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The Routledge Pocket Guide to Medical Latin is a medical reference tool like no other, providing an easy-to-use, extensive guide to Latin words and phrases commonly used in medical settings.
Offering readers a treasury of over 4000 Latin words and phrases, over 900 abbreviations, and numerous tables with dozens of useful Latin terms and interesting quotations drawn from the field of medicine, this volume also encompasses the related fields of pharmacy, botany, dentistry, and the veterinary sciences. This book provides quick and accessible definitions and explanations of Latin words and phrases used in the medical world, as well as a helpful pronunciation guide. In addition, there is a section of miscellaneous entries that comprises useful information, including common Latin prepositions, prefixes, and particles. Included at the end of this book is an extensive English-Latin index.
The Routledge Pocket Guide to Medical Latin is an invaluable reference work for medical and pharmacy students and practitioners, as well as general readers interested in the history of medicine and in medical terminology.
Dr. Jon R. Stone is a best-selling author and Professor of Religious Studies at California State University, Long Beach. He is the author of Latin for the Illiterati, More Latin for the Illiterati, The Routledge Dictionary of Latin Quotations, and The Routledge Book of World Proverbs, among many others.
The Routledge Latin Pocket Guides (in Three Separate Volumes)
Volume 1: The Routledge Pocket Guide to Medical Latin
Volume 2: The Routledge Pocket Guide to Legal Latin
Volume 3: The Routledge Pocket Guide to Religious Latin
Also by Jon R. Stone
Dictionnaire Rose des Locutions Latines (2007)
Latin for the Illiterati, 2nd ed. (2009)
More Latin for the Illiterati (1999)
The Routledge Book of World Proverbs (2006)
The Routledge Dictionary of Latin Quotations (2005) and
The Craft of Religious Studies (1998)
The Essential Max Müller: On Language, Mythology, and Religion (2002)
Expecting Armageddon: Essential Readings in Failed Prophecy (2000)
A Guide to the End of the World (1993)
On the Boundaries of American Evangelicalism (1997)
The Routledge Pocket Guide to Medical Latin
Jon R. Stone
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First published 2024 by Routledge 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge
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British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Stone, Jon R., 1959– author.
Title: The Routledge pocket guide to medical Latin / Jon R. Stone.
Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2024. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2023044767 (print) | LCCN 2023044768 (ebook) | ISBN 9781032186061 (hbk) | ISBN 9781032186054 (pbk) | ISBN 9781003255352 (ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Latin language—Terms and phrases. | Latin language—Medical Latin. | Medicine—Terminology.
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023044767
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023044768
ISBN: 978-1-032-18606-1 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-18605-4 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-25535-2 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003255352
Typeset in Times New Roman by Apex CoVantage, LLC
For my sister-in-law
Dr. Dawn Salpaka Stone with love and admiration
Ubi desinit philosophus, ibi incipit medicus.
(Where the philosopher ends, the physician begins.)
Preface viii
References & Sources xiii
Pronunciation Guide xvi
The Routledge Pocket Guide to Medical Latin 1
Selected Maxims and Quotations: On Life, Death, Sickness, and the Healing Arts
Abbreviations
Miscellanea (Miscellaneous)
Some Common Prepositions and Particles 142
Some Common Prefixes 143
Some Useful Medical Directives 144
The Latin Calendar 144
Roman Numerals 145
Some Apothecary Weights and Measures 147
Some Elements on the Periodic Table 147
Varieties of Primary and Secondary Colors 148
Selected Medical and Botanical Place Names 148
Preface
In the 1906 Introduction to Reginald Bennett’s Medical and Pharmaceutical Latin, Henry Greenish of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain lamented the noticeable shift away from the use of Latin in the writing of prescriptions both in Britain and on the Continent. While it seemed understandable that busy professionals would write their medical directives in the vernacular, ‘yet,’ as Greenish asserted, ‘there is much to be said in favor of a universal language for pharmacopoeias and physicians’ prescriptions.’ For one thing, he argued, with the rapid advance in travel across Europe, let alone the globe, there would be every danger of inaccuracies in dispensing medicines and preparations written in a variety of languages. Such mishaps could be averted ‘in the writing of these prescriptions in a universal language, Latin, by which they would be readily intelligible to the pharmacists of the countries, just as systematic descriptions of plants are written in Latin and are universally intelligible to systematic botanists’ (1906:v).
