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Community-BasedTourisminthe DevelopingWorld Thisbookanalysescommunity-basedapproachestodevelopingandregeneratingtourism destinationsinthedevelopingworld,addressingthiscentralissueinsustainabletourism practices.
Itreviewsavarietyofsystemsusefulforanalysingandunderstandingmanagementissues tooffernewinsightintotheskillsandresourcesthatareneededforimplementation,ongoing monitoringandreviewofcommunity-basedtourism.Adoptingamultidisciplinaryapproach, thisbookexploresalternativestothedominantinterpretationwhicharguesagainsttourism asabenefitforcommunitydevelopment.Internationalcasestudiesthroughoutthebook illustrateandvouchfortourismasatransformativeforcewhileclarifyingtheneedto manageexpectationsinsustainabletourismforcommunitydevelopment,rejuvenationand regeneration.Emphasisisplacedonaccruingrelevantdecision-supportmaterial,and creatingservices,productsandmanagementapproachesthatwillendureandadaptas changenecessitates.
Thiswillbeofgreatinteresttoupper-levelstudents,researchersandacademicsinthe fieldsoftourismimpacts,sustainability,ethicsanddevelopmentaswellasthebroader fieldofgeography.
PeterWiltshier hasaPhDwhichexploredresponsibledevelopmentoftourismina creativeanddedicatedfashion;creativelysupportingcommunitiestoprovideresources fortheirwelfareanddedicatedtothepursuitofaresponsiblefuturewithafocuson thebeautifulandimportant ‘GreenLungs’ ofruralBritainintheEastMidlandsand inNewZealand.Hisroleasseniorlecturerdestinationandcommunitytourism managementattheUniversityofDerbyBuxtonistoensurethatthepublicandprivate sectorworktogethertodevelopresourcesandskillsforcommunitiestotakechargeof theirowndestinies.HealsoworkswiththeDioceseofDerbytoidentifyhowtourism canbenefitchurches.Hesupportsthecounty,thedistrictandparisheswithin DerbyshireandthePeakDistrictintheirendeavourstocreateabetterenvironmentfor allthroughpurposefulleisureandrecreation.
AlanClarke isemployedattheUniversityofPannoniainHungary,wherehehasbeen appointedasafullHungarianprofessor.Hiscommitmenttocommunitieshasbeenmarked throughouthiscareer,beginningwithhisteachingincommunityeducationinSheffield, followedbytimewiththecommunityeducationteamattheOpenUniversity.Hehasled researchintheinnercityofSalfordandworkedwiththeRomacommunityintheNorth WestofEngland.HehasbeenknowntosaythatthebestchapterinhisPhDwasthe oneoncommunitydevelopment(whichneverappeared).TheDerbyJubileeCommunity Festivalcrystalisedanumberofissues – power,hegemony,inclusion,engagementand capacitybuilding – plustheopportunitytodevelopalifelongfriendshipwithAllanJepson. AlanmovedtoHungarywherecommunitiesandfestivalsareconstructeddifferently. Therewerehardlessonsincomingtotermswiththis – cultures,structuresand stakeholderrelationshavetobeseenthroughdifferentlysensitisedlenses.Thisopened upaninterestwithreligiousandheritagetourismandthewaysthesebeliefsystems impactedontheculturesinwhichtheyareexperiencedinthecommunitiesthatgive themlife.Itwasherethathemadethesignificantbondwithhisco-editor,PeterWiltshier.
ContemporaryGeographiesofLeisure,TourismandMobility
SeriesEditor:C.MichaelHall
ProfessorattheDepartmentofManagement, CollegeofBusinessand Economics,UniversityofCanterbury,Christchurch,NewZealand
Theaimofthisseriesistoexploreandcommunicatetheintersectionsandrelationshipsbetweenleisure,tourismandhumanmobilitywithinthesocial sciences.
Itwillincorporatebothtraditionalandnewperspectivesonleisureandtourism fromcontemporarygeography,e.g.notionsofidentity,representationand culture,whilealsoprovidingforperspectivesfromcognateareassuchasanthropology,culturalstudies,gastronomyandfoodstudies,marketing,policystudies andpoliticaleconomy,regionalandurbanplanning,andsociology,withinthe developmentofanintegratedfieldofleisureandtourismstudies.
