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Routledge Studies in Innovation, Organizations and Technology
DIGITAL BUSINESS STRATEGY
CONTENT, CONTEXT, AND CASES
Anders Pehrsson
Digital Business Strategy
Digital Business Strategy responds to the need for clarification of the increasing, but fragmented, knowledge of digital business strategy. It systematically presents topical knowledge by reviewing previous research and developing frameworks for the content of digital business strategy and its relationships with relevant factors. In addition, the book analyses issues encountered by individual companies when implementing digital business strategies.
The volume identifies key categories of digital business strategy, in particular, strategy scope and direction, competitive advantage, and resource and capability reliance. It then explores relationships with antecedents such as digital experience, relationships with obstacles and enablers of strategy implementation, and relationships with operational and financial outcomes. The author demonstrates that strategy content and relationships differ among manufacturing companies, retailers, digital content providers, and digital platforms and also presents ways to cope with issues of implementation.
In summary, the book provides readers who wish to know more about the growing field of digital business strategy with up-to-date and systematic knowledge. It will be of great value to students at an advanced level, researchers, and reflective practitioners in the fields of technology management and strategic management in particular.
Anders Pehrsson is a Professor of Business Administration at the School of Business and Economics, Linnaeus University, Sweden. He received his PhD in industrial marketing from Linköping University in 1986. Dr. Pehrsson has written several books on company strategies. Routledge has previously published International Strategies in Telecommunications (1996), Strategy in Emerging Markets (2001), and Competitive International Strategy (2021). His articles have been published in journals such as Global Strategy Journal, International Marketing Review, Journal of Business Research, and Strategic Management Journal
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Edited by Valérie Mérindol and David W. Versailles
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Business Models for Industry 4.0
Concepts and Challenges in SME Organizations
Sandra Grabowska and Sebastian Saniuk
Innovation in the Digital Economy
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Impact of Artificial Intelligence in Business and Society
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Management System for Strategic Innovation
Building Dynamic Capabilities View of the Firm
Mitsuru Kodama
For more information about this series, please visit: www.routledge.com/Routledge-Studies-inInnovation-Organizations-and-Technology/book-series/RIOT
Digital Business Strategy
Content, Context, and Cases
Pehrsson
Anders
First published 2024 by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
The right of Anders Pehrsson to be identified as author of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 978-1-032-51247-1 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-51255-6 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-40138-4 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003401384
Typeset in Times New Roman by KnowledgeWorks Global Ltd.
Content of Digital Business Strategy 18
Strategy Scope or Direction 21
Competitive Advantage 21
Embedded Resources or Capabilities 22
Key Relationships 23
Antecedents of Digital Business Strategy 23
Implementation of Digital Business Strategy 26
The Outcome of Digital Business Strategy 28
References 30
3 The Company Context and Digital Business Strategy 37
The Meta-Analysis Reveals That Context Makes a Difference 37
Digital Business Strategies of Companies Not Specializing in Digitalization 39
Dominant Antecedents of Digital Business Strategy 40
Knowledge of Digital Transformation 41
Knowledge of Functional Digitalization 43
Competitive Dynamics 44
Digital Knowledge and Embedded Resources and Capabilities 45
Italian Manufacturing Companies and Other Companies 45
A South American Pensions and Savings Company 46
Competitive Dynamics and Embedded Resources and Capabilities 46
American Manufacturing Companies 47
A Singaporean Bank 47
Digital Business Strategies of Companies Specializing in Digitalization 48
The Outcome of Implementation of Competitive Advantage 49
Operational Outcome of the Implementation 49
Financial Outcome of the Implementation 50
Competitive Advantage and Operational Outcome 51
Low-Cost Digital Movie Production and Market Entry 51
Re-design of Mobile Apps and Customers’ Product
Adoption 52
Trust Affects Customers’ Adoption of Digital Innovations 52
A South Korean Digital Platform Builds Customer Relationships 53
Competitive Advantage and Financial Outcome 54
Analysis of Big Data and Effects on Revenues for Digital Music 54
Unlicensed Usage of Digital Content and Revenue Loss 55
References 56
PART II
Company Cases on Generic Issues 61
Introduction 61
4 Scope of Services and Customers of Digital Start-Ups 63
Specification of Scope of Digital Start-Ups 63
Relatedness and Synergy Between Service Units 63
A Narrow and a Broad Customer Scope 68
Case: Scope of a New Mobile Payment Platform 70
Characteristics and Challenges of Mobile Payment Platforms 70
Ways to Expand the Customer Base 71
Competition Among Mobile Payment Platforms 72
Questions to Discuss 73
References 74
5 Developing a Digital Competitive Advantage 76
The Model for a Competitive International Strategy 76
The Scope of a Competitive International Strategy 76 Strategy Directions and Competitive Advantages 78
Focused and Global Standardization 78
Focused and Global Responsiveness 79
The Omnichannel Concept 80
Case: H&M Seeks a Digital Competitive Advantage in Retailing 81
The Traditional Business Strategy Relying on a Scale Advantage 81
The Adjusted Business Strategy Relying on Customer Experiences 82
Questions to Discuss 85
References 85
6 Acquisition of Dynamic Innovation Capabilities 87
What Makes Dynamic Capabilities Effective? 87
Application of the Dynamic Capability View 88
Market Knowledge Received from the Core Business 89
Market Knowledge Acquired Locally 90
The Dynamic Capabilities of Innovativeness and Responsiveness 90
Experience and Integration of Acquired Capabilities 92
The Importance of Experience to Acquisitions 92
Experience and the Initial Acquisition in a Host Country 94
Experience and Post-Initial Acquisitions in the Host Country 94
Integration of Acquired Capabilities 95
Case: Ericsson Acquires Dynamic Innovation
Capabilities 97
Phase 1 (1998–2006): Integrating Fixed and Mobile Networks with the Internet 99
Phase 2 (2007–2016): Expanding the Scope of Digital Business 102
Phase 3 (2017–2021): Focusing the Digital Business Strategy 103
Questions to Discuss 105
References 105
PART III
Company Cases on Contextually Based Issues 109
Introduction 109
7 Digital Business Strategy Issues of Manufacturing Companies 111
The Internet of Things, Big Data, and Digital Business Strategy 111
Case: The Digital Business Strategy of Volvo Cars 112
Competitive Dynamics and Customer Preferences 112
Digitalization of Volvo’s Manufacturing and Supply Chains 116
Digital Resources and Capabilities in Volvo’s Offering 117
Questions to Discuss 120
References 120
8 Business Strategy Issues of Digital Platforms 123
Profiles of Digital Platforms 123
Competitive Advantages of Digital Platforms 124
The Ecosystem of Google’s Android Automotive OS 126
Case: Digital Booking in the Hotel Market 127
Marketing Innovativeness of Booking.Com 129
Coopetition among Digital Platforms and Hotels 132
Questions to Discuss 133
Case: Open Audio Platforms for Music and Blogs 133
Profiles of Competing Open Audio Platforms 133
Questions to Discuss 134 References 135
9 How to Develop a Digital Business
Steps When Developing a Digital Business Strategy 139
Diagnosing Strategy Antecedents 141
Specifying the Content of the Strategy 143
What Strategy Scope, Direction, and Competitive Advantage? 143
What Embedded Resources and Capabilities? 145 Implementing the Strategy 147
Evaluating the Outcome of the Strategy Implementation 149
References 150 10
2.1 The general model for a digital business strategy
3.1 Main findings of the review in regard to the digital business strategy of two company types
3.2 Model for a digital business strategy of a company not digitally specializing 41
3.3 Model for implementing competitive advantage of a digitally specialized company
4.1 Realization of the synergy potential of relatedness
5.1 Directions for competitive international strategy
7.1 Grounds for Volvo Car’s digital business strategy
8.1 Implementing competitive advantages of digital hotel platforms
8.2 Fit between competitive advantage and contingency factors (Pehrsson, 2016)
8.3 General characteristics of central actors of digital booking in the hotel market
8.4 Innovativeness of Booking.com and benefits to hotels and guests
9.1 Focused direct relationships for a digital business strategy
9.2 Key relationships identified by the meta-analysis of previous studies
9.3 Scope, directions, and competitive advantages of H&M and Volvo Cars
1.1
1.2
2.1
2.2 Categories of antecedents and relationships with the content of digital business strategies
2.3 Categories of implementation and relationships with the content of digital business strategies
2.4
3.1
3.2
3.3
4.1
5.1
6.1 Effects of dynamic capabilities on the performance of companies’ foreign units (Pehrsson, 2019)
6.2 Effects of experience on the choice of acquisitions in the same host country (Pehrsson, 2020)
6.3
7.1
7.2
9.1
9.2
Preface
This volume clarifies up-to-date knowledge about the digital business strategies of companies that integrate digital techniques and business strategy. The interest in the strategies grows immensely not least due to a general familiarity with digitalization and intensified international competition. Accordingly, this volume presents a review of contemporary studies, a meta-analysis of topics treated by the studies, illustrative in-depth company cases, and ways to develop a digital business strategy practically. It has been really interesting to work with this volume and get insights into how digital technology impacts business life in general and vice versa. The work follows consistently my previous strategy research and the relevant practical work over more than 40 years. One of my conclusions so far is that there are theoretical and practical issues that remain relevant over time, but digitalization has a huge impact on several aspects of the business operations of companies.
