Green Hydrogen in Power Systems
Vahid
Editors
Vahid Vahidinasab
Department of Engineering, School of Science and Technology
Nottingham Trent University
Nottingham, UK
Jeng Shiun Lim
Faculty of Chemical and Energy Engineering
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Johor, Malaysia
Behnam Mohammadi-Ivatloo
Electrical Engineering
LUT University
Lappeenranta, Finland
ISSN 1865-3529
Green Energy and Technology
ISSN 1865-3537 (electronic)
ISBN 978-3-031-52428-8ISBN 978-3-031-52429-5 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52429-5
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Preface
Green Hydrogen (GH2) as a new solution for emission reduction activities worldwide attracted a lot of attention recently. Considering the signi ficant role of hydrogen and particularly GH2 in decarbonization and very limited green hydrogen production and usage in the energy sector, there is a need for rapid scale-up in GH2 integration from where we are at present. GH2 can support deep decarbonization, especially in energy sectors that are challenging to decarbonize. GH2 is able to give green and flexible energy in a range of energy sectors from power systems to heat and transport. There are some strategic challenges in developing GH2 to make it available at scale, including production costs, technological uncertainties, policy and regulation, infrastructure development, and demand that call for more studies.
This book brought together experts from the different disciplines related to hydrogen energy as we strongly believe that there is a wealth of knowledge available in each discipline that is not widely known in the other disciplines and could be usefully employed to face the challenges we are facing at this time and provide a comprehensive and in-depth reference.
Chapter 1, entitled “An Overview of Energy and Exergy Analysis for Green Hydrogen Power Systems,” provides a comprehensive overview of energy and exergy analysis methods applied to green hydrogen power systems. It explains the fundamental principles of energy and exergy analyses, emphasizing their role in quantifying energy flows and assessing system thermodynamic efficiency. Key components of green hydrogen power systems, including renewable energy sources, electrolyzers, hydrogen storage, and fuel cells, are discussed in the context of energy and exergy analysis. The chapter also examines various efficiency metrics, technoeconomic analysis, and opportunities for enhancing system performance in the pursuit of sustainable low-carbon energy systems.
Chapter 2, entitled “Hydrogen-Incorporated Sector Coupled Smart Grids: A Systematic Review and Future Concepts,” introduces that the surge in solar system adoption, driven by renewable energy awareness and reduced technology costs, faces challenges like intermittency and limited storage. Incorporating hydrogen into smart grids can mitigate these challenges by storing excess solar energy as
hydrogen for later use. This chapter provides a thorough review of green hydrogenintegrated smart grids, covering their significance, fundamentals, sector coupling, existing projects, technological advancements, economic and environmental aspects, and future prospects. This analysis enhances our understanding of hydrogen’s role in advancing sustainable energy systems.
Chapter 3, entitled “Techno-economic Analysis for Centralized GH2 Power Systems,” delves into a comprehensive economic analysis of a centralized GH2 power system. Emphasizing the escalating demand for clean and renewable energy solutions, the study outlines the constraints of conventional power setups and their environmental implications. Through the integration of hydrogen storage, renewable sources gain potency. The exploration extends to optimum coalition strategies and peer-to-peer energy trading, fostering cost-efficient and eco-friendly energy transition.
Chapter 4, entitled “Techno-economic Analysis for Decentralized GH2 Power Systems Summary,” conducts a comprehensive techno-economic analysis of decentralized GH2 power systems, integrated with transactive energy and peer-topeer (P2P) energy trading. The study emphasizes the significance of integrating renewable energy sources and decentralized systems in achieving a sustainable low-carbon future. By optimizing energy generation, consumption, and distribution, these systems offer resilience, cost reductions, and enhanced grid stability. The findings underscore the potential of P2P trading, hydrogen storage, and efficient resource utilization for advancing toward a sustainable energy landscape.
Chapter 5, entitled “Hydrogenation from Renewable Energy Sources for Developing a Carbon-Free Society: Methods, Real Cases, and Standards,” assesses status quo, challenges, and outlook of hydrogen production. Then, a comprehensive review on hydrogenation methods from renewable energy sources, requirements, advantages, and limitations of each process is provided. Applications of hydrogen, hydrogen storage technologies, transportation issues, and standards associated with green hydrogen are discussed. Finally, conclusion will be presented.
Chapter 6, entitled “The Role of Green Hydrogen in Achieving Low and Net-Zero Carbon Emissions: Climate Change and Global Warming,” delves into the definition and significance of green hydrogen in achieving climate-neutral economies. It outlines challenges in attaining low or net-zero emissions through GH2, emphasizing economic viability. The impact of taxes and penalties on technologies and Carbon Capture Utilization and Storage (CCUS) integration is explored. The roadmap for carbon neutrality, enhanced GH2 production, availability, and pricing are discussed. The conversion from various H2 types to GH2 and related concerns are addressed.
Chapter 7, entitled “Bioreactor Design Selection for Biohydrogen Production
Using Immobilized Cell Culture System,” discusses the design selection for bioreactors using immobilized cell culture systems in the fermentative biohydrogen production. This chapter discusses the advantages of immobilized cell culture over free cell cultures. The advantages include the repeatability, space efficiency, and reduction of the lag phase. Different immobilization methods are explained, including entrapment, adsorption, encapsulation, and containment within synthetic
polymers. The chapter also covers various types of bioreactors suitable for immobilized culture, including continuous stirred tank reactors (CSTR), up-flow anaerobic sludge bioreactors (UASB), fluidized bed reactors (FBR), and fixed/ packed bed reactors (PBR). The chapter emphasizes the importance of optimal conditions for immobilized microbial activity and provides examples of different bioreactors used with various substrates and its biohydrogen production performance.
Chapter 8, entitled “Biomass-Based Polygeneration Systems with Hydrogen Production: A Concise Review and Case Study,” discusses the importance of biomass-based polygeneration systems in producing clean and safe hydrogen as an energy carrier. The study reviews previous research and introduces a new multigeneration system with hydrogen production, which is thermodynamically evaluated. Overall, the benefits of biomass-based polygeneration systems, which can produce multiple products and minimize wastes, along with their potential for green hydrogen production are highlighted in this chapter.
Chapter 9, entitled “Integration of Solar PV and GH2 in the Future Power Systems,” explores the integration of GH2 with solar energy in future power systems, emphasizing its decarbonization and energy storage potential, and it addresses challenges, reliability indicators, planning, and case studies using optimization techniques. The chapter highlights how GH2 can enhance energy system stability, reduce costs, and contribute to a more sustainable and reliable energy future.
Chapter 10, entitled “GH2 Networks: Production, Supply Chain and Storage,” examines the ways to produce GH2 with today’s standards and technologies in the GH2 network. It also discusses the principles, development rate, signi ficant research points and technologies and challenges of GH2 production around the world and discusses the general state of global hydrogen energy.
Chapter 11, entitled “Supply Chains of Green Hydrogen Based on Liquid Organic Carriers Inside China: Economic Assessment and Greenhouse Gases Footprint,” investigates the potential of electrolysis to provide hydrogen, sourced from remote Chinese provinces. It analyzes the economic and environmental impacts of transporting green hydrogen to major industrial centers. Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers facilitate storage and transportation. Data is sourced from literature, expert interviews, and databases. Results suggest feasible green hydrogen contribution toward China’s carbon neutrality targets.
Chapter 12, entitled “Green Hydrogen Research and Development Projects in the European Union,” examines EU’s strategic research projects, particularly under Horizon 2020 and Horizon Europe, aimed at advancing green hydrogen technology. This promising technology involves using renewable sources like wind and solar to electrolyze water, producing clean hydrogen. By scrutinizing projects from 2010 to 2023, the analysis assesses progress, challenges, and implications for EU’s ambitious carbon neutrality goal by 2050.
Chapter 13, entitled “Hydrogen-Combined Smart Electrical Power Systems: An Overview of United States Projects,” underscores hydrogen’s integration into intelligent grids, yielding energy storage, sector integration, and decentralized generation benefits. The endeavors in California, Hawaii, and other areas in the USA demonstrate hydrogen’s capacity for grid flexibility, renewable assimilation, and emissions reduction, thereby cultivating a robust and sustainable energy landscape.