It was to correct this deficiency that Bennett published his book, whose chief aim was to provide guidance to medical students whose modest familiarity with classical Latin might prove insufficient to meet the technical demands of the profession. Or, as Bennett himself put it, the medical student must learn ‘to write correctly and to translate intelligibly and appropriately medical directions’ as well as ‘a large number of new prescriptions written in the abbreviated Latin style used by physicians’ (1906:vii).
A decade later, in 1917, Otto Wall of the St. Louis College of Medicine echoed much of Bennett’s and Greenish’s concerns over the need for a common language in medicine. In the United States, however, Wall noted that vernacular English varied greatly by region—itself a cause for general confusion—and therefore made use of Latin as a common language among pharmacists and physicians all the more critical to know.
But further, Wall argued that the use of English by physicians might, first, ‘needlessly hamper treatment of disease by the foolish notions of the patient’ and, second, might arouse suspicions among the public who
would soon know not only the nature of the ingredients of a prescription, but also their intrinsic values, and would, therefore,
refuse to pay more than commercial profits for medical treatment or medicines, and proper remuneration for professional services and responsibilities would cease (1917:88).
Despite these financial concerns, and the ever-present carnival sideshow of quacks and charlatans purveying their own nostrums—and the potential perils that lay in what Bennett had derisively dubbed ‘selfdrugging’ among the masses—Wall voiced additional and more urgent concern over maintaining the professional standing of the healing arts in America, a standing that Latin as ‘a universal language of science’ had historically provided in Europe (1917:88–9; and Bennett 1906:viii).
Now, over a century later, the use of Latin as well as Greek words and phrases remains a common and necessary part of the specialized nomenclature that defines the epistemological foundations of the profession of medicine, not to mention law and theology. What those within these professions know about their respective fields—and how they know what they know—are questions that not only engage professors and practitioners but all college and graduate students who are preparing for careers in these fields, especially those in medicine.
Even so, it is not simply through the wealth of Greek and Latin words and phrases, prefixes and suffixes, that the modern world’s connection to its classical past has been maintained. The body of knowledge bequeathed to medicine extends, as well, to the methods and techniques, prognosis and diagnosis, preparations and cures passed down and refined throughout the long centuries of development of the healing arts in Europe, America, and the West (and now being augmented by the healing wisdom of India and China). Indeed, much of the early techniques of medicine began during the Golden Age of Greece through the life and work of Hippocrates of Kos (BCE c.460–c.370) and passed along to the Roman world through the work of Galen (129–216 CE), and by many others.
It is primarily through the writings of Hippocrates, the natural philosopher and spiritual descendant of Asclepius, the god of medicine, that we find the earliest testament to the ancient art of healing, brought vividly to life through writings that display his inquisitive nature, reasoned process, and holistic approach. And it is to Hippocrates that the medical profession owes its method of careful empirical observation. For, as Elias Marks had long ago observed, it was Hippocrates who
first divided diseases into epidemic, endemic, and sporadic, according to the present acceptations of these terms; and these diseases
x Preface
he again divided into acute and chronic. The duration of an acute disease was distinguished by the beginning, height, decline, and termination (1818:xxiii).