The content of this volume is partly a continuation of my earlier books and published articles. I am grateful for the comments on article drafts delivered by anonymous reviewers and for the communication with editors of journals. In particular, the cooperation with Göran Svensson of European Business Review has been productive. I would also like to thank Susanne Ackum, Dan Halvarsson, Richard Owusu, and Per Servais at Linnaeus University for their interest. In addition, I am thankful for the feedback received from participants at conferences and from all students that have applied earlier model versions and analyzed company cases relevant to digital business strategy.
Furthermore, I would like to thank the staff of Routledge and the Taylor & Francis Group for their smooth communication. In particular, the cooperation with Alexandra Atkinson, Editor at Routledge, and Manjusha Mishra, Taylor & Francis India, has been excellent. Also, two anonymous reviewers delivered valuable comments on the initial manuscript idea. Shabir Sharif, KnowledgeWorks Global Ltd., managed the copyediting and the typesetting of the book in a very good way.
Finally, I appreciate the support and encouragement provided by my wife AnnHelen and our children Tobias, Terese, and Andreas. Also, Tobias has shared interesting research experiences relevant to this volume and I have learned a lot from the digitalization experiences of Andreas.
Växjö, Sweden, 10 April 2023 Anders Pehrsson
Content of This Volume 1
Why This Volume?
The widespread and accelerating digitalization facilitates a company’s efforts to build a digital business strategy involving, for example, the identification of potential customers and building relationships using digital resources. A survey of 1,140 companies (Sava, 2022a) underscores the relevance of the topic. The survey results reveal that half of the companies expressed that a major reason for digital investments is to build a digital business strategy emphasizing differences from competitors. The other companies lay the ground for effective strategies by keeping up with developments in their industries and designing technical infrastructures and capabilities.
The definition applied in the volume means that a digital business strategy integrates digital techniques and business strategy. The strategy principally exploits a company’s digital resources to create unique competitive value associated with the long-term scale, scope, and direction of the company’s business operations (Menz et al., 2021). Hence, exploitation of the opportunities resulting from digitalization requires a competitive business strategy relying on digital techniques. To achieve competitiveness, it is paramount that the individual company is aware of what circumstances nurture relevant content of a digital business strategy and what it takes to implement the strategy in order to achieve the desired outcome. For example, when implementing an intention of broadening the strategy scope the company may encounter issues connected to the choice between developing digital products and markets on its own or acquiring digital capabilities or another company as a whole. Competitiveness not just requires an understanding of relevant strategy content, but also a consideration of the context of the particular company. For example, the shape of a digital business strategy that suits a manufacturing company may be different compared to a strategy of a company primarily specializing in the offering of online streaming services. In the first case, a digital business strategy may apply to a core business that not necessarily relies on digitalization. On the other hand, a digitally specialized company would rely on a core business that extensively builds on digital resources and capabilities. This means that companies will compete with similar competitors signifying the competitive setting. In essence, without an understanding of contextual boundaries, any company will have to face issues when
implementing the strategy because a strategy is usually not universal, but needs to be adapted to the context.
Anyone who wishes to know more about digital business strategy may seek answers by consulting previous research. In fact, during the past decades, the amount of knowledge of digital business strategy has increased extensively. The research has expanded in various directions as well, resulting in fragmented knowledge. When it comes to books, practical guidelines for management constitute one knowledge track. Actually, there is a great number of such books assuming a normative character, for example, Gupta (2018) and Durkin (2015). Another track consists of books partly relying on research. For example, Coupey (2004) applies a broad approach and conceptualizes important aspects of businesses of which digital business strategy is one. In summary, the fragmentation of the field causes difficulties for the knowledge seeker to get an overview of the expanding research and to figure out what is theoretically or practically relevant.
Because the overall interest in digital business strategy is growing, this volume focuses exclusively on the strategy. The volume, thus, responds to the need for clarification of what is important to know about digital business strategy. More precisely, the volume presents topical knowledge of digital business strategy emanating from this author’s systematic review of research published by leading journals. The volume also accounts for this author’s meta-analysis of topics treated by the reviewed studies. The analysis establishes that company context makes a difference in the content of digital business strategy and its relationships with relevant factors. Thus, strategy content and relationships differ between companies that are not digitally specialized such as manufacturing companies, and specialist companies such as digital platforms. As a response to the differences, the volume develops models that are contingent on the company context.
Comprehensive company cases illustrate generic and contextually grounded issues relevant to digital business strategy. The cases extend the in-depth understanding of the crucial issues and complement the knowledge generated by the systematic review of research and the meta-analysis. Strategy scope, competitive advantage, and resources and capabilities embedded in a digital business strategy constitute common categories of the content of a digital business strategy and the in-depth cases illustrate. However, for companies not specializing in digital offerings, embedded resources and capabilities is a distinctive category and this concerns the link with antecedents such as digital knowledge as well. On the other hand, competitive advantage is decisive for a digital specialist and, in addition, the link with performance is noticeable in previous studies according to the metaanalysis. Finally, the volume not just presents guidance regarding how to put the models and tools into practice but also suggestions for further research.
Specification of Digital Business Strategy
The early view of digital business strategy essentially means that a company’s information technology (IT) strategy and business strategy were separated (Bharadwaj et al., 2013). To achieve competitiveness, the former should align with the
latter (e.g., Henderson and Venkatraman, 1993). Thus, this view means that business strategy was the umbrella for functional strategies such as an IT strategy.
The development and expansion of digital techniques for storing and handling information, communication, and connectivity technologies using the Internet made it possible to integrate business strategy and IT strategy. In addition, digital technologies are often embedded in physical products and services calling for an integrated view of digital business strategy. The development, thus, means that it is frequently difficult to separate IT strategy from business strategy and the term digital business strategy represents the prevailing integration of the two fields.