Also,increasingly,tourismandleisureareregardedasstepsinacontinuumof humanmobility.Inclusionofmobilityintheseriesofferstheprospectto examinetherelationshipbetweentourismandmigration,thesojourner,educationaltravel,andsecondhomeandretirementtravelphenomena.
Theseriescomprisestwostrands:
ContemporaryGeographiesofLeisure,TourismandMobility aimstoaddress theneedsofstudentsandacademics,andthetitleswillbepublishedinhardback andpaperback.Titlesinclude:
SustainableTourismPracticesintheMediterranean
EditedbyIpekKalemciTüzün,MehmetErgülandColinJohnson
Overtourism
TourismManagementandSolutions
EditedbyHaraldPechlaner,ElisaInnerhoferandGretaErschbamer
TourismFictions,SimulacraandVirtualities
EditedbyMariaGravari-Barbas,NelsonGraburnandJean-FrançoisStaszak
Community-BasedTourismintheDevelopingWorld CommunityLearning,DevelopmentandEnterprise
EditedbyPeterWiltshierandAlanClarke
Formoreinformationaboutthisseries,pleasevisit:www.routledge.com/ Contemporary-Geographies-of-Leisure-Tourism-and-Mobility/book-series/SE0522
Community-Based TourismintheDeveloping World CommunityLearning,Development andEnterprise EditedbyPeterWiltshier andAlanClarke
Firstpublished2020
byRoutledge
2ParkSquare,MiltonPark,Abingdon,OxonOX144RN andbyRoutledge
52VanderbiltAvenue,NewYork,NY10017
RoutledgeisanimprintoftheTaylor&FrancisGroup,aninformabusiness
© 2020selectionandeditorialmatter,PeterWiltshierandAlanClarke individualchapters,thecontributors
TherightofPeterWiltshierandAlanClarketobeidentifiedastheauthors oftheeditorialmaterial,andoftheauthorsfortheirindividualchapters, hasbeenassertedinaccordancewithsections77and78oftheCopyright, DesignsandPatentsAct1988.
Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthisbookmaybereprintedorreproducedor utilisedinanyformorbyanyelectronic,mechanical,orothermeans,now knownorhereafterinvented,includingphotocopyingandrecording,orin anyinformationstorageorretrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwriting fromthepublishers.
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BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-PublicationData
AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
Names:Wiltshier,Peter,editor.|Clarke,Alan,1956-editor.
Title:Community-basedtourisminthedevelopingworld:community learning,development&enterprise/editedbyPeterWiltshierand AlanClarke.
Description:Abingdon,Oxon;NewYork,NY:Routledge,2020.|Series: Contemporarygeographiesofleisure,tourismandmobility|Includes bibliographicalreferencesandindex.
Identifiers:LCCN2019027847(print)|LCCN2019027848(ebook)| ISBN9781138494305(hardback)|ISBN9781351026383(ebook)
Subjects:LCSH:Sustainabletourism Developingcountries.|Community development Developingcountries.|Tourism Socialaspects Developingcountries.|Tourism Economicaspects Developing countries.