Chapter 14, entitled “An Overview of the Pilot Hydrogen Projects,” reviews the developments and prospects of hydrogenated technologies in power systems including their application in power systems for hydrogen production. The increase in demand for electricity consumption besides the importance of concentrating on environmental pollutants and greenhouse gas emissions reduction has caused traditional power systems to be pushed toward the use of clean energy in electrical energy production and make a decision to deal with climate changes.
As a multidisciplinary reference, the book is appropriate for both specific and general audiences, encompassing researchers and industry stakeholders who have been involved in the integration of hydrogen into power and energy systems, as well as researchers and developers from various fields, including engineering, energy, computer sciences, data, economics, and operation research.
Advanced undergraduate or graduate modules and courses on energy systems would benefit from the material in this book. The book provides an adequate mixture of technology and engineering background and modeling approaches that makes it a suitable reference for students as well as researchers and engineers in academia and industry who are active in the field.
In conclusion, we wish to express our appreciation for all of the contributions from the authors who have contributed to the book as well as for the insightful observations and helpful comments of all of the reviewers. In the hopes that this book will be helpful to researchers, graduate students, and practitioners in this field, the editors and authors have dedicated their time and enthusiasm to creating it.
Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, UK
Vahid Vahidinasab
LUT University, Lappeenranta, FinlandBehnam Mohammadi-Ivatloo Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Malaysia Jeng Shiun Lim
1 An Overview of Energy and Exergy Analysis for Green Hydrogen Power Systems 1
Mohammad Mohsen Hayati, Hassan Majidi-Gharehnaz, Hossein Biabani, Ali Aminlou, and Mehdi Abapour
2 Hydrogen-Incorporated Sector-Coupled Smart Grids: A Systematic Review and Future Concepts .
Mohammad Mohsen Hayati, Ashkan Safari, Morteza Nazari-Heris, and Arman Oshnoei
3 Techno-Economic Analysis for Centralized GH2 Power Systems
Mohammad Mohsen Hayati, Behzad Motallebi Azar, Ali Aminlou, Mehdi Abapour, and Kazem Zare
4 Techno-Economic Analysis for Decentralized GH2 Power Systems
Ali Aminlou, Mohammad Mohsen Hayati, Hassan Majidi-Garehnaz, Hossein Biabani, Kazem Zare, and Mehdi Abapour
5 Hydrogenation from Renewable Energy Sources for Developing a Carbon-Free Society: Methods, Real Cases, and Standards
Mehdi Talaie, Farkhondeh Jabari, and Asghar Akbari Foroud
6 The Role of Green Hydrogen in Achieving Low and Net-Zero Carbon Emissions: Climate Change and Global Warming
Mohammad Shaterabadi, Saeid Sadeghi, and Mehdi Ahmadi Jirdehi
7 Bioreactor Design Selection for Biohydrogen Production Using Immobilized Cell Culture System ... ...... ..... ...... . 155
Nur Kamilah Abd Jalil, Umi Aisah Asli, Haslenda Hashim, Mimi Haryani Hassim, Norafneza Norazahar, and Aziatulniza Sadikin
8 Biomass-Based Polygeneration Systems with Hydrogen Production: A Concise Review and Case Study .
Zahra Hajimohammadi Tabriz, Mousa Mohammadpourfard, Gülden Gökçen Akkurt, and Başar Çağlar
9 Integration of Solar PV and GH2 in the Future Power Systems
Hassan Majidi-Gharehnaz, Hossein Biabani, Ali Aminlou, Mohammad Mohsen Hayati, and Mehdi Abapour
173
10 GH2 Networks: Production, Supply Chain, and Storage 225
Mahsa Sedaghat, Amir Amini, and Adel Akbarimajd
11 Supply Chains of Green Hydrogen Based on Liquid Organic Carriers Inside China: Economic Assessment and Greenhouse Gases Footprint 245
João Godinho, João Graça Gomes, Juan Jiang, Ana Sousa, Ana Gomes, Bruno Henrique Santos, Henrique A. Matos, José Granjo, Pedro Frade, Shuyang Wang, Xu Zhang, Xinyi Li, and Yu Lin
12 Green Hydrogen Research and Development Projects in the European Union
Hossein Biabani, Ali Aminlou, Mohammad Mohsen Hayati, Hassan Majidi-Gharehnaz, and Mehdi Abapour
13 Hydrogen-Combined Smart Electrical Power Systems: An
Ashkan Safari, Mohammad Mohsen Hayati, and Morteza Nazari-Heris
14 An Overview of the Pilot Hydrogen Projects
Maryam Shahbazitabar and Hamdi Abdi
An Overview of Energy and Exergy Analysis for Green Hydrogen Power Systems
Mohammad Mohsen Hayati, Hassan Majidi-Gharehnaz, Hossein Biabani, Ali Aminlou, and Mehdi Abapour
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Green Hydrogen as a Potential Source of Clean Energy
Green hydrogen (GH2) is a highly efficient and desirable energy carrier that has the potential to address present and future energy demands while circumventing the limitations of traditional energy sources [1]. Microgrids (MGs) can play a crucial role in the integration of green hydrogen systems into the power system [2, 3]. MGs play a signi ficant role in utilizing energy storage systems (ESSs) and distributed energy resources (DER) to fulfill the energy requirements of both manageable and unmanageable loads [4, 5]. As a fuel that is not metallic, hydrogen is free of carbon, safe to use, and boasts a greater speci fic energy (by mass) than gasoline. Hydrogenbased energy systems must take into account four key areas: usage of hydrogen, production, storage, and safety [6, 7]. The main sources of hydrogen production in the world are mainly crude oil, natural gas industries, electrolysis processes, and coal, of which the natural gas sector has a volume of 49% and is least related to the electrolysis sector at 4% [8]. The two sectors primarily responsible for the highest levels of hydrogen production involve the oxidation of fossil fuels and the modi fication of alcohol and hydrocarbons. However, these methods pose signi ficant challenges due to their carbon emissions, associated environmental problems, and extensive energy consumption [9]. Also, a large part of the demand for the use of hydrogen is related to the production of chemical derivatives and oil refineries [10]. On the other hand, to achieve environmentally friendly technologies, it is
M. M. Hayati (✉) · H. Majidi-Gharehnaz · H. Biabani · A. Aminlou · M. Abapour Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Energy Systems Research Institute (ESRI), Smart Energy Systems Lab, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran e-mail: mohammadmohsen.hayati@tabrizu.ac.ir; hassan.majidi@modares.ac.ir; abapour@tabrizu.ac.ir
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 V. Vahidinasab et al. (eds.), Green Hydrogen in Power Systems, Green Energy and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52429-5_1
Renewable Sources wind, solar, biomass, geothermal, hydro
Fig. 1.1 Hydrogen – a flexible, reliable, and environmentally friendly energy carrier in future energy networks
possible to use the combination of water electrolysis technologies, which are being developed more recently, with renewable energy sources. It should be noted that recently, in detailed research in North America, the target challenges related to GH2 production, storage capacity and its effects in the transportation sector, the state of available resources, and government regulations and policies in the field of green hydrogen have been presented [11]. In the field of hydrogen production and the development of GH2 technology in modern power systems, extensive research and scientific investigations have been carried out, mainly resulting in the creation of economical methods and approaches. This issue has paved the way for creating a stable and clean energy source. Figure 1.1 illustrates hydrogen as a flexible, reliable, and environmentally friendly energy carrier in future energy networks [12].
To achieve the decarbonization of energy industries and bring about crucial changes in meeting the requirements of modern energy systems, renewable energy sources such as wind and solar energy are presently utilized in the production of hydrogen [13, 14]. This plays a vital part in meeting the rising demand for renewable, clean energies. Due to the lightweight of hydrogen gas, the process of transporting and storing it is relatively difficult, although recently, with the emergence of hydrogen carrier technologies that are able to transport and transport solid and liquid hydrogen, the hydrogen storage process has become somewhat easier [15]. Such developments in hydrogen production provide the basis for a more sustainable future in the field of clean energy and reducing dependence on fossil fuels [16].
In 2022, electricity demand increased in India and the United States, while the COVID-19 restrictions affected China’s electricity demand growth [17]. China’s zero-covid policy has severely impacted the country’s economic activity, and there is still a degree of uncertainty regarding the rate of growth in the country’s electricity demand [18]. The International Energy Agency (IEA) estimates that this figure will reach 2.6% in 2022, which is significantly lower than the pre-COVID pandemic average of more than 5% in the period between 2015 and 2019. In 2022, India is projected to experience an 8.4% surge in electricity demand, primarily driven by a robust economic rebound following the COVID-19 pandemic and unusually high summer temperatures. Similarly, the United States witnessed a notable 2.6% rise in electricity demand during the same year, primarily fueled by economic activity and increased residential electricity consumption for heating and cooling purposes due to hotter summers and colder winters than usual [10, 19].