Bharadwaj et al. (2013) and Mithas et al. (2013) define digital business strategy as an organizational strategy formulated and executed by leveraging digital resources to create differential value in a market. The definition implicitly builds on the resource-based theory of strategy (e.g., Barney, 1991) because digital resources are considered the basis of a company’s competitive advantage in the market. Digital resources may originate from specific functional operations such as supply chain and marketing, or from generic operations common for various operations throughout the company.
Heilig et al. (2017) and Sestino et al. (2020) also stress the integration between IT technology and business strategy. They note that emerging technologies such as mobile technologies, sensors, cloud computing, and machine learning enable a company’s handling of large amounts of real-time data collected from various sources including data delivered by customers and other companies involved in the processes. The technologies essentially facilitate data gathering, storing, processing, and analysis. For example, analysis of “Big Data” may not just improve a company’s responsiveness to market changes, but also serve partners and customers and thereby provide involved parties with insights into ongoing processes.
This volume adopts the view that a digital business strategy integrates, rather than separates, IT techniques, and business strategy. An integrated digital business strategy essentially leverages digital resources to create value unique in the market under the umbrella of a company’s long-term scale, scope, and direction of its entire business operations (Menz et al., 2021). Hence, an integrated digital business strategy is pervasive in the organization because it goes beyond organizational boundaries and functional areas.
Current technology developments related to the Internet illustrate that an integrated digital business strategy leverages digital resources to create unique value. Thus, the number of digital business strategies exploiting the Internet has grown immensely during the past decades. For example, Sestino et al. (2020) report that applications of the Internet of Things (IoT), by means of connecting physical devices using the Internet and generating Big Data, are central to the contemporary strategy making of many companies. The development of advanced sensors, wireless networks, mobile phones, online purchases, machinery, and innovative computing lays the ground for applications such as” smart houses”, advanced industrial automation, and digital cooperation among companies.
The applications mentioned above are oftentimes part of the scope of digital services that provide unique value in the market. Furthermore, the IoT represents a
crucial resource because the connected devices are capable of collecting real-time information from users and communicating with other devices and companies in a network. In the end, IoT contributes to the effectiveness of a company’s digital business strategy because analysis of the information makes it easier to understand, for example, the behavior of users that opens up windows for possible strategy developments relying on competitive value propositions.
However, in addition to changing preferences of customers and dynamic competitive settings, technological developments frequently make it necessary to develop a digital business strategy further. A survey of 487 companies (Sava, 2022b) reveals that the most likely technical upgrading relevant to a digital business strategy would be to digitize the experiences of end-users stored in Big Data databases and use the results to improve business processes further. Other prospective actions in regard to digital developments embrace using scaling data and relevant analytic techniques and thereby enhancing, or modernizing, existing IT architecture that is crucial to digital business strategy.
Previous Knowledge of Digital Business Strategy
Due to its relevance, the amount of research on digital business strategy has expanded comprehensively. The research also expands in various directions causing fragmentation (Menz et al., 2021). However, studies of the content of a company’s digital business strategy are rather frequent (e.g., Autio et al., 2021; Luo, 2021). Some studies pay attention to content in terms of strategy scope (e.g., Kristoffersen et al., 2020), or the direction of digital business strategy (e.g., Gnizy, 2020). Other studies capture the competitive advantages of digital strategies (e.g., Lee and Falahat, 2019), or capabilities and resources embedded in the strategies (e.g., Arias-Pérez et al., 2020). In regards to relationships with strategy content, studies recognize antecedents, implementation, and outcomes linked to a certain strategy content (e.g., Vadana et al., 2020).
However, it is difficult to separate the strategy content on the corporate level from the content on the lower levels of a company. A major reason is that the same theoretical explanation generally applies to strategies on more than one level (Menz et al., 2021). For example, a strategy aiming at economies of scope may apply to businesses on more than one level. One theoretical rationale would be that a business unit’s offering of, for example, customized products aligns with a corporate desire to achieve scope economy by means of expanding the scope of customization and types of customers.
According to the seminal definition of Ansoff (1965), a company’s scope of strategy determines the range of various products and markets and the long-term developments. As shown above, the scope is relevant both to business operations on the corporate level and on lower levels. However, to be successful, a scope of a digital business strategy needs to rely on the resource of relatedness among involved business units because that resource represents a synergy potential. More precisely, the realization of the synergy potential of similarity, or complementarity among businesses, by means of exploiting common resources and coordinating
activities among businesses is an advantage that makes the company more competitive as a whole.
When it comes to knowledge of the context of digital business strategy, some studies focus on what may moderate relationships between, for example, antecedents and strategy content. The indirect impact of the external factor of competition intensity is a common study topic in this regard (e.g., Gnizy, 2020). This also goes for a company’s embeddedness in a regional network (Brunetti et al., 2020).
The inclusion of a contextual factor of company type sheds further light on indirect relationships relevant to digital business strategy. Hence, this author systematically reviewed 77 studies (Table 1.1). It was found that a group of studies focuses on digital business strategies of companies not specializing in digitalization. The companies comprise retailers, manufacturing companies, financial service companies, and companies offering other services. The mean value of the publication year occurred earlier for retailers than for the other companies. Thus, it seems that retailers were among the first non-specialized companies to recognize the need for digital business strategies. Overall, accumulating experiences of what antecedents are important to digital business strategy is important to companies of this category. A major reason would be that the companies try to figure out what knowledge it takes to build a competitive digital business strategy that is frequently a new arena for the companies.
Furthermore, Table 1.1 reveals that specialized companies offering digital content such as movies, videos, images, music, books, TV, and newspapers early realized the importance of specialized digital strategies relying on accumulated digital knowledge. However, research on specialized companies paid attention rather late to companies offering digital platforms for various services. A probable explanation would be that it takes more extensive and broader knowledge to launch a successful digital platform than to offer, for example, digital content. Moreover, because the digital services of specialized companies are often standardized, most studies capture how companies try to develop advantages different from those of competitors and links to the outcome of the strategy implementation. The ultimate outcome shows whether, or not, a company’s strategy efforts meet the operational and financial requirements.
Studies of companies not specialized in digitalization (n = 50 studies)
2016a Retailing companies (n = 4)
2018 Manufacturing companies (n = 35)
Financial services companies (n = 6)
Other service companies (n = 5)
a Mean value of publication year.
Studies of companies specialized in digitalization (n = 27 studies)
2015 Digital content companiesb (n = 13)
2018 Misc. digital service companiesc (n = 6)
2020 Companies offering platforms for digital services (n = 8)
b Content such as movies, videos, images, music, books, TV, newspapers.
c For example, mobile app producers.
Table 1.1 Analysis units of studies on digital business strategy
With reference to issues of digital business strategy, it is particularly crucial that a company wishing to achieve a competitive digital business strategy is capable of taking care of issues that potentially obstruct the implementation. Most probably, high-performing companies manage to overcome implementation obstacles to, for example, the digital integration of the entire company. However, generic issues related to upgrading capabilities and developing digital organizational cultures often make it difficult to implement a digital business strategy and achieve high performance. Generic issues may also stem from, for example, difficulties to communicate the content of a strategy internally and thereby achieve acceptance throughout the entire company (Auvinen et al., 2019).
Issues related to the protection of copyrights regarding digital offerings exemplify issues originating from the company context. Copyright issues are particularly relevant to digitally specialized companies such as companies offering digital content (Burmester et al., 2016). In summary, careful assessment of potential issues when formulating and developing a competitive digital business strategy supports the company’s efforts to implement the strategy smoothly. It is not just important to recognize what goes on within the company, but also to pay attention to external developments pertaining to technology, competition, and customer preferences.
