaint himself with the opinions of some of these persons, as well as with those of the Common Councilmen of New York; for though a man of superior sagacity may be pardoned for thinking, with the friends of Job, that Wisdom will die with him, it can only be through neglect of the existing opportunities of general culture that he remains distinctly under the impression that she was born with him.
It may perhaps be well that, in conclusion, I should state briefly the causes and terms of the economical crisis of our own day, which has been the subject of the debate between Mr. Goldwin Smith and Mr. Greg. [348]
No man ever became, or can become, largely rich merely by labour and economy. All large fortunes (putting treasure-trove and gambling out of consideration) are founded either on occupation of land, usury,
or taxation of labour. Whether openly or occultly, the landlord, money-lender, and capital-holding employer, gather into their possession a certain quantity of the means of existence which other people produce by the labour of their hands. The effect of this impost upon the condition of life of the tenant, borrower, and workman, is the first point to be studied;—the results, that is to say, of the mode in which Captain Roland fills his purse.
Secondly, we have to study the effects of the mode in which Captain Roland empties his purse. The landlord, usurer, or labour-master, does not, and cannot, himself consume all the means of life he collects. He gives them to other persons, whom he employs in his own behalf—growers of champagne; jockeys; footmen; jewellers; builders; painters; musicians; and the like. The diversion of the labour of these persons from the production of food to the production of articles of luxury is very frequently, and, at the present day, very grievously, a cause of famine. But when the luxuries are produced, it becomes a quite separate question who is to have them, and whether the landlord and capitalist are entirely to monopolize the music, the painting, the architecture, the hand-service, the horseservice, and the sparkling champagne of the world. [349]
And it is gradually, in these days, becoming manifest to the tenants, borrowers, and labourers, that instead of paying these large sums into the hands of the landlords, lenders, and employers, that they may purchase music, painting, etc.; the tenants, borrowers, and workers, had better buy a little music and painting for themselves! That, for instance, instead of the capitalist-employer’s paying three hundred pounds for a full-length portrait of himself, in the attitude of investing his capital, the united workmen had better themselves pay the three hundred pounds into the hands of the ingenious artist, for a painting, in the antiquated manner of Lionardo or Raphael, of some subject more religiously or historically interesting to them; and placed
where they can always see it. And again, instead of paying three hundred pounds to the obliging landlord, that he may buy a box at the opera with it, whence to study the refinements of music and dancing, the tenants are beginning to think that they may as well keep their rents partly to themselves, and therewith pay some Wandering Willie to fiddle at their own doors; or bid some greyhaired minstrel
“Tune, to please a peasant’s ear, The harp a king had loved to hear.”
And similarly the dwellers in the hut of the field, and garret of the city, are beginning to think that, instead of paying half-a-crown for the loan of half a fireplace, they [350]had better keep their half-crown in their pockets till they can buy for themselves a whole one.
These are the views which are gaining ground among the poor; and it is entirely vain to endeavour to repress them by equivocations. They are founded on eternal laws; and although their recognition will long be refused, and their promulgation, resisted as it will be, partly by force, partly by falsehood, can only take place through incalculable confusion and misery, recognized they must be eventually; and with these three ultimate results:—that the usurer’s trade will be abolished utterly;—that the employer will be paid justly for his superintendence of labour, but not for his capital; and the landlord paid for his superintendence of the cultivation of land, when he is able to direct it wisely;—that both he, and the employer of mechanical labour, will be recognized as beloved masters, if they deserve love, and as noble guides when they are capable of giving discreet guidance; but neither will be permitted to establish themselves any more as senseless conduits, through which the strength and riches of their native land are to be poured into the cup of the fornication of its Babylonian ‘City of the Plain.’
So ends my article, and enough said for 1875, I think. And I wish you a merry Christmas, my masters; and honest ways of winning your meat and pudding. [351]
[Contents]
NOTES AND CORRESPONDENCE.
I am busy, and tired, this month; so shall keep my making up of accounts till January. The gist of them is simply that we have got £8000 worth of Consols; and we had a balance of £501 7s. at the bank, which balance I have taken, and advanced another hundred of my own, making £600, to buy the Sheffield property with: this advance I shall repay myself as the interest comes in, or farther subscription; and then use such additional sums for the filling of the museum, and building a small curator’s house on the ground. But I shall not touch any of the funded sum; and hope soon to see it raised to £10,000. I have no word yet from our lawyer about our constitution. The Sheffield property, like the funded, stands in the names of the Trustees.
I have accepted, out of our forty subscribers, some eight or nine for Companions, very gratefully. Others wish well to the cause, but dislike the required expression of creed and purpose. I use no persuasion in the matter, wishing to have complete harmony of feeling among the active members of the Society.
E. L.’s courteous, but firm, reply to Mrs. Green’s letter reaches me too late for examination. In justice to both my correspondents, and to
my readers, I must defer its insertion, in such abstract as may seem desirable, until next month.
I. Letter from a clergyman, now an accepted Companion. The extract contained in it makes me wonder if it has never occurred to the Rev. Dr. Mullens that there should be immediately formed [352]a Madagascar Missionary Society, for the instruction of the natives of England:—
“My dear Sir,—Apropos of your strictures on usury which have from time to time appeared in ‘Fors,’ I have thought you would be interested in the following extract from a recent work on Madagascar, by the Rev. Dr. Mullens, of the London Missionary Society.