In the years 2022–2025, global electricity production using natural gas and coal burning is expected to remain substantially constant [20]. During 2022, the European Union saw an increase in the production of electricity from burning gas. While the European Union anticipates a decline in electricity generation from natural gas, the substantial growth of this energy source in the Middle East is expected to partially offset the decrease. Likewise, as coal- fired power generation diminishes in Europe and America, there is a corresponding increase in Asia and the Pacific region [19, 20].
According to reports published by the IEA, between 2017 and 2040, the increase in global energy demand is estimated to be about 25%. It is also estimated that in the next 3 years, the share of the developing countries and the emerging economies of the Middle East, such as China and India, and the countries of Southeast Asia in energy consumption and demand will continue to be high, reaching more than 70%. It can be said that China and India are the centers of gravity of energy demand in the world, which will drive energy consumption in the world from 25% in 2015 to about 33% of the total by 2025. In addition, by 2025, sources that emit less greenhouse gases will cover almost all of the growth in global electricity demand. Globally, the higher costs of electricity production were mainly due to the increase in the price of energy carriers. In other words, affordability is still a challenge for emerging and developing economies [21, 22].
As the proportion of renewable resources incorporated into power systems continues to rise worldwide, the significance of energy storage systems is expected to grow. These systems will contribute by offering frequency control capabilities, operational storage, and facilitating wholesale arbitrage. Furthermore, their implementation will lead to a decrease in network integration costs [23]. The deployment of energy storage systems is increasing [24]. The United States, Europe, and China are leading the way in the latest annual capacity additions in this area [25]. However, according to 2022 estimates, emerging and developing economies are catching up to these leading countries. In 2022, it was approximated that the global emissions from electricity generation reached a peak limit of approximately 13.2 gigatons of carbon dioxide. This represents a growth of around 1.3% compared to the emissions recorded in 2021 [26, 27]. The record emissions in 2022 were mainly due to the growth of electricity generation using fossil fuels in Asia and the Pacific. Europe and Eurasia also contributed to this increase [28, 29]. Figure 1.2 illustrates a comparison of different types of hydrogen technology and CO2 emissions according to Ref. [30] (Fig. 1.3).
Fig. 1.2 A brief comparison of different types of hydrogen technology and CO2 emissions
Fig. 1.3 Hydrogen generation, utilization, storage and environmental impacts in future energy systems
1.2 Hydrogen Economy
Energy prices have reached their highest levels since 2008, affecting all energyconsuming sectors. Subsequently, this price increase has had severe inflationary effects on all energy-consuming sectors. In this regard, the IEA has estimated that the effect of the increase in the price of fossil fuels has contributed 90% to the increase in the price of electricity in 2022, and this year the price of fossil fuels has increased by more than 50% [31].
The concept of the hydrogen economy refers to an energy infrastructure that relies on hydrogen (H2) as a substitute for conventional fossil fuels in order to fulfill energy needs [32, 33]. By transitioning to hydrogen as a primary energy carrier, we can reduce our dependence on fossil fuels and mitigate the associated environmental challenges [34, 35]. This paradigm shift involves the production, distribution, and utilization of hydrogen across various sectors, including transportation, power generation, and industrial applications [36]. Implementing a robust hydrogen economy requires the establishment of a comprehensive infrastructure that encompasses hydrogen production methods, storage and transportation systems, as well as efficient conversion technologies such as fuel cells [37, 38]. Embracing the hydrogen economy holds great potential in promoting sustainability, reducing carbon emissions, and fostering a cleaner and more diversi fied energy landscape [39, 40].
1.3 Economic and Environmental Effects of GH2 Production
The production of GH2 can have several economic and environmental effects on power systems. These effects depend on various factors, including the availability of renewable energy sources, infrastructure development, and the overall demand for hydrogen as a fuel. As technology continues to advance and renewable energy costs decrease, green hydrogen may become a more viable and sustainable alternative to traditional fossil fuels [41]. In the following subsections, some important economic and environmental implications are described.
1.3.1 Economic Issues
1.3.1.1
Expensive Production
The cost of producing GH2 is currently higher compared to conventional methods due to the expensive renewable energy sources required, such as wind and solar [42].
1.3.1.2
Investment Needed
To produce GH2, there is a need for substantial investment in renewable energy infrastructure and production facilities [43]. This may pose a challenge, especially in areas where renewable energy is not yet well-established.
1.3.1.3 Infrastructure Limitations
The distribution and storage infrastructure for hydrogen are not as developed as traditional fuels, resulting in added expenses and logistical difficulties for the transportation and storage of GH2 [44, 45].
1.3.2 Environmental Issues
1.3.2.1 Carbon Emissions
Although GH2 production does not produce carbon emissions during the production process [46], renewable energy generation may still emit carbon in regions where fossil fuels are the primary source of energy [47, 48].
1.3.2.2 Land
Use
The production of GH2 requires significant land use for renewable energy infrastructure installation, such as wind turbines and solar panels, which can have adverse environmental effects on local ecosystems and habitats.
1.3.2.3 Water
Use
Large amounts of water are necessary for GH2 production, particularly in the electrolysis process, which can strain water resources in areas experiencing water scarcity [49, 50].
1.4 GH2 Production Methods and Explanation of How Electrolysis Works
There are various methods available for the production of green hydrogen, with electrolysis being the most prevalent and widely adopted approach [51]. It has emerged as the preferred method for green hydrogen production due to its compatibility with renewable energy sources and its ability to generate hydrogen with high purity. When an electric current is passed through the water, it causes the water molecules to break apart into their constituent atoms: two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. The oxygen atoms then react with the electrode to form oxygen gas, which bubbles out of the solution [52]. Meanwhile, the hydrogen atoms are attracted to the other electrode and combine to form hydrogen gas. The resulting hydrogen gas can be collected and used as a fuel for various applications, including powering
vehicles, generating electricity, and heating homes. The process of electrolysis can be powered using renewable energy sources, such as solar or wind power, to produce green hydrogen [53]. Other methods of GH2 production are biomass gasification, photoelectrochemical (PEC) water splitting, and thermolysis [54, 55]. In improving the flexibility of energy systems as well as paying attention to the issue of energy security and sustainability, hydrogen acts as an efficient secondary energy source with integrated smart networks [56, 57]. In general, a transition in the future power and energy systems is unavoidable because of issues such as the depletion of fossil fuels and environmental damage [58, 59].
1.4.1 Electrolysis
Electrolysis is a procedure that employs an electrical current for the purpose of separating water (H2O) into its constituent gases, hydrogen (H2), and oxygen (O2) [60, 61]. It is widely regarded as the preferred method of hydrogen production due to its reliance on electricity rather than fossil fuels [62]. Additionally, electrolysis can operate effectively across a broad range of electrical energy capacities, making it adaptable to leverage surplus electricity available during nighttime hours. Central to the electrolysis process is the electrolyzer, which comprises multiple cells, each containing a positive and negative electrode [63, 64]. The electrodes are immersed in a conductive aqueous solution, which is created by introducing hydrogen or hydroxyl ions, typically achieved through the addition of alkaline potassium hydroxide [65]. Electrolysis holds significant potential for enabling large-scale hydrogen production, fostering the transition to a low-carbon economy, and supporting the integration of renewable energy sources into the energy system [66, 67]. The anode, commonly made from a combination of nickel and copper, is coated with metal oxides such as manganese, tungsten, and ruthenium. These metal oxides on the anode promote effective binding of atomic oxygen to oxygen pairs present on the electrode’s surface, ensuring efficient operation. This catalytic process promotes the desired reactions and enhances the overall efficiency of electrolysis. The negative electrode, commonly known as the cathode, is typically constructed using nickel material that is coated with small quantities of platinum, serving as a catalyst. This catalyst plays a crucial role in facilitating the swift combination of atomic hydrogen, forming hydrogen pairs on the electrode surface and effectively enhancing the rate of hydrogen production [68]. The presence of this catalyst prevents the accumulation of atomic hydrogen on the electrode, which could impede the flow of electric current if left unaddressed. In optimal circumstances, the electrolysis process necessitates 39.4 kWh of energy and 8.9 L of water to generate 1 kg of hydrogen [69]. This aspect highlights the notable calorific value of hydrogen, encompassing the entirety of energy needed to dissociate water under normal conditions. On certain occasions, the lower heating value of hydrogen is employed for efficiency comparisons, which amounts to 33.3 kWh/kg of hydrogen. To assess the effectiveness of the system, the heating value is divided by the actual input energy in kilowatt-hours per kilogram (kWh/kg), as speci fied in the provided reference [70].