Core Messages and Contributions
This volume focuses on what is less known about digital business strategy. Thus, the emphasis is on three highly relevant topics that deserve more attention. The messages below address the volume’s contribution to the knowledge of categories and relationships pertaining to the content of digital business strategy, knowledge of the context of the strategy, and knowledge of generic issues and issues stemming from the context of strategy.
The volume contributes to current knowledge of digital business strategy in several ways. First, the volume contributes by delineating the content of digital business strategy and its relationships with antecedents, implementation, and outcome. Second, the volume adds knowledge by exploring contextual boundaries in terms of company type that is decisive to a company’s digital business strategy. Third, the volume in a unique way presents ways to cope with issues relevant to the digital business strategies of companies.
Information regarding companies originating from various countries illustrates how theoretical aspects work in practice and comprehensive in-depth company cases address generic and contextually based issues. For example, the latter cases show how to shape a scope of digital services and customers, how to build a digital competitive advantage, and how to build generic digital capabilities. In-depth cases also show how to cope with contextually based issues linked to the character of the company. In particular, digital issues of strategy implementation treat what is important to manufacturing companies and digital platforms. The knowledge gained from literature and the company cases condenses finally into practical tools that companies can use when developing digital business strategies.
Message 1: Key Categories of Content of Digital Business Strategy
As a response to the need to get an overview of the field and to understand what it takes to develop a competitive digital business strategy; this volume presents a systematic review made by the author. In particular, the review results contribute to the knowledge of digital business strategy by clarifying the common content pertaining to the digital business strategies of companies. Hence, the review clarifies categories of the content of digital business strategy and categories of antecedents, implementation, and outcome.
The identified content of a digital business strategy primarily refers to the key categories of strategy scope and direction, competitive advantage, and resources or capabilities embedded in the strategy. The review findings display that the range of products or services, and the range of customer types or geographical markets, represent strategy scope while changes represent strategy directions. However, competitive advantage is more specific and it concerns, for example, the advantages of digital services and timely entry into digital markets. A company’s cooperation with, for example, customers via digital channels and resources such as digital infrastructures and related knowledge manifest important resources and capabilities embedded in a digital business strategy
A company’s knowledge of handling digitalization is a dominant category of antecedents of strategy content. The company may accumulate knowledge regarding the digitalization of organizational functions and analyzing Big Data, or other relevant areas. The external factor of competitive dynamics is a complementary antecedent. When it comes to the implementation of digital business strategies, obstacles such as difficulties to communicate management intentions internally and enablers such as timely moves in the market are key categories.
Finally, the results of building relationships with customers represent the operational outcome of implementing a digital business strategy and revenue growth is one financial outcome. The degree to which the company is successful when entering a particular niche of a digital market and building customer relations would manifest as an operational measure, while the growth of revenues during a certain period in time would be a relevant financial measure.
Chapter 2 presents the general model for a digital business strategy that includes the categories mentioned above and direct relationships among strategy content and antecedents, implementation, and outcome of the strategy. The model also incorporates categories that may moderate the direct relationships.
Message 2: Company Context Matters to Digital Business Strategy
To some degree, previous research addresses the importance of context to the shape of a company’s digital business strategy and relationships with relevant factors. However, there is still limited knowledge of how a company’s character indirectly affects the strategy and the relationships. In particular, further attention needs to be devoted to differences between the digital business strategies of companies with core competencies other than digitalization and companies specializing in digital
offerings and generally possessing greater digital experience. Most likely, companies of the two types possess different knowledge of digitalization affecting the shape of digital business strategies.
Clarification of features of strategies of companies of certain types would facilitate strategy formation that suits a particular company. The meta-analysis of the studies included in the systematic review shows that a non-specialized company generally possesses less digital knowledge than a company specializing in digital offerings. This means that any company can learn from this message and adapt a digital business strategy to the degree of the digital knowledge of the company in question. By adapting to the context, the company would be better equipped to formulate and develop a competitive digital business strategy.
Chapter 3 presents the findings of the meta-analysis of the reviewed studies. The analysis detected differences between topics relevant to companies that do not specialize in digital offerings and major topics of specialized companies. It was found that a non-specialized company generally is occupied extensively by exploring antecedents of a digital business strategy and, in particular, by determining relationships with resources or capabilities embedded in the strategy. The exploration would help the company to figure out what digital knowledge leads to success. On the other hand, a company specializing in digital offerings puts the most effort into finding an effective competitive advantage that would be unique in the market and produce a great outcome of implementing the strategy.
Message 3: Company Cases Display Generic and Contextual Issues
Comprehensive company cases contribute to the in-depth understanding of generic and contextual issues of digital business strategy. The volume presents theoretically grounded issues encountered by companies handling digital business strategies. Questions to discuss in teaching situations, or otherwise, follow each case description.
• Chapter 4 relies on resource-based theory and the concepts of business relatedness and categorization of customers. The empirical company case concerns the financial technology industry and specifically mobile payment platforms. The case illustrates the generic issues of determining the scope of services and customers under the influence of competition.
• Chapter 5 illustrates the generic issue of developing a digital competitive advantage in retailing. After a long period of constant adding of country markets and stores to the portfolio, the fashion retailer of Hennes & Mauritz (H&M) started to adjust its strategy and largely prioritize responsiveness to customers’ preferences for experiences using various sales channels. Thus, the theoretical ground consists of a model for competitive international strategy and the omnichannel concept.
• Chapter 6 accounts for a generic issue. The case concerns Ericsson and its acquisitions of companies possessing dynamic capabilities relevant to digital innovations. The case reveals three phases from 1998 to 2021 when the acquisitions followed changes in the overall digital business strategy of Ericsson. The description aligns with the theoretical aspects of knowledge-based theory
and the concepts of dynamic capabilities and integration of acquisition into the framework of an acquiring company.
• Chapter 7 concerns issues central to companies that are not digitally specialized. Thus, drawing on competitive dynamics theory and the concept of customer preferences, the chapter reports the case of Volvo Cars. It illustrates the importance of resources and capabilities embedded in a digital business strategy. Knowledge resources may stem from competitive dynamics and experiences from, for example, manufacturing and supply chains. Furthermore, digital capabilities are not just essential to digitalizing the car itself, but also to the design of sales channels.
• Chapter 8 presents another contextual issue. It is relevant to digital specialist companies and the cases of the Booking.com platform and open audio platforms provide details. Both cases treat the issue of developing competitive advantages resulting in an expected operational outcome such as benefits for users or other central actors. In addition, the cases touch upon the importance of ecosystems composed of various actors delivering services. The Booking.com case also clarifies relationships between the booking platform and hotels and hotel guests.
Table 1.2 summarizes the applied theoretical aspects in the in-depth company cases.