Although widely celebrated in his own time, Hippocrates is best known in our day for his popular maxim primus non nocere, the first duty of the physician is to do no harm, and for the Hippocratic Oath, in which young apprentices vowed to treat the sick, to abstain from causing intentional harm, and to keep the patient’s confidence. Lesser known by the public is Hippocrates’ book, Aphorisms, in which he laid out his careful observations of physical symptoms, prescribed treatments as well as noted their affects through short, memorable statements, much in the same way that a teacher might instruct his or her students. The most noteworthy of these statements, and perhaps the most quoted line from this collection, is found in the first of Hippocrates’ aphorisms: ‘Vita brevis, ars longa’ (Life is short, art long). Those who typically encounter this quote often see it emblazoned on car bumpers or stenciled on a sporty tee or as a webpage banner or on a refrigerator magnet. Though certainly a familiar saying today, the word ars, as translated from the Greek (τέχνη) and as also found in the Oath (line 10), actually means something like method, skill, trade, or possibly practice, not our modern concept of the fine arts, as in painting, sculpture, or dance. Most often this pithy statement strikes people as a deep or otherwise sober-minded saying, with the emphasis being on vita brevis. But in fact, Hippocrates’ first aphorism, from which this line is plucked, conveys an even greater sense of urgency to those who wish to engage in the healing arts. In Latin: ‘Vita brevis, ars longa, occasio praeceps, experientia fallax, judicium difficile.’ That is, ‘Life is short, the art long; occasion fleeting; experience deceiving; judgment difficult.’ And what doctor, nurse, or other medical practitioner has not felt this way? As Hippocrates himself might have counseled: Life is short, and the time that it requires to master the skills and techniques of medicine is longer than one life. Or, rather, life is short, learn all you can!
While originally formulated in the now-dead languages of Greek and Latin, over many generations since the time of the ancients, the methods and techniques of the art of medicine have continued to be sharpened, refined, and improved by their devoted heirs who also continued to employ Greek and Latin as their common specialized languages, thus giving sustained life and relevance to these classical
languages into our own day. In this spirit, The Routledge Pocket Guide to Medical Latin offers readers a treasury of useful Latin words and phrases drawn from the field of medicine, broadly conceived to encompass the related branches of pharmacy, chemistry, botany, dentistry, and the veterinary sciences. (Persons involved in homeopathy, home remedies, and herbal cures may find these pages of interest as well.) Though written primarily as a quick reference for the student and practitioner of medicine, translations from Latin into English have been simplified wherever possible, and numerous examples have been provided to help clarify meanings that might otherwise appear vague or overly technical for general-interest readers. Obsolete terms and their related practices—such as bloodletting (venaesectio) and the use of leeches (applicentur hirudines)—have been included for historical interest.
In all, there are over 4000 separate entries in the main body of this guide with an additional 900 abbreviations of terms, instruments, elements, and medical directives. To help enliven this work, there is also included some 100 Latin maxims and quotations related to life, death, sickness, and the healing arts, including five by or attributed to Hippocrates himself. In addition, there is a section of miscellaneous entries that comprises a variety of useful reference information, from common Latin prepositions, particles, and prefixes, to the Roman calendar (months and days), a chart of Roman numerals, apothecary weights and measures, some Latin elements on the Periodic Table, and a veritable rainbow of Latin names for primary and secondary colors, and also a selection of Latin place names used both in medicine and by botanists. Included at the end of this book is an extensive, though not comprehensive, English-Latin Index.
To modify an old Spanish proverb: ‘The silent err not.’ To write a book, especially a reference book, often means that one risks making slips of the pen, in this case the inadvertent typographical error or awkwardly translated (or retranslated) word or phrase. And indeed, variations in spelling and word order as well as changes in meaning and usage over time can create their own challenges, hence my use of some older sources. In all of these instances, the author begs the reader’s kind indulgence.
To write a book is also to incur debts, both professional as well as personal. Over the years, a number of university colleagues, program directors and chairs, professional associates, and editors have taken an interest in my Latin projects and also have pointed my career
xii Preface
in the right direction. I owe them much and truly appreciate all their collegiality and support. Most especially, I would like to thank the editors and production staff at Routledge for nearly thirty years of fruitful association, with appreciation to the present efforts of Amy Davis-Pointer, Marcia Adams, Lizzi Rich, Sophie Dixon-Dash, Marie Roberts (Apex), and two unnamed reviewers for their guidance and helpful suggestions on how to improve this present volume.