1.4.2 Fuel Cells
As the demand for electricity continues to rise, renewable energy sources have garnered widespread support across various sectors. However, a challenge associated with relying on these renewable sources is their output being disconnected from the actual demand [71, 72]. The utilization of electricity storage offers a valuable opportunity to effectively manage and balance the supply and demand of electricity [73, 74]. Fuel cells have emerged as a rapidly advancing technology that is increasingly dominating energy markets, providing an efficient solution for storing electricity in the form of hydrogen [75, 76]. This enables the storage of electrical energy for later use, ensuring a reliable and flexible energy system [77]. Fuel cells operate by combining fuel and oxidant gases at the anode and cathode, respectively. This process necessitates a well-designed physical structure that facilitates the controlled flow of gases to both sides of the electrolyte [78]. The fuel cell’s key characteristic lies in its unique electrolyte, which varies among different types of fuel cells and determines the specific ions it conducts [79, 80]. The ability to convert approximately 60% of the chemical energy stored in hydrogen into electricity is a notable advantage of hydrogen fuel cells, contributing to their high efficiency [81–83].
With the emergence and advancement of fuel cells and electrolytic hydrogen technology, the interaction between hydrogen and electricity is growing steadily in this emerging field [84]. The expansion of renewable energy in power systems, as well as its variability and unpredictability, poses challenges to the performance of energy systems [85]. On the other hand, fuel cells and the process of water electrolysis can improve operational flexibility by linking energy and hydrogen systems [86]. Fuel cells act as a source of energy in the conditions of extreme events, with real-time reactions to restore the load of power systems [87, 88]. Therefore, hydrogen systems have the ability to quickly support smart grids due to their long-term storage properties, and this greatly contributes to energy security and stability [89].
1.5 Energy Crisis
The energy crisis has escalated parallel to the advancement and growth of societies. However, the inherent characteristics of renewable energies, such as their intermittent and unpredictable nature, pose significant challenges for these emerging technologies [48, 90, 91]. This dilemma becomes particularly apparent in wind and solar energy, where issues such as power intermittency and variability of sunlight and wind speed hinder economic efficiency for energy production companies, leading to substantial energy losses. Consequently, this presents a clear contradiction in the pursuit of developing clean and sustainable renewable energy sources [92, 93]. To address these challenges, various strategies are being implemented to enhance the integration and reliability of renewable energy systems [94]. One approach involves the development of advanced energy storage technologies, allowing excess energy
generated during peak periods to be stored for use during low-demand periods [95, 96]. Also, sophisticated forecasting and monitoring systems are being employed to improve the accuracy of predicting renewable energy availability, enabling better management and optimization of power generation and consumption [97, 98]. Furthermore, efforts are underway to diversify the renewable energy mix by exploring complementary sources, such as combining wind and solar energy with other forms of renewable generation, such as hydropower or geothermal energy [99]. This diversification aims to create a more balanced and reliable renewable energy portfolio that can mitigate the inherent challenges associated with intermittency and uncertainty. Addressing the contradiction between renewable energy’s clean attributes and the challenges it poses requires a comprehensive approach involving technological advancements, supportive policies, and investment in research and development. By overcoming these hurdles, the potential of clean renewable energies can be fully harnessed, contributing to a sustainable and resilient energy future [100].
1.6 Integration of GH2 Systems with Renewable Energy Sources and Energy Hub
The combination of green hydrogen systems with renewable energy presents a broad outlook. As previously mentioned, wind and solar power are clean and have significant storage capacity [101]. By integrating hydrogen and the power network with wind and solar energy networks, the global issues of environmental pollution and greenhouse gas emissions can be effectively and efficiently reduced [102, 103]. This multiple energy supply system, referred to as an energy hub (EH), offers systematic flexibility for energy and load management [57, 104]. Integrating different types of energy into multiple energy infrastructures, including electricity, natural gas, heat, hydrogen, and other renewable sources in an integrated way, provides cost-effective demand [105]. EHs offer a great opportunity for energy system operators to create a more efficient and higher performing system. The investigation of the economic viability of EHs in the face of uncertain conditions, further compounded by the existence of diverse energy sources, is a focal point of interest within this field. The overall performance of the power system relies on the optimal performance of each component of the EH [106]. By integrating solar heat into the wind–solar–hydrogen multiple energy supply system, the overall energy efficiency of power systems is enhanced, resulting in an increased utilization of renewable energy at a macro level [107].
Notably, green hydrogen holds immense promise as a clean energy carrier that can be stored over extended periods without experiencing degradation [108]. Its deployment within an EH framework enables the effective storage and utilization of renewable energy resources, contributing to a sustainable and resilient energy ecosystem. By leveraging the capabilities of an EH and harnessing the benefits of green hydrogen, we can propel the transition toward a greener and more secure energy future.
1.7 Future of
Energy
Supply Systems and Related Works
Given the dynamic nature of future energy supply systems, it is vital to embrace the advancement of multi-energy complementary distributed energy systems and harness the full potential of the synergistic advantages provided by a wide range of energy sources [109]. These approaches serve as vital strategies to tackle the prevailing challenges associated with high costs and low efficiency in traditional distributed systems [110]. At present, extensive research efforts are focused on distributed energy systems that capitalize on the complementary time scales of different energy sources. These systems have made signi ficant strides and have even achieved successful large-scale implementations in certain domains. By adopting a multi-energy approach, these distributed systems intelligently integrate and optimize the utilization of various energy sources. The time sequence of solar and wind energy sources exhibits a certain level of complementarity [111]. Researchers have extensively investigated the integration of wind power (WP), concentrated solar power (CSP), and photovoltaic power generation (PV) to create a synergistic system for solar and wind energy generation [112, 113]. Given the inherent variability of wind and solar energy sources [114], an effective approach to mitigate their fluctuations and ensure a stable and reliable power output is to integrate solar thermal power generation with wind power (WP) and photovoltaic (PV) power generation. By combining these technologies, the stability, continuity, and dispatchability of solar thermal power can be leveraged to counteract the fluctuations observed in wind and PV generation. This integration enables the production of high-quality output power [115]. In situations where there is surplus energy, it is more advantageous to generate clean fuels such as hydrogen [116], which serves as an appropriate energy carrier and effective storage medium [117, 118]. The energy storage technique, which involves electrolyzing water using wind energy or PV power to generate hydrogen and subsequently utilizing hydrogen fuel cells for electricity generation, has been extensively developed [119]. This approach has been proven to offer several benefits, including (1) decreased consumption of fossil fuels and the release of pollutants [120]; and (2) enhanced energy utilization and reduced waste of wind and solar resources [121]. Furthermore, Sezer et al. [122] introduce a multi-energy system that integrates solar, hydro, and wind energy storage. The study evaluates the overall energy efficiency and fuel consumption efficiency of the system, yielding values of 3.61% and 8.47%, respectively. The utilization of wind energy for hydrogen and electricity production dates back to 1981 when Denmark pioneered this conversion [123]. Subsequently, in 1983, solar energy was harnessed for similar purposes at the Florida Solar Energy Center [124]. A significant milestone in renewable energy storage occurred in 1991 with the construction of the first gas-fired power plant that utilized hydrogen as a renewable energy storage medium [125]. Established in California in 1995, the initial facility comprising a photovoltaic (PV) system and an electrolyzer was capable of generating approximately 50–70 N m3/day of hydrogen [126]. Subsequently, numerous hybrid renewable energy–hydrogen systems have been
constructed worldwide [76]. Combined heat and power (CHP) power plants generally have a higher efficiency than when working in separate processes. In an assessment made in Ref. [127], the efficiency of power plants in mechanical or electrical production ranges is estimated from about 40% to about 85% in simultaneous production. A study was conducted [128] to examine the expenses associated with reducing CO2 emissions through the use of extensive biomass-fired cogeneration technologies combined with CO2 storage. The results revealed these plants, which utilize integrated gasification combined cycle technology, are highly efficient in terms of energy utilization and emissions [129]. However, when compared to technologies such as batteries, hydrogen systems still exhibit lower efficiency, presenting a signi ficant barrier to the widespread adoption of hydrogen technology in practical applications [130, 131]. Recently, cogeneration in hydrogen energy systems has attracted more attention [132, 133]. Numerous studies and evaluations have examined the production of renewable energies, particularly focusing on modelingthese sourceswithand without hydrogenation systems [134].Additionally, investigations have been conducted on the utilization of hybrid renewable systems for diverse purposes, including electricity generation, space heating, and cooling [135]. In recent times, cogeneration within hydrogen energy systems has garnered increased attention [130, 136, 137]. Furthermore, various processes in hydrogen storage systems, such as electrolysis and fuel cells, generate heat that can be recovered and employed for various applications. Cogeneration plays a significant role in boosting the overall efficiency of speci fic power plants, leading to potential energy savings of around 40% [138]. The reference [134] explores different methods of hydrogen production, specifically focusing on photoelectrolysis and solar thermal hydrogen production. It provides a comprehensive assessment of fuel cell, hydrogen, and solar systems, along with their respective applications. Since the early 1980s, nearly 99 hydrogen projects have been implemented worldwide, utilizing renewable resources across a variety of applications and scales, including industrial and experimental contexts. This research specifically examines a subset of these projects that involve simultaneous production.