Table 1.2 Applied theoretical aspects in the in-depth company cases
Issues Company cases
Generic issues
Chapter 4: Specifying the scope of digital services and customers
Chapter 5: Developing a digital competitive advantage
Chapter 6: Acquisition of dynamic digital innovation capabilities
Contextual issues
Chapter 7: Digital business strategy issues of manufacturing companies
Chapter 8: Business strategy issues of digital platforms
Mobile payment platforms
Hennes & Mauritz, 2012–2022
Ericsson, 1998–2021
Theoretical aspects References
Resource-based theory
Business relatedness
Categorization of customers
Competitive international strategy
Omnichannel
Dynamic capabilities
Knowledge-based theory
Integration of acquisitions
Volvo Cars
Competitive dynamics
Customer preferences
Booking.com Open audio platforms
Contingency theory
Competitive advantages
Ecosystem Coopetition
Network theory
Barney (1991) Pehrsson (2006)
Pehrsson (2008)
Pehrsson (2021)
Verhoef et al. (2015)
Teece (2007)
Grant (2002)
Björkman et al. (2007)
DiMaggio and Powell (1983) Pehrsson (2014)
Boyd et al. (2012)
Pehrsson (2016)
Stocker et al. (2017)
Bahar et al. (2022)
Kim (2018)
The applications range from theory bases to specific theoretical concepts. The theory bases include resource-based, knowledge-based theory, competitive dynamics, contingency theory, and network theory. The concepts consist of business relatedness, categorization of customers, competitive international strategy, omnichannel, dynamic capabilities, integration of acquisitions, customer preferences, competitive advantages, ecosystem, and competition.
Furthermore, the volume contributes by showing how to handle the generic issue of developing a digital business strategy. Thus, practical tools and examples from the in-depth company cases illustrate the use of a stepwise approach when a company develops a strategy. Initially, the four-step approach comprises the diagnosing of important antecedents of developing a strategy. Then follows the specifying of the strategy content, implementation of the strategy, and evaluation of the outcome of the implementation.
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Kristoffersen, E., Blomsma, F., Mikalefa, P. and Lia, J. (2020), “The smart circular economy: A digital-enabled circular strategies framework for manufacturing companies”, Journal of Business Research, Vol. 120, pp. 241–261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2020.07.044.
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Part I Content and Context of Digital Business Strategy
Introduction
Initially, this part of the volume presents a systematic review of studies on digital business strategy. A general model for the digital business strategy summarizes the findings of the review. More precisely, the review clarifies patterns of research by identifying the content of the strategy in terms of strategy scope or direction, competitive advantage, and resources or capabilities embedded in the strategy. Then follows detected relationships between the categories of strategy content and antecedents, implementation, and outcome.
The other chapter builds on a meta-analysis of the topics examined by the reviewed studies. The analysis shows that company context matters for digital business strategy. Thus, manufacturing companies and other companies that are not digital specialists tend to focus on resources and capabilities embedded in the strategies and relationships with antecedents such as digital knowledge and competitive dynamics. On the other hand, digital platforms, digital content providers, and other digitally specialized companies are extensively engaged in shaping competitive advantages and relationships with strategic outcomes. Information from various countries and companies illustrates how the relationships work in practice.
The General Model for Digital Business Strategy
The Systematic Review of Studies on Digital Business Strategy
By exploiting the ongoing digitalization in business settings, a company can develop a competitive digital business strategy. This endeavor needs to build on awareness of the relevant strategy content and crucial relationships with the strategy. However, research on digital business strategy is fragmented and it is difficult for a company to get assistance from research. To provide guidance, this author carried out a systematic review of research on the digital business strategy presented in 77 unique scientific articles published from 2008 to 2021. This section initially presents the conceptual framework for the review and the applied methods. The review resulted in a general model for the digital business strategies of companies and the end of the section displays the model.
Conceptual Framework for the Review
Sequential concepts constitute the foundation for organizing the review. Following the suggestion of Paul and Benito (2018), a relevant sequence starts with an antecedent followed by strategy content, strategy implementation, and outcome. First, an antecedent is a factor affecting the content of a digital business strategy, and the antecedent may originate from outside or inside the company. For example, the results of Koo et al. (2007) indicate that market turbulence and market uncertainty directly affect digital business strategy. In that study, a strategy is either a cost leadership strategy, a differentiation strategy, or a focus strategy in accordance with the strategy types of Porter (1980).
Second, strategy content refers to the strategy as such. The classical definition of Ansoff (1965) says that strategy determines the scope of a company’s products and market, and its long-term direction. In addition, strategy content is characterized by competitive advantages associated with corporate-wide resources such as experience and physical assets, or capabilities. The association builds on resourcebased theory (Barney, 1991; Grant, 1991; Penrose, 1959) that considers resources the most stable basis for competitive advantage. A capability represents a company’s ability to exploit resources and the capability may assume a dynamic character facilitating the company’s response to changing environments (e.g., Teece et al., 1997; Wan et al., 2011; Zahra et al., 2006).
Furthermore, strategy types may also embrace various competitive advantages such as low prices, or product innovations creating value for customers (Porter, 1980). However, while strategy content is generally due to the organizational level in question (Pehrsson, 2021), in digital contexts, it is often difficult to separate the corporate level from the business unit level (Menz et al., 2021). A major reason is that the same theoretical explanation may apply to strategies on both levels.
Third, a company may implement a strategy for a digital business by entering a particular market and then expanding, or entering one market after another. Initial decisions concern organizational aspects such as where value creation should be located. Furthermore, ways of arranging corporate control of the implementation must be outlined to ensure the fulfillment of strategic and operational goals. However, a company may encounter various obstacles to implementation ranging from insufficient financial resources to extensive managerial inertia (Liu, 2020; Vial, 2019; Zangiacomi et al., 2020). On the other hand, the company needs to cope with the obstacles and realize what may enable the implementation.
Fourth, strategy implementation is decisive for the outcome of a strategy (Pehrsson, 2021). The outcome may reflect a company’s operational performance when trying to seize market opportunities by developing and offering customized digital solutions, or by entering new markets (Schmid and Kotulla, 2011). Besides operational performance, financial performance is common when it comes to strategic outcomes. Regularly used financial measurements in competitive settings include accounting indicators such as sales growth and profits (Gnizy, 2019). However, there is no conceptual standard regarding measuring the performance linked to a business strategy (Choong and Islam, 2020), although a major step is to specify objectives against which to evaluate the outcome.
Applied Methods
The major search for relevant articles for the review took place on 19–20 April 2022, guided by keywords. In order to find unique articles, the first search used the Web of Science search engine, while the use of the OneSearch engine generated additional unique articles. The latter engine searches 56 databases simultaneously, including major databases such as Business Source Premier, Emerald, JSTOR, Sage Knowledge Online, Science Direct, Scopus, Springer Compact, Taylor & Francis, and Wiley Online Library.
Regarding keywords, article titles should contain “strategy” and “digital”, “digitalization”, or “digitization”. Also, “strategy” could appear in titles combined with any of the three variants of “digital” in article topics. To qualify for content analysis, an article should meet five criteria. First, because an article should be accessible to a wide audience, it should be in English and published during 2008–2021. The starting year was chosen because no relevant article was found on the Web of Science for 2008 and no article in One Search was published in 2007. Second, articles belonging to the business, or management, category. Third, full texts should be available online to facilitate content analysis. Application of criteria 1–3 resulted in 790 articles that were subject to a closer look in relation to the final criteria.
Another random document with no related content on Scribd:
acusan injustamente de haber ofendido á un amigo, ven aquí, Galo, pródigo de tu sangre y de tu vida.
Vé ahí las sombras que deben juntarse á la tuya, si todavía la sombra de un cuerpo es alguna cosa; porque á sus cantos de amor tú has unido los tuyos, elegante Tíbulo. ¡Que tus huesos descansen tranquilos y á salvo en la urna! ¡Que la tierra sea lijera á tu ceniza!
NOTAS AL PIE:
[11] Instrumento músico.
ELEGIA DÉCIMA.
ARGUMENTO.
A Céres: se lamenta de que no le sea permitido asistir á sus misterios con su señora.