Finally, my deepest gratitude always and forever goes to my family and longtime friends—far too many to name but not too many to remember with heartfelt appreciation. It seems more than fitting that the dedication of this pocket guide to medical Latin be presented to my sister-in-law, Dr. Dawn Salpaka Stone, my brother Richard’s wife, whose whole life of dedicated service to the medical profession and joy-filled spirit inspire all who know her, me most of all.
Vita
Brevis, Ars Longa
Jon R. Stone, Ph.D.
California State University, Long Beach August 2023
References & Sources
Antoniou, George A., Stavros A. Antoniou, George S. Georgiadis, and Athanasios I. Antoniou. “A Contemporary Perspective of the First Aphorism of Hippocrates.” Journal of Vascular Surgery 56, 3 (September 2012): 866–8.
Barton, Wilfred M., and Walter A. Wells. Thesaurus of Medical Words and Phrases. Philadelphia and London: W.B. Saunders & Co., 1903.
Bennett, Charles E. New Latin Grammar (2nd ed., revised; reprinted). Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1963.
Bennett, Reginald R. Medical and Pharmaceutical Latin for Students of Pharmacy and Medicine. London: J. & A. Churchill, 1906.
Boardman, John, et al. (eds.). The Oxford History of the Classical World. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986.
Caspari, Charles, and E.F. Kelly. A Treatise on Pharmacy for Students and Pharmacists (7th ed., thoroughly revised). Philadelphia and New York: Lea & Febiger, 1926.
de Vaan, Michiel. Etymological Dictionary of Latin and the Other Italic Languages. Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2008.
Eggleston, Cary. Essentials of Prescription Writing (7th ed., revised). Philadelphia and London: W.B. Saunders Co., 1942.
French, Roger. Canonical Medicine: Gentile da Foligno and Scholasticism. Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2001.
Glare, P.G.W. (ed.). Oxford Latin Dictionary (2nd ed., reprinted with corrections). Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016.
Gledhill, David. The Names of Plants (3rd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
Grant, Edward. A History of Natural Philosophy from the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
Greene, Ryland W. Lippincott’s Medical Dictionary (rev. ed.). Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1905.
Greenough, J.B., et al. (eds.). Allen & Greenough’s New Latin Grammar (reprint of 1903 ed.). New Rochelle: Aristide D. Caratzas, 1983.
Guterman, Norbert (ed.). The Anchor Book of Latin Quotations. New York: Anchor Books, 1990.
Hippocrates. Collected Works (vol. 1, W.H.S. Jones, trans.). The Loeb Classical Library. London: William Heinemann; Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1957.
Hoerr, Normand L., and Arthur Osol (eds.). Blakiston’s New Gould Medical Dictionary (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, 1956.
Howe, George, and John Grover Beard. Latin for Pharmacists. Philadelphia: P. Blakiston’s Son & Company, 1916.
xiv References & Sources
Ince, Joseph. The Latin Grammar of Pharmacy for Use of Medical and Pharmaceutical Students (10th ed.). London: Baillière, Tindall & Cox, 1920.
Israelowich, Ido. Patients and Healers in the High Roman Empire. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2015.
Konstantinidis, Giannis. Elsevier’s Dictionary of Medicine and Biology (Part 1, Basic Table). San Diego: Elsevier, 2005.
Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. A New Latin Dictionary (revised, enlarged, and rewritten). New York: Harper & Brothers; Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1884.
Marks, Elias. The Aphorisms of Hippocrates, etc. New York: Collins & Company, 1818.
McKeown, J.C. A Cabinet of Ancient Medical Curiosities. New York: Oxford University Press, 2017.
Moreland, Floyd L., and Rita M. Fleischer. Latin: An Intensive Course. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977.
Morwood, James. A Latin Grammar. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Muldoon, Hugh C. Lessons in Pharmaceutical Latin and Prescription Writing and Interpretation (3rd ed., revised). New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1937.
Riley, H.T. (ed.). Dictionary of Latin Quotations, etc. London: Henry G. Bohn, 1859.
Scanlon, Valerie C. Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology (5th ed.). Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company, 2007.