1.8 Energy and Exergy Analysis
Some studies have focused on analyzing the energy or exergy of multi-energy systems that utilize biogas to produce hydrogen, electricity, and heat [139, 140]. However, these studies have not considered the evaluation of the purification, compression, and storage stages required for utilizing hydrogen in the transportation sector. Other studies have explored this application, but they did not employ a multi-energy systems approach, instead, they relied on the grid to meet the electricity demands of the plant. The novelty of this study lies insights into the most effective energy and exergy analysis methods in green hydrogen power systems and highlights challenges and opportunities for future research in this area. The exergy analysis of a GH2 power system can identify the sources of exergy losses due to
irreversibilities, such as heat transfer, fluid flow, and chemical reactions, as well as opportunities for exergy recovery and optimization. One of the key benefits of an energy and exergy analysis of a GH2 power system is that it can identify the most significant sources of energy and exergy losses in the system, which can then be targeted for improvement. For example, the energy analysis of a GH2 power system may reveal that the hydrogen production unit consumes a significant amount of energy due to the inefficiencies of the electrolysis process, and the exergy analysis may identify the irreversibilities in the electrode polarization and heat transfer. By minimizing the energy and exergy losses, the environmental impact of the system can be reduced, which can be an important consideration for applications such as transportation and stationary power generation. Also, by identifying the sources of energy and exergy losses and opportunities for improvement, the energy and exergy efficiency of the system can be improved, which can lead to signi ficant economic, environmental, and social benefits.
Exergy encompasses various concepts such as effective energy and energy availability [141], providing a comprehensive understanding of energy that goes beyond mere quantity. By integrating the first and second laws of thermodynamics, exergy analysis evaluates energy not only in terms of its quantity but also its quality, offering deeper insights into energy degradation during its utilization. The standard measure of system efficiency is the ratio of output energy to input energy [142]. In the present study, the input energy sources of the system consist of wind power, concentrated solar power, and photovoltaic systems, while the output energy sources include both electric energy and hydrogen energy [143, 144]. By employing exergy analysis, the evaluation of system efficiency extends beyond a simple calculation of energy conversion ratios. It takes into account the quality and availability of energy, shedding light on the overall effectiveness of the energy conversion processes within the system. This comprehensive assessment allows for a more accurate understanding of energy utilization and degradation, facilitating the optimization of system performance and the identification of potential areas for improvement.
1.9 Related Works
Colakoglu and Durmayaz [145] propose a novel solar tower-based system designed to produce green hydrogen. The system consists of multiple power cycles, namely a solar-driven open Brayton cycle incorporating intercooling, regeneration, and reheat, as well as a regenerative Rankine cycle and a Kalina cycle-11. A significant portion of the electricity generated is dedicated to the electrolysis process for producing green hydrogen. Additional components of the system include thermal energy storage, a single-effect absorption refrigeration cycle, and two domestic hot water heaters. To evaluate the system’s performance, various analyses such as energy, exergy, economic, and detailed parametric analyses are conducted. The researchers employ multiobjective optimization techniques to determine the optimal performance parameters. The resulting optimum values obtained from the study
include energy and exergy efficiencies of 39.81 and 34.44%, respectively, a unit exergy product cost of 0.0798/kWh, and a total cost rate of 182.16/h. Incer-Valverde et al. [146] examine a future green hydrogen hub in Hamburg, Germany, where a large-scale power-to-liquid hydrogen system is evaluated. This system utilizes renewable electricity and employs a polymer electrolyte membrane electrolyzer to generate hydrogen. The produced hydrogen is then liquefied and stored at cryogenic temperatures under ambient pressure. The evaluation of this system involves various exergy-basedmethods,includingexergetic,exergoeconomic,and exergoenvironmental analyses. The liquefaction process demonstrates an exergetic efficiency of 42%, while the electrolyzer achieves an efficiency of 47%. The overall exergetic efficiency of the power-to-liquid hydrogen system is calculated to be 44%. Through the analysis, the researchers identify the electrolyzer and hydrogen compressors as the components with the highest exergy destruction values and investment costs. Furthermore, the compressors and recuperators are found to have the most significant exergoenvironmental impact within the system. Minutillo et al. [147] compare two biogas-based hydrogen production plants designed as polygeneration systems. These plants generate high-pressure hydrogen, heat, and electricity to meet their own energy needs for purification, compression, and storage. One plant utilizes steam reforming, while the other employs autothermal reforming. The study finds that the steam reforming-based configuration achieves superior energy-based efficiency (59.8%) and exergy-based efficiency (59.4%) for hydrogen production. It also performs better in terms of coproducing heat and hydrogen (energy-based efficiency: 73.5%, exergy-based efficiency: 64.4%). The ATR-based layout, on the other hand, is more exothermic and suitable for larger local heat demands (energy-based efficiency: 73.9%, exergy-based efficiency: 54.8%). Nalbant Atak et al. [148] explore the development of an integrated membrane reactor and CO2 capture system for decarbonized hydrogen production. The article presents the results of energy and exergy analyses conducted on the integrated system. A one-dimensional model of the membrane reactor was created, validated, and used to assess the effects of various operating parameters. The membrane reactor model was then incorporated into a system-level model, considering a CO2 capture unit and other plant components. This allowed for a theoretical analysis of the system’s potential to generate decarbonized hydrogen. The study’s novelty lies in the application of system-level modeling based on electrochemistry and thermodynamics, enabling a detailed energy and exergy analysis. The study also calculates the rate of exergy destruction for each component of the integrated membrane reactor system. Under baseline simulation conditions, the thermal efficiency (based on lower heating value), methane conversion, hydrogen yield, and CO2 yield are determined to be 51, 67, 22, and 66%, respectively. Nasser et al. [149] evaluate a renewable energy-based hydrogen production system using solar and wind. The hybrid system is analyzed for energy, exergy, economics, and environmental aspects. It incorporates PV panels, wind turbines, and a water electrolyzer. The system achieves an overall energy efficiency of 16.42% and an exergy efficiency of 12.76%. Economic analysis considers various degradation rates and scenarios for electricity production, revealing ranges for LCOE, LCOH, and LCOCH. The payback period varies from