Vé aquí el aniversario de las fiestas de Céres; la jóven bella reposa sola en su lecho no dividido. Rubia Céres, cuya fina cabellera es coronada de espigas, ¿por qué, pues, el dia de tu fiesta, nos privas tú el placer? Sin embargo, oh diosa, las naciones hablan de tu munificencia, y ninguna otra divinidad es más propicia á los mortales.
Antes de tí, los groseros habitantes de los campos no cocian pan, y el área era un nombre desconocido entre ellos. Pero los robles, primeros oráculos, producian la bellota: la bellota y la yerba tierna eran todo el alimento de los mortales. Céres, la primera, les enseñó á confiar á la tierra el grano que debia allí multiplicarse, y á segar con la hoz las espigas doradas; la primera que forzó á los toros á llevar el yugo, y partió, con el corvo diente del arado, la tierra largo tiempo ociosa. ¿Quién podria creer, después de esto, que quiera ver correr las lágrimas de los amantes, y ser honrada con sus tormentos y su continencia? Ciertamente que para gozar la vida activa de los campos no tiene aspereza, y su corazon no está cerrado al amor. Tomo por testigo á los cretenses, y todo no es pura fábula en esta Creta tan ufana por haber alimentado á Júpiter. Allí se crió el soberano del imperio celeste: allí mamó con infantiles lábios una leche bienhechora. Los testigos son aquí dignos de fé: su hijo de leche es el que garantiza su veracidad, y Céres convendrá, segun creo, en una debilidad muy conocida.
La diosa habia visto, al pié del monte Ida, al jóven Yasio, cuya mano segura cazaba las bestias feroces. Ella lo vió, y de pronto un fuego secreto se introdujo en sus venas delicadas. De un lado el pudor, y de otro el amor se disputaban su corazon; el amor triunfó del pudor Desde entonces hubiéseis visto secarse los surcos; y la tierra apenas dió tantos granos como se la habian confiado.
Despues de haber, con ayuda de azadas, revuelto bien sus campos, y abierto, con la reja del arado, el regazo rebelde de la tierra; despues de haberla en todas partes igualmente sembrado el confiado labrador veia defraudados sus deseos.
La diosa que preside á las mieses vivia retirada en lo más espeso de las selvas. Las coronas de espigas se habian desprendido de su larga cabellera. La Creta sola tuvo un año fértil y cosechas abundantes. Todos los lugares por donde la diosa habia pasado, estaban cubiertos de mieses. La misma Ida habia visto sus bosques llenarse de espigas amarillentas, y el feroz jabalí se alimentaba de trigo. El legislador Minos deseó muchos años semejantes; deseó que el amor de Céres fuese de larga duracion.
La pena que tú hubieras experimentado, rubia diosa, si te hubiese sido preciso descansar lejos de tu amante, estoy precisado á sufrirla en este dia consagrado á tus misterios. ¿Por qué es necesario que esté triste, cuando tú has vuelto á encontrar á una hija, á una reina que no es inferior á Juno más que por el capricho de la suerte? Los dias festivos invitan á la voluptuosidad, á los cantos y á los festines: tales son los presentes que conviene ofrecer á los dioses señores del universo.
ELEGIA UNDÉCIMA.
ARGUMENTO.
Cansado en fin de los numerosos desprecios de su señora, el poeta hace aquí el juramento de no volver á amar.
Mucho y por mucho tiempo he sufrido: tu perfidia ha puesto á prueba mi paciencia. ¡Huye de mi fatigado corazon, vergonzoso amor! Esto es hecho, me he sustraido al yugo, y he quebrantado mis cadenas: estos hierros que llevé sin vergüenza, tengo vergüenza al presente de haberlos llevado. Triunfo y pisoteo al Amor vencido. Es muy tarde, es verdad, que el bochorno me sube á la cara. ¡Vamos, valor y energía! Estos males tendrán un dia su recompensa. Los enfermos han debido frecuentemente su curacion á los venenos más amargos.
¡Qué! ¡yo he podido, yo, despues de tantas humillaciones, olvidarme hasta el punto de dormir en el suelo de tu puerta! ¡Qué! ¡yo he podido, yo, para no sé cuál amante que tú estrechabas entre tus brazos, hacerme, como un esclavo, el guardian de la casa que me estaba cerrada! Yo mismo lo he visto salir fatigado de tu casa, con el paso de un veterano gastado por el servicio. Aun he sufrido menos de verlo que de ser visto. ¡Ojalá semejante afrenta sea reservada para mis enemigos!
¿Cuándo has paseado tú sin encontrarme á tu lado, á mí, tu guardian, á mí, tu amante, á mí, tu inseparable compañero? mucho agradabas á las gentes, acompañada por mí; y mi amor te ha valido buen número de amantes. ¿Por qué recordaré los vergonzosos engaños de tu mentirosa lengua, y los dioses testigos de tantos juramentos violados para perderme? ¿Por qué diré aquellas señas de inteligencia, dirigidas durante la corrida, á jóvenes amantes, y aquellos términos convencionales para disfrazar el sentido de nuestras palabras? Un dia se me dijo que ella estaba enferma: yo corro á su casa enteramente perdido, enteramente fuera de mí; llego y no estaba enferma para mi rival.
Vé ahí, sin hablar de otras muchas, las afrentas que he tenido que sufrir frecuentemente. Busca hoy dia otro que pueda soportarlas en mi lugar. Ya mi popa, adornada de una corona votiva, vé, sin conmoverse, el fracaso de las olas que se levantan tras ella. Basta de caricias y de palabras otras veces poderosas: es trabajo perdido: no soy tan loco como lo fuí. Siento luchar en mi corazon, muy lijero y diversamente agitado, el amor á la vez y el ódio: y si no me engaño es el amor quien le enoja. Yo aborreceré, si puedo; si no yo amaré únicamente mi defendido cuerpo. El toro tampoco ama el yugo: lo aborrece y sin embargo lo lleva.
Huyo de su perfidia: su belleza es la que vuelve mis pasos hácia atrás. Aborrezco los vicios de su alma; amo los hechizos de su cuerpo. Así yo no puedo vivir ni sin tí, ni contigo; y yo mismo no sé lo que deseo. Yo querria que tú fueses ó menos bella ó menos pérfida. Tantos hechizos se aunan mal con tanta perversidad. Tu conducta escita el ódio, tu belleza encomienda al amor. ¡Desgraciado soy! sus atractivos pueden más que sus defectos.
Perdóname, yo te conjuro por los derechos de aquella cama que nos fué comun, por todos los dioses (¡pudiesen frecuentemente dejarse engañar por tí!), por tu semblante que adoro como una divinidad poderosa, por tus ojos que han cautivado los mios: como sea, siempre serás mi amiga. Escoje solamente si quieres que te ame por gusto ó por fuerza. ¡Ah! despleguemos cuanto antes las velas y aprovechemos los vientos favorables; porque á pesar de mis esfuerzos, no me veria yo menos obligado á amar.
ELEGIA DUODÉCIMA.
ARGUMENTO.
Siente que sus escritos hayan dado demasiado á conocer á su bella.
Decidme, lúgubres aves, ¿qué dia fué aquel en que no me augurásteis sino amores desgraciados? ¿Qué astro supondré sea hostil á mis deseos? ¿Qué dioses debo acusar de hacerme la guerra? Aquella que no há mucho se llamaba toda mia; aquella de quien fuí el primero y solo amante, temo no poseerla sino con mil rivales.