Scott, William A. “The Practice of Medicine in Ancient Rome.” Canadian Anaesthetists’ Society Journal 2, 3 (July 1955): 281–90.
Stearn, William T. Botanical Latin (3rd ed.). Newton Abbot and London: David & Charles Publishers, 1983.
Stone, Jon R. More Latin for the Illiterati. New York and London: Routledge, 1999.
Stone, Jon R. The Routledge Dictionary of Latin Quotations. New York and London: Routledge, 2005.
Stone, Jon R. Latin for the Illiterati (2nd ed.). New York and London: Routledge, 2009.
Thomas, J. A Comprehensive Medical Dictionary, etc. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott & Company, 1876.
Trayner, John. Latin Phrases and Maxims. Edinburgh: William Patterson, 1861.
Wall, Otto A. The Prescription, Therapeutically, Pharmaceutically, Grammatically and Historically Considered (4th ed., revised). St. Louis: C.V. Mosby Company, 1917.
Webster’s II: New Riverside University Dictionary. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1984.
References & Sources xv
Webster’s New World Dictionary (3rd College ed.). New York: Prentice Hall, 1988.
Wheelock, Frederic M., and Richard A. LaFleur. Wheelock’s Latin (6th ed., revised). New York: HarperCollins, 2005.
Woods, Robert S. The Naturalist’s Lexicon. Pasadena: Abbey Garden Press, 1944.
Wyeth, John. An Epitome of Therapeutics. Philadelphia: John Wyeth & Brothers, 1901.
Yapijakis, Christos. “Hippocrates of Kos, the Father of Clinical Medicine, and Asclepiades of Bithynia, the Father of Molecular Medicine.” In Vivo 23 (2009): 507–14.
Pronunciation Guide
In pronouncing Latin, it is helpful to know that most Latin sounds have corresponding standard American English sounds, but with the rules for long and short vowel sounds being more consistently applied. Indeed, long and short vowel sounds refer simply to the duration of the sound, that is, how long the vowel should be voiced within its given syllable. For convenience, the basic Latin vowel sounds are pronounced accordingly: a = ah, e = eh, i = ee, o = oh, u = oo.
As examples, the long a in father is the same sound as the long a in the Latin word pater. The short a in the English words par and far are very similar in sound to that of the Latin words pax and fax. The short e in pet is similar in sound to the Latin et, as is the short i in twig the same as the i in the Latin word signum. The long o in Ohio sounds very much like the o in the Latin word dolor. Similarly, the short o in pot is pronounced similarly to the short o in populus. Likewise, the Latin u in runa and pudicus, one long and the other short, sound the same as the long and short u vowels in rude and put.
Readers should also keep in mind that in Latin, unlike English, all the syllables in a word are pronounced, including the final e and es, such as in the words arte and artes, duce and duces, fide and fides, opinione, and legiones.
With respect to Latin consonants, one should nearly always pronounce them as those in standard American English (e.g., b = b, d = d, f = f, l = l, m = m, n = n, p = p, r = r, s = s, t = t, etc.), with the exception of c, g, h, and v, which are always pronounced like k (as in kirk), g (as in give, gave, and go), h (as in hard), and v as v or w (as in vine and vise or we and was) respectively. The letters i and j, when placed before another vowel, such as iam/jam and ius/jus, are pronounced like the consonant y (as in you, yam, and yeti), not the consonant j. The convention of substituting the letter j for i, when used as a consonant, appeared after the Classical period. For the sake of simplicity, both i and j are used here.
Lastly, with respect to vowel diphthongs, most Classical Latin linguists prefer to pronounce them as follows: ae as if it were a long i (as in pine); oe as oi (as in boy); au as ou or ow (as in bough or now);
Pronunciation Guide xvii
ei as a long a (as in weight); eu as eu (as in feud); and ui as wee (as in the French oui).