7 to 13.85 years, and the system reduces CO2 emissions by 689.4 tons over its lifetime. Nikitin et al. [150] discuss a dynamic multigeneration system that utilizes solar and wind energy to provide cooling, heating, electricity, and freshwater to a residential building. The system undergoes comprehensive analysis, considering energy, exergy, economic, and environmental aspects, across different weather conditions in Khabarovsk, Yakutsk, Yekaterinburg, and St. Petersburg over a year. It consists of key components such as flat plate collectors, wind turbines, thermal energy storage, absorption chillers, reverse osmosis systems, internal combustion engines, and hydrogen energy storage systems. The simulation employs TRNSYS, Energy Plus, and Engineering Equation Solver packages. The economic analysis reveals the best payback period under a 0.03 interest rate: 8, 21, 11.2, and 9.8 years for Khabarovsk, Yakutsk, Yekaterinburg, and St. Petersburg, respectively. ÖZdem İR and GenÇ [151] present an energy and exergy analysis of a thermochemical hydrogen production facility powered by solar energy. The study compares 3 cycles: low-temperature MgeCl, H2SO4, and UT-3 cycles. Additionally, it investigates the integration of reheat –regenerative Rankine and recompression SeCO2 Brayton power cycles to provide the necessary electricity for the MgeCl and H2SO4 cycles. The integration of the SeCO2 Brayton power cycle improves the system performance. The system achieves a maximum exergy efficiency of 27% when combining the MgeCl thermochemical cycle with the recompression SeCO2 Brayton power cycle. The energy and exergy efficiencies decrease with increasing solar radiation but increase with higher concentration ratios. The solar energy unit exhibits the highest exergy destruction. Abuşoğlu et al. [152] conducted a study to determine the most suitable model for a sewage treatment plant, focusing on exergy efficiency. The study considered five models that utilize biogas-based electricity and sewage sludge from a municipal sewage treatment plant to produce green hydrogen. These models include alkaline processes, PEM, high-temperature water electrolysis, alkaline hydrogen sulfide electrolysis, and dark fermentation biohydrogen production processes. Thermodynamic methods were applied to conduct energy and exergy analysis on these models, and the results were compared. The calculated exergetic efficiencies for the models were found to be 19.81, 20.66, 25.83, 24.86, and 60.5%, respectively. Based on the findings, it was concluded that the dark fermentation biohydrogen production process exhibited the highest exergetic efficiency among the models, followed by the high temperature steam electrolysis process. Qi and Huang [153] conducted an extensive exploration into supercritical carbon dioxide cycles applied to water-injected hydrogen gas turbines. The investigation highlighted the numerous advantages of this approach, including zero carbon emissions, low pollution, high efficiency, and affordability. Several representative combined cycles were carefully selected from a pool of more than 12 designs, and a thermodynamic and exergy energy analysis model was developed and validated using experimental models. By conducting parameter sensitivity analysis, water mixing research, and exergy analysis, the researchers were able to achieve maximum energy yield and exergy efficiency. The findings indicate that increasing the ratio of water to hydrogen results in a decrease in the energy efficiency of the combined cycle. Combustion was identified as the component with the highest exergy loss,
accounting for 23.58% of the total. Among the studied designs, the transcritical CO2 double recovery combined cycle emerged as the most favorable, boasting a combined cycle energy efficiency of 64.39% and a combined cycle exergy efficiency of 62.96%. The insights and research presented in this article provide a solid foundation for the design of future-generation gas turbines. Arslan and Yılmaz [154] conducted an assessment of biogas energy production and explored the potential of green hydrogen as an energy carrier derived from biomass. To make use of waste gases, the researchers investigated the integration of an organic Rankine cycle (ORC). The power generated by the ORC system was utilized for electrolysis of water to produce hydrogen, eliminate H2S generated during biogas production, and store excess electricity. A comprehensive analysis involving thermodynamic, thermoeconomic, and optimization aspects was conducted for the combined heat and power (CHP) system designed for this purpose. The system design and analysis were performed using Engineering Equation Solver (EES) and Aspen Plus software. The thermodynamic analysis revealed that the energy and exergy efficiency of the existing power plant were 28.69 and 25.15%, respectively. In contrast, the new integrated system demonstrated improved performance, with energy and exergy efficiencies of 41.55 and 36.42%, as well as a power capacity of 5792 kW. Yang et al. [155] introduce a novel approach to the utilization of renewable energy, speci fically focusing on the synergistic integration of hydrogen liquefaction and liquid air energy storage. The study presents a comprehensive evaluation of the techno-economic performance of this energy process, considering energy, exergy, and economic factors. The primary objective is to achieve load balancing in the grid and explore the potential for commercializing a combined system comprising liquid air energy storage and hydrogen liquefaction power plants while assessing the efficiency of renewable energy sources. The investigation conducted in this study reveals promising results. The proposed process exhibits a return efficiency of 58.9%, with a speci fic energy consumption of 7.25 kWh/kg for liquid hydrogen production, and an overall exergy efficiency of 53.2%. Liu et al. [156] conducted a comprehensive study that evaluated awind–solar–hydrogen multi-energy supply system, considering energy, exergy, economic, and environmental aspects. The assessment was carried out using MATLAB/Simulink software. In this system, a fuel cell was employed as a peak energy source, operating in coordination with other renewable energy sources to mitigate fluctuations in wind and photovoltaic power generation. Controlled solar thermal power generation and hydrogen production were utilized to achieve this objective. The evaluation of the system yielded notable results. The energy efficiency was determined to be 16.03%, while the exergy efficiency reached 17.94%..
1.10 Conclusion
The study assesses the efficiency of renewable energy sources and their integration into multi-energy supply systems. Additionally, the research highlights the utilization of fuel cells as peak energy sources, working in coordination with other
renewable energy sources to mitigate fluctuations in power generation. Also, this research contributes to the understanding of green hydrogen power systems by providing an overview of energy and exergy analysis methodologies. It sheds light on the potential for renewable energy integration, load balancing in the grid, and the commercialization of green hydrogen technologies. The insights gained from this study can inform future developments and advancements in the field, ultimately contributing to a more sustainable and efficient energy landscape. In this research, an overview of energy and exergy analysis is carried out for a green hydrogen (GH2) power system, which produces electrical power through a fuel cell system using hydrogen produced from renewable sources.
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OLIVET, O , M (R.V. OLIVES, M )
ON
2 Sam. xv. 30; Ezek. xi. 23; Zech xiv 4
Jebel et Tôr 14 Now called Jebel et Tôr. (Mem. III.; Sh. XVII.) East of Jerusalem
Gen. xli. 45; xlvi. 20 Heliopolis
ONO
1 Chr. viii. 12; Ezra ii 33; Neh. vi. 2; vii. 37; xi. 35 Kefr ʾAna
OPHEL
OPHIR
2 Chr xxvii 3; xxxiii. 14; Neh. iii. 26, 27; xi. 21
Gen. x. 29; 1 Kings ix
28; x. 11; xxii. 48; 1
Chr. i. 23; xxix. 4; 2
Chr viii
18; ix 10; Job xxii 24; xxviii.
Not identified
A town of lower Egypt. The sacred city of Heliopolis, about 10 miles northeast of Cairo; also called Bethshemesh and Aven, which see.
9 Now the village ‘Kefr ʾAna,’ 5 miles north of Lydda. In 1 Esdr. v. 22 Onus. (Mem. II. 251; Sh. XIII.)
— A part of ancient Jerusalem, south of the Temple enclosure.
— Probably Southern Arabia
See Smith’s Bible Dictionary.
16; Ps. xlv. 9; Isaiah xiii. 12; Tobit xiii 17
OPHNI Josh. xviii. 24 Jufna (?)
OPHRAH (1) Josh. xviii. 23; 1 Sam xiii 17 et Taiyibeh
10 A town of Benjamin. Supposed by some to be Jufna, the Gophna of Josephus, 3 miles north-west of Bethel, but this would perhaps place it outside Benjamin. (Mem. II.; Sh. XIV.)
10 ‘Five Roman miles east of Bethel’ (Onomasticon). This appears to point to the present large village Taiyibeh. (Mem II 293; Sh XIV )
OPHRAH (2) Jud. vi. 11, 24; viii. 27, 32; ix. 5 Ferʾata (?)* 10 Probably the present village Ferʾata, 6 miles west of Shechem, the old name of which was Ophrah
OREB, T R
(Samaritan Chronicle). (Mem. II. 162; Sh XI )— Conder
Judg. vii. 25; Isa. x. 26 Not identified ʾOsh el Ghurâb, a prominent peak in the Jordan Valley, north of Jericho, has been proposed See Quarterly Statement, p. 22, 1877. (Mem. III.; Sh. XVIII.)
OREB, M 2 Esdras ii 33 — Mount Horeb
PADAN
PADAN-ARAM
Gen. xlviii. 7 Padan-aram.
Gen. xxv. 20; xxviii. 2, 5, 6, 7; xxxi. 18; xxxiii. 18; xxxv. 9, 26; xlvi. 15
The land of Mesopotamia.
PAMPHYLIA 1 Macc. xv. 23 — A district on the south coast of Asia Minor, between Lycia and Cilicia.