¿Me engañé? ¿O es que mis escritos no la han hecho demasiado conocer? Ella era toda mia; mi genio poético ha hecho de ella una cortesana. Y yo lo he merecido: ¿tenia yo necesidad, en efecto, de preconizar su belleza? si ella se vende hoy, la falta es mia. Por mi mediacion ella agrada: soy yo quien le trae amantes; mis propias manos le abren la puerta. ¿Son útiles los versos? esta es una cuestion: ciertamente ellos me han sido siempre funestos; son los que han atraido sobre mi tesoro las miradas de la envidia.
Cuando yo podia cantar á Thebas, Troya ó los altos hechos de César, solo Corina encendió mi genio. ¡Ojalá las Musas hubiesen sido rebeldes á mis primeros esfuerzos, y Febo me hubiese abandonado en medio de mi carrera! Y sin embargo, como es costumbre tomar por testigos á los poetas, que hubiese preferido que la medida hubiera faltado á mis versos.
Nosotros somos los que hemos mostrado á Scyla, arrancando á su anciano padre el cabello fatal, condenada á ver salir de sus entrañas perros furiosos. Somos nosotros quienes hemos puesto alas á los piés, y dado serpientes á la cabellera. A nosotros debe el victorioso pequeño hijo de Abas el hendir los aires sobre un caballo alado. Nosotros hemos dado á Tityo su prodigiosa grandeza, y á Cerbero sus tres bocas y su crin de serpientes. Encélada ha recibido de nosotros mil brazos para lanzar sus dardos, y por nosotros un
jóven májico somete los héroes á sus encantamientos. Nosotros hemos cerrado los vientos eólicos en los odres del rey de Itaca; gracias á nosotros el indiscreto Tántalo padece sed en el seno mismo de las aguas; Nicole se cámbia en peñasco, y una jóven vírgen en osa; gracias á nosotros el ave de Cécrops canta el Odrysio Itys; Júpiter se transforma en ave ó en oro; ó, convertido en toro, hiende las ondas, llevando sobre su espinazo una vírgen tímida. ¿A qué recordar no solo á Protea, sino aquellos dientes de donde nacieron los Tebanos? ¿Diré que fué de los toros que vomitaban llamas? ¿ó que lágrimas de ámbar corrieron de los ojos de tus hermanas, desgraciado Faeton? ¿que embarcaciones han sido cambiadas en diosas del mar? ¿que el sol retrocedió de horror, por miedo de alumbrar el horrible festín de Atrea? ¿que los más duros peñascos fueron sensibles á los acordes de una lira?
El vuelo del fecundo genio de los poetas no conoce límites; no se sujeta á la fidelidad de la historia. Tambien se hubieran debido mirar como falsas las alabanzas que daba á mi señora: vuestra credulidad es hoy dia la causa de mi desdicha.
ELEGÍA DÉCIMOTERCIA.
ARGUMENTO.
Fiesta de Juno.
Siendo mi mujer originaria del fértil pais de los Faliscos, hemos visto aquellos muros en otro tiempo vencidos por tí, ilustre Camilo. Las sacerdotisas de la casta Juno se disponian á celebrar su fiesta con juegos solemnes y con el sacrificio de una vaquilla indígena. Poderoso motivo para mí de detenerme; yo queria ver aquella ceremonia, aunque no se llega al lugar en que se hace, más que por un camino montuoso y difícil.
Es un antiguo bosque sagrado, cuya espesura le hace impenetrable al dia; no es menester más que verle para reconocer que una divinidad reside allí. Un altar recibia las súplicas y el incienso ofrecido por la piedad, un altar hecho sin arte por las manos de nuestros antepasados. Allí es de donde á los primeros acentos de la trompeta cada año el cortejo de Juno parte y avanza por los caminos tapizados. Conduce, en medio de los aplausos del pueblo, blancas vaquillas alimentadas con los crasos pastos de Falisca, jóvenes becerros cuya frente no está aun armada ni amenazante, el humilde puerco, víctima más modesta, y el jefe del rebaño con la cabeza dura y adornada de cuernos encorvados. Solo la cabra es odiosa á la potente diosa, despues que en un bosque espeso descubrió la presencia de Juno, y la obligó á detenerse en su huida. Además los niños, hoy dia aun, persiguen con sus flechas á la cabra indiscreta, y el primero que la ha herido la obtiene en premio de su destreza.
En todas partes por que la diosa debe pasar, tiernos muchachos y vírgenes tímidas cubren de tapiz los verdes caminos. El oro y las pedrerías brillan en los cabellos de las jóvenes, y una ropa magnífica desciende hasta caer sobre sus piés donde brilla el oro. A la manera de los griegos, sus padres, marchan vestidas de blanco, y llevan sobre su cabeza los objetos del culto confiados á sus cuidados. El pueblo guarda silencio durante la marcha del brillante
cortejo. En fin, á continuacion de las sacerdotisas aparece la misma diosa.
La fisonomía de este espectáculo es enteramente griega. Despues del asesinato de Agamemnon, Haleso no pensó más que en huir del teatro del crímen y de los ricos dominios de sus padres. Despues de arriesgadas carreras por tierra y por mar, edificó, bajo felices auspicios, una ciudad rodeada de altas murallas. De él han aprendido los Faliscos á celebrar las fiestas de Juno. ¡Que ellas me sean siempre favorables! ¡que ellas lo sean siempre á su pueblo!
ELEGIA DÉCIMOCUARTA.
ARGUMENTO.
A su señora.
Yo no te prohibo, bella como eres, tener algunas debilidades; lo que yo no quiero, es el dolor y la necesidad para mí de saberlas. No, yo no exijo censor rígido, que seas casta y púdica; lo que yo te pido es que procures parecerlo. No es culpable la que puede negar el hecho que se le imputa; la confesion que hace es la que la deshonra. ¿Qué manía es esa, de revelar cada mañana los secretos de la noche, y proclamar á la luz del dia lo que no haces más que en la sombra?
La cortesana antes de abandonarse al primero que llega, tiene cuidado de poner entre ella y el público una puerta bien cerrada. ¡Y tú, tú divulgas en todas partes tus vergonzosos extravíos, orgullosa de ser á la vez la delatora y la culpable! Sé en adelante más casta, ó al menos imita á las mujeres púdicas. Que yo te crea honesta aunque no lo seas. Culpable ayer, sé culpable hoy; pero no lo confieses, y no te avergüences en público de hablar un lenguaje modesto.
Un apartado retiro provoca el desarreglo; que sea el solo teatro de todos tus placeres, desterrado de allí el pudor. Pero desde que salgas, no conserves nada de la cortesana, y en tu lecho queden sepultados tus crímenes. Allí, no te ruborices de quitarle la túnica y sostener otro muslo apoyado sobre el tuyo. Allí, recibe hasta el fondo de tu encarnada boca una lengua amorosa, y que para tí el amor invente mil especies de voluptuosidades. Allí ninguna tregua á los dulces coloquios, á las palabras halagüeñas, y que tu cama cruja con los vivos apretones del placer. Toma en seguida, con tus vestidos, la modesta postura de una virgen tímida, y que el pudor de tu frente niegue la lascivia de tu conducta. Engaña al público, engáñame; pero permite al menos que yo lo ignore, y déjame gozar de mi tonta credulidad.