For further discussion, guidelines, and helpful examples, please consult LaFleur’s Wheelock’s Latin (6th ed.), Allen & Greenough’s New Latin Grammar, Bennett’s New Latin Grammar, and Morwood’s A Latin Grammar
The Routledge Pocket Guide to Medical Latin
Aa balineo: after bathing a capite ad calcem: from head to heel (i.e., from top to bottom) a datu: from the date a dextra: on the right a die: from that day or date a latere: from the side a primo: from the first a sinistra: on the left a solis ortu usque ad occasum: from sunrise to sunset a tergo [in the rear]: behind; from behind ab extra [from without]: from the outside ab incunabulis [from the cradle]: from childhood ab initio: from the beginning; from the start ab intra [from within]: from the inside ab invito: unwillingly; against one’s will ab parvulis: from childhood
abhinc: hereafter; from here on abies: fir tree
ablutio: washing away; cleansing abrasus: scraped off; close shaven absens: absent absente febre (abs. febr.): in the absence of fever absinthium: absinth; wormwood absolutus: absolute absorbens: absorbent
abortus: aborted; prematurely born abusque ulla nota: without any mark
acacia or acaciae gummi: gum arabic
acanthulus: an instrument for removing thorns, splinters, and the like from wounds
acanthus: having thorns or spines; the acanthus plant acaulis: having no stem or stalk; stemless acephalus: without a head; headless
2 The Routledge Pocket Guide to Medical Latin
acer [sharp]: a needle
acerbitas: acidity; sourness
acerbus (acerb.): sour; bitter
acetas: an acetate
acetica: preparations of vinegar
aceticus: acetic
acetonum: acetone
acetum (acet.): vinegar
acetum Britannicum: aromatic vinegar
acetum rutaceum: vinegar of rue
aciditas: acidity
aciditate infestante: when troubled with acidity
acidulus: sourness
acidum or acidus: acid; sharp; sour in taste
acidum aereum: an older name for carbon dioxide
acidum hydrochloricum: hydrochloric acid (earlier names include acidum muriaticum and acidum salis)
acidum lacticum: lactic acid
acidum sulfuricum or acidum sulphuricum: sulfuric acid
acidum tannicum: tannic acid
acinus: a berry; the seed of a berry
acme: highest point; the peak (e.g., the height of a fever or a disease)
acne rosacea or rosacea: acne (see also, gutta rosea)
aconitum: monk’s hood; sometimes monk’s head (a strong poison)
aconitum napellus: wolfsbane (a strong poison)
acor: acidity (e.g., in the stomach)
activatus: activated
actus: act
acuminatus: pointed
aculeatus: having a stinger or barb
aculeus: a sting; a stinger
acus: a needle
acutifolius: having pointed leaves
acutus: sharp; accute
ad: to; at; up to ad alvum excitandum (ad alv. excitand.): to stimulate the bowels ad aptam crassitudinem (ad apt. crass.): to a suitable thickness or consistency
ad conciliandum gustum: to suit the taste; with consideration to the palate ad defectionem animi (ad def. animi): to fainting
The Routledge Pocket Guide to Medical Latin 3
ad deliquium (ad deliq.): to fainting
ad duas vices (ad duas vic. or ad 2 vic.): at two times; in two doses ad gratam aciditatem (ad grat. acid.): to an agreeable sourness ad gustum: to taste; according to taste ad gustum conciliandum: to suit the taste; with consideration to the palate
ad hoc: to the moment; for this purpose
ad libitum (ad lib.): at will ad partes dolentes (ad part. dol.): to the painful parts ad plenum: fully; copiously; to the brim ad recidivum praecavendum (ad recid. praec.): to prevent a relapse ad saturandum (ad sat.): to saturation ad secundum vicem (ad sec. vic. or ad 2nd vic.): for the second time ad syrupi densitatem evaporet: let it evaporate to a syrupy consistence ad tempus [at the right time]: in due time; according to the circumstances ad tertiam vicem (ad ter. vic.): for the third time
ad tres alias vices (ad 3 al. vic.): at three other times; for three other times ad tres vices (ad 3 vic.): at three times; for three times ad unum: to the one; without exception
ad unum omnes: all to the one; unanimously ad usum externum (ad us. ext.): for external use ad vivum [to the life]: lifelike
ad vomitum sedandum: to allay vomiting
adde (ad. or add.): let there be added
addendus (addend.): to be added
additum (pl. addita): something added
adeps: lard; fat
adeps auserinus: goose grease
adeps depuratus: purified lard
adeps gadi: cod liver oil
adeps lanae: wool fat; lanolin
adeps ovillus: mutton suet
adeps salis expers: salt-free lard
adeps sine sale: lard without salt
adeps suillus: hog’s lard
adhaesivus: adhesive
adhibendus (adhib. or adhibend.): to be used; to be applied