PARAH
Josh. xviii. 23 Kh. Fârah 14 One of the cities in and allotted to Benjamin Now the ruin Fârah,
PARAN, D ( P )
Gen xiv 6; xxi. 21; Num. x. 12; xii. 16; xiii. 3, 26; Deut i 1; 1 Sam xxv 1; 1 Kings xi. 18 et Tih
PARAN, M Deut. xxxiii. 2; Hab iii 3
PARVAIM
south-east of Michmash.
(Mem. III. 174; Sh XVIII )
27 The desert (‘et Tih’) between Kadesh and Sinai.
PAS-DAMMIM
Not identified
— See preceding.
2 Chr. iii. 6 Not identified The name of the country from which the gold was procured for the decoration of Solomon’s Temple.
1 Chr. xi. 13 See Ephesdammim.
PATHROS Is. xi. 11; Jer xliv 1, 15; Ezek. xxix. 14; xxx. 14
PAU
— A part of Upper Egypt, possibly about Thebes. Pathrusim, Gen. x. 14; 1 Chr. i. 12
Gen. xxxvi. 39 Not identified The capital of Hadar, King of Edom
PAI
1 Chr. i. 50 Not identified Probably the same as the preceding.
PENIEL PENUEL Gen. xxxii. 30; xxxii
31; Judg. viii. 8, 9, 17; 1 Kings xii. 25
Not identified — Very probably somewhere on the northern slope of ‘Jebel Osha.’ See Heth & Moab, pp. 177–179
PEOR, T Num xxiii 28 Not identified 14 See Beth-peor Probably the commanding peak above ‘ʾAin Minyeh,’ overlooking the Dead Sea, etc Quarterly Statement, p. 87; 1882.
PERAZIM, M Isaiah xxviii 21 Not identified — See Baalperazim
PEREZ-UZZAH 2 Sam vi 8; 1 Chr. xiii. 11 Not identified The threshingfloor of Nachon, in the neighbourhood of Jerusalem.
PERSEPOLIS 2 Macc ix 2 Chehl-Minar At one time the capital of Persia proper. Now called ChehlMinar. The ruins are of great extent and magnificence, covering an area
of many acres. See Niebuhr (Reis., ii. 121); Chardin (Voyages, ii 245); Ker Porter (Travels, i. 576); Heeren (Asiatic Nations, i. 143–196); Rich (Residence in Khurdistan, ii. pp. 218–222); Fergusson (Palaces of Nineveh and Persepolis Restored, pp. 89–124); etc.
PERSIA
2 Chr. xxxvi. 20, 22, 23; Ezr. i. 1, 2, 8; iii. 7; iv. 3, 5, 7, 24; vi. 14; vii. 1; ix. 9; Esth i 3, 14, 18; x 2; Ezek. xxvii. 10; xxxviii. 5; Dan. viii. 20; x 1, 13, 20; xi. 2; 1 Esdr. iii. 1, 9, 14; v. 6;
vii. 4; viii. 80; Judith i. 7; Bel i. 1; 1 Macc. iii 31; vi 1, 5, 56; 2 Macc. i. 13, 19, 20, 33; ix. 1, 21
PETHOR Num xxii 5; Deut. xxiii. 4
A town of Mesopotamia, where Balaam resided. Situated on the Euphrates
PHARATHONI 1 Macc ix 50 Not identified Probably Pirathon, which see.
PHARPAR, R
2 Kings v. 12 Nahr Taura, one of the branches of the Barada (?)
PHASELIS 1 Macc. xv. 23 Tekrova
PHENICE
1 Esdr ii 17, 24, 25, 27; iv. 48;
In the Arabic version Nahr Taura takes the place of Pharpar.
A town on the coast of Asia Minor, on the confines of Lycia and Pamphylia. Now called Tekrova. (Smith’s Bible Dictionary.)
Phenicia in 3 Macc. iii. 15; 4 Macc. iv. 2
PHILISTIA
vi. 3, 7, 27, 29; vii. 1; viii. 19, 23, 67; 2 Esdr 1, 2; 2 Macc. iii. 5, 8; iv. 4, 22; viii. 8; x. 11
Ps lx 8; lxxxvii 4; cviii. 9
PHISON
PHUD
PI-BESETH
Ecclus xxiv. 25
Judith ii. 23
Ezek. xxx. 17 Tell Basta
PI-HAHIROTH
PIRA
PIRATHON
Ex. xiv. 2, 9; Num. xxxiii. 7, 8
1 Esdr. v. 19
— The south part of the maritime plain of Syria. Identical with the word Palestine. (Smith’s Bible Dictionary )
The Greek form of Pison.
Phut. See Put.
Bubastis. Now ‘Tell Basta,’ near Zagazig, in Lower Egypt
Not identified Camping-station of the Israelites before Migdol.
— Thought to be a repetition and variation of Caphira in the same verse.
Judg. xii. 15 Ferʾôn (?)* 10 ‘In the land of Ephraim in the Mount of the
PISGAH, M Num. xxi. 20; xxiii. 14; Deut. iii. 17, 27; iv 49; xxxiv. 1
PISON (R.V. PISHON)
Gen. ii. 11
Amalekites.’ According to the old traveller Hap-Parchi, it lay about two hours (6 miles) west of Shechem, and was called ‘Ferʾata’ (Asher’s Benjamin of Tud. ii. 426; Robinson iii. 134). Some 14 miles to the west of Shechem and north of Ferʾata is the village Ferʾôn, which Capt. Conder proposes to identify with Pirathon. (Mem. II. 164; Sh. XI.) Pharathoni (1 Macc. ix. 50) is possibly the same
Râs Sîâghah 15 Apparently the peak called ‘Râs Sîâghah,’ west of Neba (Mount Nebo) (Heth and Moab, p. 129.)
One of the four heads flowing
PITHOM
PTOLEMAIS
out of Eden.
Ex. i. 11 Tell Mahuta In Lower Egypt, on the Ismailia Zagazig Railway.
1 Macc v 15, 22, 55; x. 1, 39, 50–58, 60; xi. 22, 24; xii 45, 48; xiii 12; 2 Macc xiii 24, 25; Acts xxi. 7
ʾAkka Accho St Jean d’Acre, the modern ʾAkka; see Accho.
PUNON
PUT
RABBAH
Num. xxxiii. 43 Not identified — Camping-station of the Israelites in the desert
1 Chr. i. 8; Nah. iii. 9
Not identified A Hamite people. Phut (Gen. x. 6); Phud (Judith ii. 23); Libya (Jer. xlvi 9; Ezek xxxviii. 5; see Libya.) (Grove’s Bible Index.)
Josh. xv. 60 Kh. Rubba (?)*
14 A city of Judah, named with Kirjath-jearim Possibly ‘Rubba,’ in the hills, 4 miles east of Beit Jibrîn. (Mem. III. 314; Sh XXI )— Conder
RABBAH Josh. xiii. 25; 2
Sam xi 1; xii. 26, 27, 29; xvii. 27; 1 Chr. xx. 1; Ezek. xxi. 20
RABBAH
A Jer. xlix. 2, 3
RABBATH
A (R V RABBAH)
RABBATH
A (R.V. RABBAH)
Ezek. xxi. 20
Deut iii 11
ʾAmmân 11 Now called ʾAmmân, on the highlands of Gilead. A large Roman city (Philadelphia) was built there in the second century , of which fine ruins yet remain. ‘The City of Waters’ (Heth and Moab, p. 152); Conder’s Primer of Bible Geography, p. 103; see also Burckhardt (Syria, 357–360); Seetzen (Reisen i. 396; iv. 212, 214); Irby (June 14); Buckingham (East Syria, 68–82); Lord Lindsay (5th ed. 278–284); Robinson (ii 172–178).
RABBITH Josh. xix. 20 Râba*
RACHAL (R.V. RACAL)
10 Now the village ‘Râba,’ on the watershed south of Gilboa. (Mem. II Sh XII )— Conder.
1 Sam. xxx. 29 Not identified In the south of Judah.
RACHEL, T
Gen. xxxv. 20; 1
Sam. x. 2
Kubbet Râhîl
RAGAU
RAGES
RAKKATH
RAKKON
14 Kubbet Râhil, near Bethlehem. The site has been shown from the fourth century to the present time in the same place. (Mem. III. 54, 55, and 129; Sh XVII )
Judith i. 5, 15 Probably another form for ‘Rages.’