“After describing a ‘Kabáry,’—a public assembly addressed by the Queen,—in the Betsileo5 province, he goes on to say: ‘Having expressed in a clear and distinct voice her pleasure in meeting her people once more, the Queen uttered several sentences usual to these assemblies, in which she dwelt upon the close and affectionate relations subsisting between them and herself. “You are a father and mother to me: having you, I have all.… And if you confide in me, you have a father and a mother in me. Is it not so, O ye under heaven?” To which, with a deep voice, the people reply, “It is so.” Passing at length to the subject specially before her, the Queen said, “My days in the South are now few; therefore I will say a word about the Schools. And I say to you all, here in Betsileo, … cause your children to attend the Schools. My desire is, that whether high or low, whether sons of the nobles, or sons of the judges, or sons of the officers, or sons of the centurions, your sons and your daughters should attend the Schools and become lovers of wisdom.”
The Prime Minister, then, in the Queen’s name, addressed the assembly on the subject of usury,—a great evil among poor nations, and only too common in stages of society like that in Madagascar,—
and said, “Thus saith the Queen: All the usury exacted by the Hovas from the Betsileo is remitted, and only the original debt shall remain!’ ”
“I am, dear Sir, faithfully yours, “J H .”
[353]
II. Useful letter from a friend:—
“You say when I agree in your opinions I may come, but surely you do not exact the unquestioning and entire submission of the individual opinion which the most arrogant of churches exacts.6 With your leading principles, so far as I am yet able to judge of them, I entirely and unreservedly agree. I see daily such warped morality, such crooked ways in the most urgent and important concerns of life, as to convince me that the axe should be laid to the root of the tree. Mainly I am disgusted—no more tolerant word will do—with the prevalent tone of thought in religious matters, and the resulting tortuous courses in daily work and worship. What a worse than Pagan misconception of Him whom they ignorantly worship—
“ ‘Ille opifex rerum, mundi melioris origo’—
is shown by the mass of so-called religious persons! How scurrilously the Protestant will rail against Papist intolerance making his private judgment of Scripture the infallible rule,—
“ ‘Blushing not (as Hooker says) in any doubt concerning matters of Scripture to think his own bare Yea as good as the Nay of all the wise, grave, and learned judgments that are in the whole world.
Which insolency must be repressed, or it will be the very bane of Christian Religion.’—(Ecc. Polity, Book II.)
“I believe the St. George’s Company contains the germ of a healthy and vigorous constitution. I see that you are planting that germ, and fostering it with all deliberation and cautious directness of advance; but what Titanic obstacles! It seems to me the fittest plant of this age to survive, but in the complexities of the struggle for existence, its rearing must be a Herculean labour. Yet wherein is this age singular? When was there any [354]time whose sentence we might not write thus: ‘L’état agité par les brigues des ambitieux, par les largesses des riches factieux, par la vénalité des pauvres oiseux, par l’empirisme des orateurs, par l’audace des hommes pervers, par la faiblesse des hommes vertueux,’ was distracted and disintegrate.
“When I can get better words than my own I like to use them—and it is seldom I cannot. In the selfish pleasure of writing to you I forget the tax on your time of reading my vagaries; but I feel a kind of filial unburdening in writing thus freely. Will that excuse me?
“Always sincerely and affectionately yours, “J H .”
W versus C .—Subject to such correction as may be due to the different quantity of carbon contained in a load of wood as in a ton of coal, the product of the coal-field is seven times as much [of fuel] per mile, as that of the forest. To produce a yield of fuel equal to that obtainable from the known coal measures of the world, if worked with an activity equal to that of our own, seven times the area of cultivated forest is required. But the actual area, as estimated, is not seven, but twenty-seven times that of the coal measures. It is thus four times as important, regarded as a source of fuel. But while the life of the coal-field has been taken at 150 years, that of the forest, if
rightly cared for, will endure as long as that of the human family. A wealth such as this is not to be measured in tons of gold.— Edinburgh Review, p. 375, Oct., 1875.
“I think Sheffield is more likely ‘Schaf-feld’ than Sheaf-field. ‘Sheepfold,’ the sheltered hollow with moors all round it. I know a place called ‘Theescombe,’ meaning ‘theaves-combe,’ or ‘young lambscombe.’ ”—Note by a Companion.
It is at this moment, nine o’clock, 27th October, tearing the Virginian creeper round my window into rags rather than leaves. ↑
See Fourth Morning in Florence ‘The Vaulted Book ’ ↑
I use the current English of Mrs. Lennox’s translation, but Henry’s real saying was (see the first green leaf edition of Sully), “It is written above what is to happen to me on every occasion ” “Toute occasion” becomes “Cette occasion” in the subsequent editions, and finally “what is to happen to me” (ce que doit être fait de moi) becomes “what I ought to do” in the English ↑
See the ‘Times’ of November 23rd of that year. ↑
I can’t answer for Madagascar nomenclature. ↑
By no means; but practical obedience, yes, not to me, but to the Master of the Company, whoever he may be; and this not for his pride’s sake, but for your comfort’s. ↑
T C
E E F
E T , C . IV. . 6. B
E F S C S . M W , L S , R . D J , .
C
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Title: Fors Clavigera: Letters to the Workmen and Labourers of Great Britain (Volume 5 of 8)
Author: John Ruskin (1819–1900) Info ↗
Language: English
Original publication date: 1875
Keywords: Aesthetics
Conduct of life
Labor
Social conditions
Social problems
Working class
Library of Congress: 08011225 ↗
OCLC/WorldCat: 3852549 ↗
Open Library (Book): OL7025221M ↗
Open Library (Work): OL88627W ↗
Revision History
2022-05-04 Started
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Abbreviation Expansion alluremētes allurementes aū aut cstituisti constituisti digitor. digitorum frō from hōis hominis h homo inimicū inimicum
LL.D. Doctor of Laws
Omia Omnia pambulant perambulant pfecisti perfecisti ppter propter q qui qm quam remmber remember thē them tuar. tuarum tuor tuorum t et t and univsa universa univsas universas whē when y that y that
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