adhuc: while; as yet
adjuvans: helping; assisting; an adjuvant (i.e., a strengthening agent that assists other remedies)
4 The Routledge Pocket Guide to Medical Latin
adlevare or adlevatio: to alleviate; alleviating adligare or adligo: to bind up [a wound]
admove (admov.): apply
admoveatur (admov.): let it be applied
adolescens: youth
adsto: to be present
adstans: present
adstante febre (adst. febr.): in the presence of fever
adstrictus: tight; confined
adstringens: astringent
adsum: to be present
adultus: an adult
adustus: burnt; singed; also, sunburnt
adversum or adversus (adv.): against aeger (f. aegra; aeg.): sick; the patient; a medical excuse aegri somnia [a sick person’s dreams]: hallucinations
aegrota: a sick woman
aegrotat (pl. aegrotant) [he or she is ill]: a medical excuse
aegrotus: a sick man
aequalis (aeq.): equal
aer: air
aeratus: made of or covered with bronze; aerated aerugo: verdigris (i.e., a copper patina)
aes: copper or brass
aestivus: pertaining to summer; summerlike; summery aestuarium: a vapor bath
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 50 PLATE 21 CLIFF-DWELLERS CRADLE—REAR
CLIFF-DWELLERS CRADLE—SIDE
The modern Hopi rectangular form of ceremonial room situated underground seems in some instances to have derived certain features from the circular subterranean kiva.
The chief kiva at Walpi, that used by the Snake fraternity, is rectangular and subterranean, while that used by the Flute priests, which is practically a ceremonial room, is a chamber entered by a side doorway. It is suggested that the Snake kiva at Walpi was derived from the circular subterranean kiva of Tokónabi, the former home of the Snake clan in northern Arizona, and that the Flute chamber was developed from the rectangular rooms in the same ruins. The old question, so often considered by Southwestern archeologists, whether the circular subterranean kiva was derived from the rectangular or vice versa, seems to the writer to be somewhat modified by the fact that ceremonial rooms of both forms exist side by side in many ancient cliff-dwellings. From circular subterranean kivas in some instances developed square kivas, but the latter are sometimes the direct development of square rooms; the determination of the original form can best result from a study of clans and their migrations.[55]
Naturally the questions one asks in regard to these ruins are: Why did the inhabitants build in these cliffs? Who were the ancient inhabitants? When were these dwellings inhabited and deserted?
It is commonly believed that the caves were chosen for habitations because they could be better defended than villages in the open. This is a good answer to the first question, so far as it goes, although somewhat imperfect. The ancients chose this region for their homes on account of the constant water supply in the creek and the patches of land in the valley that could be cultivated. This was a desirable place for their farms. Had there been no caves in the cliffs they would probably have built habitations in the open plain below They may have been harassed by marauders, but it must be borne in mind that their enemies did not come in great numbers at any one time. Defense was not the primary motive that led the sedentary people of this canyon to utilize the caverns for shelter. Again, the inroads of
enemies never led to the abandonment of these great cliff-houses, if we can impute valor in any appreciable degree to the inhabitants. Fancy, for instance, the difficulty, or rather improbability, of a number of nomadic warriors great enough to drive out the population of Kitsiel, making their way up Cataract canyon and besieging the pueblo. Such an approach would have been impossible. Marauders might have raided the Kitsiel cornfields, but they could not have dislodged the inhabitants. Even if they had succeeded in capturing one house but little would have been gained, as it was a custom of the Pueblos to keep enough food in store to last more than a year In this connection the question is pertinent, While hostiles were besieging Kitsiel how could they subsist during any length of time? Only with the utmost difficulty, even with aid of ropes and ladders, can one now gain access to some of these ruins. How could marauding parties have entered them if the inhabitants were hostile? The cliff-dwellings were constructed partly for defense, but mainly for the shelter afforded by the overhanging cliff, and the cause of their desertion was not due so much to predatory enemies as failure of crops or the disappearance of the water supply.