Job i. 14; iv. 1, 20; v. 5; vi 9, 12; ix 2 Rhey ‘A city of Media.’ The name ‘Rhey’ is now applied to the ruins 5 miles south-east of Teheran. See Ker Porter’s Travels, i. 357–364; Fraser’s Khorassan, p 286.
Josh. xix. 35 Tûbarîya
Josh. xix. 46 Tell er Rakkeit*
6 One of the fortified towns of Naphtali. The old name of Tiberias. (Mem. I. 365; Sh. VI.)
9 One of the towns of Dan. Now Tell er Rakkeit, north of Jaffa (Mem II. 262, 275; Sh. XIII.) Conder.
RAMAH (1), B
Josh. xviii. 25; Judg. iv. 5; xix. 13; 1
Sam xxii
6; 1 Kings
xv. 17, 21; 2 Chr. xvi. 1; Ezra ii. 26; Neh vii 30; xi
33; Is. x. 29; Jer. xxxi. 15; xl. 1; Hos. v 8
er-Ram
RAMAH (2) Josh. xix. 36 er Râmeh
14 Now the village er-Ram, 5 miles north of Jerusalem It is uncertain whether these references point to one or more places. (Mem. III 13; Sh XVII )
RAMAH (3) Josh. xix. 29 Râmia (?)
RAMATH-LEHI
RAMATHMIZPEH
Judg. xv. 17 Not identified
Josh. xiii. 26 er Rimthe (??)*
6 Now the village ‘Râmeh,’ in Lower Galilee, west of Safed. (Mem. I. 205; Sh IV )
6 Now the village Râmia, east of the Ladder of Tyrus, in Upper Galilee. (Mem. I ; Sh IV )
11 Possibly the ruin ‘Rimthe,’ in the northern limits of Gad, and about midway between Bozrah and the
RAMATHNEGEB (R.V. RAMAH S )
RAMATHAIMZOPHIM or RAMAH
Jordan (Conder’s Heth & Moab, 175).
Josh. xix. 8; 1 Sam xxx. 27 Not identified — Somewhere in the south of Judah In Sam. xxx. 27 Ramoth.
1 Sam. i. 1, 19; ii. 11; vii 17; viii 4; xv 34; xvi. 13; xix. 18–23; xx. 1; xxv. 1; xxviii. 3
RAMATHEM 1 Macc xi 34
RAMESES RAAMSES RAMESSE
Gen. xlvii. 11; Ex. i. 11; xii. 37; Num xxxiii 3, 5; Judith i. 9
Not identified Somewhere in Mount Ephraim. It does not appear to have been the same place as Ramah (1).
Not identified Thought to be the same as last.
Not identified A city in Lower Egypt. Thought to be the same as Zoan; which see
RAMOTH 1 Chr. vi. 73 er Râmeh* 10 Now the village Râmeh, south of the plain of Esdraelon See Remeth. (Mem. II. 155; Sh. XI.) Conder.
RAMOTH G
Deut. iv. 43; Josh. xx. 8; xxi 38; 1 Kings iv. Reimûn (?)* 11 One of the six cities of refuge. Fifteen Roman miles from
RAPHIA
13; xxii. 3–24; 2 Kings viii. 28; ix. 1, 4, 14; 1
Chr. vi. 80; 2 Chr. xviii. 2–28; xxii. 5 Philadelphia (Onomasticon). The village EsSalt is about this distance In 2 Kings viii. 29, and Chr. xxii. 6, called Ramah. Probably Reimûn (Conder’s Heth and Moab, p. 175).
3 Macc. i. 1
RAPHON or RAPHANA
1 Macc v 37 Rafeh (?)
RECHAH (R.V. RECAH)
RED SEA
Probably the same as Raphon
7 Placed at ‘Rafeh,’ 4 miles southwest of Edrei, by Dr. Merill (East of Jordan).
1 Chr iv 12 Not identified —
Ex. x. 19; xiii. 18; xv. 4, 22; xxiii. 31; Num. xiv 25; xxi. 4, 14; xxxiii. 10, 11; Deut. i. 1, 40; xi. 4; Josh. ii. 10; iv 23; xxiv 6; Judg. xi.
16; 1 Kings ix. 26; Neh. ix 9; Ps cvi 5–9, 22; cxxxvi. 13, 15; Jer. xlix.
21; Judith v 13; 1 Macc iv 9; Called ‘the Sea’ in Exodus xiv. 2, 9, 16, 21, 28; xv. 1, 4, 8, 10, 19; Josh. xxiv. 6, 7
REHOB (1) Num. xiii. 21; 2 Sam. x. 6, 8 Hunîn (??) 6 See Beth-rehob, near Banias, Laish, and Dan (Tell el Kâdy), a city in the valley that lieth by ‘Beth-rehob ’
REHOB (2) Josh xix 28; xxi. 31; 1 Chr. vi. 75 Not identified Allotted to Asher
REHOB (3) Josh. xix. 30; Judg i 31 Not identified — Allotted to Asher.
REHOBOTH Gen. xxvi. 22 Ruheibeh 20 To the south of Beersheba and
REHOBOTH, T C (R V
REHOBOTHIR)
REHOBOTH R
REKEM
Bered are a heap of ruins, and some wells called ‘er Ruheibeh ’ See Desert of Sinai, 316, by Dr. Bonar.
Gen. x. 11 Not identified 11 Usually placed near Nineveh on the south side See the next.
Gen. xxxvi. 37; 1 Chr. i 48 Rahabeh, or Rahabeh Melek (?)
‘The name “Rahabeh” is applied to two places on the Euphrates, one 8 miles below the junction of the Khabûr, about 3 miles west of the river (Chesney, Euphrates, i. 119; ii. 610), the other 4 or 5 miles further down on the left bank, and called Rahabeh Melek.’
Josh. xviii. 27 Not identified One of the towns of Benjamin. Named between Mozah (Beit Mizzeh) and Irpeel (Rafat?).
REMETH
REMMON (R.V. RIMMON)
REMMON METHOAR (R.V. RIMMON)
Josh. xix. 21 er Râmeh (?)*
ʾAin Karim has been proposed (Smith’s Bible Dictionary), but the name and position are alike unsatisfactory. Possibly the word should read Dekem, in which case Beit Dukku lies in a probable position.
10 ? Ramoth of 1 Chr vi 73 Now the village er Râmeh, 5½ miles north of Samaria. (Mem. II. 155; Sh. XI.) —Conder.
REPHAIM, T
Josh. xix. 7
13 See En-rimmon (of Simeon).
Josh. xix. 13 Rummâneh 6 Now the village Rummâneh, on the edge of ‘Sahel el Buttauf,’ north of Nazareth and Seffurieh. (Mem. I. 363; Sh. VI.) Methoar means ‘which stretches ’
Josh. xv. 8; el Bŭkeiʾa 14 Now called el
V
xviii. 16; 2
Sam. v. 18–22; xxiii 13; 1
Chr xi 15; xiv. 9; Is. xvii. 5
REPHIDIM
Num. xxxiii. 14, 15 Not identified
RESEN
Gen. x. 12 Not identified Between Nimrúd and Kuyunjik
Bŭkeiʾa, the plain south of Jerusalem, on the way to Bethlehem
One of the camping places of the Israelites in the desert between Alush and Sinai. Robinson places Rephidim in ‘Wady esh Sheikh ’ (Rob i 121.) Burckhardt (Syria and C. 488), Stanley (S. and P. 40–42), Ritter (xiv. 740, 741), in Wâdy Feiran.
One of the cities built by Asshur, ‘between Nineveh and Calah ’ The ruins of a town near the modern village of Selamiyeh would suit the situation, but they are not of any great importance.
REUBEN, T Josh. xiii. 15–23; Josephus 9 Ant. viii. 1
REZEPH 2 Kings xix. 12; Is. xxxvii. 12 Not identified Near Nisibin
(Smith’s Bible Dictionary.)
The eastern parts of the country beyond Jordan, which belonged to the Reubenites and Gadites and to the half tribes of Manasseh (9 Ant. viii. 1.)
There are several towns of this name in Mesopotamia One west of the Euphrates on the road from Racca to Hŭms, the other east of the Euphrates near Bagdad; between these two rests the claim to the ancient site. (Smith’s Bible Dictionary )
RHODUS 1 Macc. xv. 23 Island of Rhodes The Island of Rhodes in the Mediterranean.
RIBLAH Num. xxxiv. 11; 2 Kings xxiii 33; xxv. 6, Ribleh — Probably the same as in 2 Kings xxiii 33 The present