¿Por qué delante de mí, tantos billetes enviados y recibidos? ¿Por qué tu lecho está batanado á la vez por todos lados? ¿Por qué veo sobre tus hombros tus cabellos en un desórden que no ha causado el sueño, y sobre tu cuello la marca de un diente? No te falta más que hacerme testigo ocular de tu vida licenciosa. ¡Oh! si tú te cuidas poco de atender á tu reputacion, cuídate de mí al menos. Mi alma me abandona, y me siento morir todas las veces que tú te reconoces culpable; y en mis venas corre una sangre helada. Entonces amo, entonces me esfuerzo en vano en aborrecer lo que me veo forzado á amar; entonces yo quisiera morir, pero contigo.
No haré yo ninguna averiguacion; no insistiré, desde que te vea pronta á negar: tu denegacion solo equivaldrá á inocencia. Si no obstante llegara yo á sorprenderte en flagrante delito, si mis ojos hubieran de ser un dia testigos de tu vergüenza, lo que yo hubiera visto demasiado bien, niega que lo haya visto, y mis ojos tendrán menos autoridad que tus palabras. Así te será fácil vencer á un enemigo que no pide más que ser vencido. Que solamente tu lengua se acuerde de decir: «No soy culpable.» Cuando puedes tan fácilmente triunfar con estas dos palabras, triunfa, si no por la bondad de tu causa, al menos por la indulgencia de tu juez.
ELEGÍA DÉCIMOQUINTA.
ARGUMENTO.
Dice adios á su Musa lasciva, para seguir otra más severa. Busca un nuevo poeta, madre de los tiernos Amores; yo no tengo más que tocar la meta de mi carrera elegíaca. Estos cantos que he compuesto, yo, hijo de los campos pelignos, han hecho mis delicias y mi nombradía. Si este honor es alguna cosa, yo he heredado, del primero como del último de mis antepasados, el título de caballero, y no lo debo al tumulto de las armas. Mántua está envanecido de Virgilio, Verona de Catulo: se me llamará á mí, la gloria del pueblo Peligno, de este pueblo cuyo amor por la libertad le impuso el santo deber de combatir, en la época en que Roma inquieta tembló delante de las armas reunidas para su ruina. Un dia, viendo la pantanosa Sulmona encerrada en el estrecho circuito de sus muros, el viajero exclamará: «Villa que has sido cuna de tal poeta, tan pequeña como eres, te proclamo grande.»
Amable niño, y tú, Vénus, madre de este amable niño, arrancad de mi campo vuestros dorados estandartes. El dios cuya frente está armada de cuernos, Baco, agitando cerca de mí su temible tirso, me apresura á lanzar los corceles vigorosos en una más vasta carrera. Vosotras, delicadas elegías, y tú, Musa lijera, adios: mi obra me sobrevivirá.
ÍNDICE DE ESTA OBRA.
Elegía 1.ª Argumento. Por qué el poeta pasa de los versos heróicos á los eróticos. 11
Elegía 2 ª Argumento Descríbese el triunfo del amor 13
Elegía 3.ª Argumento. Se recomienda á su querida por las excelencias de la poesía, la pureza de sus costumbres y la fidelidad á toda prueba que ofrece.
Elegía 4 ª—Argumento —Antes de cenar con su querida le indica las señas con que podrán manifestarse su mutuo amor á presencia del marido. 17
Elegía 5.ª Argumento. Alégrase de haber poseido á su amiga. 21
Elegía 6 ª—Argumento —Imprecaciones contra el portero que rehusaba abrirle la puerta. 22
Elegía 7.ª Argumento. Contra sí mismo por haberle pegado á su querida. 26
Elegía 8.ª Argumento. Contra una alcahueta que intentaba enseñar á la querida del poeta las artes de la prostitucion. 30
Elegía 9 ª Argumento Gracioso paralelo entre la guerra y el amor 36
Elegía 10. Argumento. A una jóven para apartarla de la prostitucion. 39
Elegía 11. Argumento. Suplica á Nape lleve un billete amoroso á Corina
Elegía 12. Argumento. Maldice las tabletas portadoras de la respuesta negativa de su dama.
Elegía 13 Argumento A la Aurora, para que no acelere demasiado su marcha
Elegía 14. Argumento. A una muchacha vuelta calva de repente.
Elegía 15. Argumento. Contra los adversarios de la poesía. 53
LIBRO II
Elegía 1.ª Argumento. Por qué en lugar de la jigantomaquia que tenia comenzada, canta sus amores.
Elegía 2 ª—Argumento —Al eunuco Bagoas, para que le procure fácil acceso junto á la belleza confiada á su guarda.
Elegía 3.ª Argumento. Al mismo que se mostraba inflexible.
Elegía 4.ª—Argumento.—Su inclinacion al amor; por qué todas las bellas, sin distincion, le agradaban.
Elegía 5.ª Argumento. Dirige reproches á su señora, quien á su vista mientras fingía dormir, habia dado á otro convidado señales inequívocas de su amor
Elegía 6.ª Argumento. Deplora la muerte del papagayo que habia regalado á su señora.
Elegía 7 ª Argumento A Corina: niega haber tenido jamás ningun comercio con Cipasis
Elegía 8.ª Argumento. A Cipasis le pregunta cómo Corina ha podido saber el secreto de sus amores.
Elegía 9 ª Argumento A Cupido: le exhorta para que no gaste todas sus flechas contra él solo
Elegía 10. Argumento. A Grecino: se puede muy bien, dígase como se quiera, amar á dos mujeres á la vez.
Elegía 11 —Argumento —Trata de disuadir á Corina de su proyecto de ir á las bayas de Campania
56
59
63
64
67
71
75
77
79
82
84
Elegía 12. Argumento. Se goza por fin de haber obtenido los favores de Corina. 88
Elegía 13 —Argumento —A Isis: le pide proteja la preñez de Corina 90
Elegía 14. Argumento. A Corina: aprovecha su restablecimiento para exponerle más libremente la gravedad de su falta.
Elegía 15.—Argumento.—Al anillo que él habia enviado como presente á su señora.
Elegía 16. Argumento. A Corina induciéndola á que vaya á su casa de campo de Sulmona
Elegía 17. Argumento. Se compadece de Corina, demasiado engreida de su belleza.
92
95
97
100
Elegía 18. Argumento. A Macer: Se justifica de entregarse enteramente á cantos eróticos. 102
Elegía 19.—Argumento.—A un hombre cuya mujer amaba. 104 LIBRO III.
Elegía 1 ª—Argumento —La Tragedia y la Elegía se disputan la posesion de Ovidio. 109
Elegía 2.ª Argumento. Los juegos del Circo. 113
Elegía 3.ª—Argumento.—A su amiga, que habia faltado á sus juramentos.
Elegía 4.ª Argumento. Exhorta á un marido á no hacer vigilar tan severamente á su mujer 121
Elegía 5.ª Argumento. Sueño. 124
Elegía 6 ª Argumento A un rio que crecia de repente de una manera prodigiosa, y se oponia al paso del poeta, ansioso de llegar cerca de su señora
Elegía 7.ª Argumento. Contra él mismo por haber caido en falta con su querida.
Elegía 8 ª Argumento A su señora que habia preferido un amante más rico que Ovidio
Elegía 9.ª Argumento. Sobre la muerte de Tíbulo. 142
Elegía 10 Argumento A Céres: se lamenta de que no le sea permitido asistir á sus misterios con su señora
Elegía 11. Argumento. Cansado en fin de los numerosos desprecios de su señora, el poeta hace aquí el juramento de no volver á amar.
Elegía 12 Argumento Siente que sus escritos hayan dado demasiado á conocer á su bella
Elegía 13. Argumento. Fiesta de Juno.
Elegía 14 —Argumento —A su señora 157
Elegía 15. Argumento. Dice adios á su Musa lasciva, para seguir otra más severa.
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