The writer does not regard these ruins as of great antiquity; some of the evidence indicates that they are of later time. Features in their architecture show resemblances derived from other regions. The Navaho ascribe the buildings to ancient people and say that the ruined houses existed before their own advent in the country, but this was not necessarily long ago. Such evidence as has been gathered supports Hopi legends that the inhabitants were ancient Hopi belonging to the Flute, Horn, and Snake families.
There is no evidence that cliff-house architecture developed in these canyons, and rude structures older than these have been found in this region. Whoever the builders of these structures were, they brought their craft with them. The adoption of the deflector in the rectangular ceremonial rooms called kihus implies the derivation of these rooms from circular kivas, and all indications are that the ancient inhabitants came from higher up San Juan river.
Many of the ruins in Canyon de Chelly situated east of Laguna creek show marked evidence of being modern, and they in turn are
not so old as those of the Mesa Verde. If the ruins become older as we go up the river the conclusion is logical that the migration of the San Juan culture was down the river from east to west, rather than in the opposite direction. The scanty traditions known to the author support the belief in a migration from east to west, although there were exceptional instances of clan movements in the opposite direction. The general trend of migration would indicate that the ancestral home of the Snake and Flute people was in Colorado and New Mexico.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 50 PLATE 22
FROM OFFICIAL REPORTS BY W·B·DOUGLASS
U·S·GENL· LAND OFFICE 1910
It is evident from the facts here recorded that the ruins in the Navaho National Monument contain most important, most characteristic, and well-preserved prehistoric buildings, and that the problems they present are of a nature to arouse great interest in them. Having suffered comparatively little from vandalism, these are among the best-preserved monuments of the cliff-dwellers’ culture in our Southwest, and if properly excavated and repaired they would preserve most valuable data for the future student of prehistoric man in North America. It is not necessary to preserve all the ruins within this area, but it would be well to explore the region and to locate the sites of the ruins that it contains.
FOOTNOTES:
[52] The writer was not able to determine the exact site of the traditional Tokónabi, but believes one is justified in considering the ruins visited to be prehistoric houses of the Snake (Flute), Horn, and other Hopi clans whose descendants now live in Walpi.
[53] While circular subterranean kivas are found in some of the ruins, none of these have the six pilasters so common higher up on the San Juan, nor have these rooms ventilators like those of Spruce-tree House Some of the ruins have rectangular kivas, above ground, entered from one side
[54] The best example of walls of this kind is found in an undescribed cliff-ruin in the canyon southwest of Cliff Palace.
[55] It is generally the custom to speak of the rectangular subterranean rooms of Walpi as kivas, while the square or rectangular rooms above ground, in which equally secret rites are performed, are not so designated. Both types are ceremonial rooms, but for those not subterranean the term kihu (clan ceremonial room), instead of kiva, is appropriate.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The writer has the honor to recommend that one of the largest two cliff-dwellings in the Navaho National Monument, either Betatakin or Kitsiel, be excavated, repaired, and preserved as a “type ruin” to illustrate the prehistoric culture of the aborigines of this section of Arizona; also that this work be supplemented by excavation and repair of Inscription House, an ancient cliff-dwelling in West canyon.
He also recommends that one or more of the ruins in West canyon be added to the Navaho National Monument and be permanently protected by the Government.
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRELIMINARY REPORT ON A VISIT TO THE NAVAHO NATIONAL MONUMENT, ARIZONA ***
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