Classification:LCCG156.5.S87C6572020(print)|LCCG156.5.S87 (ebook)|DDC338.4/791 dc23
LCrecordavailableathttps://lccn.loc.gov/2019027847
LCebookrecordavailableathttps://lccn.loc.gov/2019027848
ISBN:978-1-138-49430-5(hbk)
ISBN:978-1-351-02638-3(ebk)
TypesetinTimesNewRoman byApexCoVantage,LLC
2Abenchmarkedstepbystepcommunity-basedtourism(CBT) toolkitfordevelopingcountries
3Systemsapproachtocommunity-basedtourism
7Theimportanceofinformationandcommunicationtechnology fordissemination,commercializationandlocalprotagonismin community-basedtourisminitiatives:acasestudyofCBTin Castelhanos,Ilhabela,Brazil
8Community-basedtourism:planningprocessesandoutcomes inthedevelopingworld
‘Meetthelocals’:communitytourism – anapproachtocombat over-tourisminMaltaandGozo
10Reviewingthebackgroundtosuccessincommunities developingtourism:anevaluationthroughparticipant observations
12Community-basedtourism:theRomeirosWayinSãoMiguel IslandinAzores/Portugal
15Systems,stakeholders,storytelling:tourismdevelopmentand conservationinthepeakdistrictandtheBalatonHighlands nationalparks
2.1Ninestepsinunderstanding,developingandsustainingCBT15
3.1FeedbackmodelofCBTasanopensystem29
3.2GeneralmodelofCBT30
3.3AsimplifiedsimulationmodelfortheCBTdevelopment32
3.4CLDmodelofcapitalinvestments34
9.1Researchoutcomes – communitytourism:thepositives121
9.2Researchoutcomes – communitytourism:thenegatives122
11.1Directionsoffoundationofthenationalcompany “Uzbektourism” (Ibragimov,2014)143
11.2Masterclassfrommaster(author:Master ’scollection)150
13.1Freedomcampingprohibited.TairuaMountPaku171
13.2PauanuiandTairuaHarbour,CoromandelPeninsula172
7.1LocationoftheIlhabelaarchipelago 86
7.2LocationofCastelhanosBeachinthebayofthesamename86
11.1LocationofUzbekistan 142
2.1Casestudiesaccordingtoprojectinitiator
’ roleandresponsibilities
’sroleandresponsibilities
4.3Privatesector ’sroleandresponsibilities
5.1Top-downversusbottom-uporganisation
6.1CountryEscape’sgrant-fundedinitiatives
10.1Astartpointforconsumer-drivensuccess:characteristicsof successfulexperience-ledentrepreneurs
11.1NumberofhistoricalandculturalmonumentsinUzbekistan146 13.1TheACESmodelinpractice
15.1Powerdiscourseandsystemsthinking(afterCheckland, 1981)
Contributors AdenikeAdebayo isAssociateLecturerandResearcherintheDivisionof Geography,Events,LeisureandTourismintheSchoolofHumanandLife SciencesatCanterburyChristChurchUniversity,Canterbury,UK.Adenike gainedherB.A.inmasscommunicationfromBabcockUniversity,Nigeria. ShethenobtainedanMSc.intourismandeventsmanagementfromthe UniversityofBedfordshire,UK.Sheworkedasanassistantlecturerat ElizadeUniversity,Nigeria,beforeshegotascholarshipawardtoresearch herPhDintourismstudiesatCanterburyChristChurchUniversity.Adenike’s researchinterestsincludesparticipatoryplanningapproachesintourism development,tourismpoliciesandgovernance,andsustainabletourism.
VitorAmbrósio hasaPhDingeography,M.A.ingeography,B.A.inmodern languagesandliteraturesandB.A.intourism(tourguiding).Heisasenior lecturerofESHTE – EscolaSuperiordeHotelariaeTurismodoEstoril (EstorilHigherInstituteforTourismandHotelStudies),Portugal,sinceit wasfoundedin1991.Hehasalsobeenteachinginbachelor ’s,master ’sand doctoraltourismprogrammesinothernationalandinternationalinstitutions. Priortothis,between1980and1995,heworkedasatravelagentpromoter andtouristguide.Hewasthedirectorofthedoctoralprogrammeintourism andthedirectorofthemaster ’sprogrammeintourismandcommunication, bothofferedbytheESHTEandtheUniversityofLisbon(UL).Hewas headoftheDepartmentofTourismPlanningandalsoheadoftheDepartment ofTourismPractices,bothinESHTE.HehascollaboratedwithsomeNGOs inthefieldofreligiousandsustainabletourismdevelopment,takingpartin missionswithintheframeoftechnicalassistanceprogrammesonsustainable religiousdevelopment.Duringthelastdecadeshehasbeenpublishing(articles,bookchapters,abook)intourism,mainlyinreligioustourism,his mainresearchinterest.
GiovannaBertella isAssociateProfessorattheSchoolofBusinessandEconomics,UiTTheArcticUniversityofNorway,Tromsø(Norway).Shereceivedher PhDfromtheDepartmentofSociology,PoliticalScienceandCommunity PlanningatUiT.HerPhDdissertationconcernslearningandcollaborative approachestotourismdevelopmentinruralandperipheralareas.Sheteaches
marketingandorganisationalstudiescoursesatthebachelorandmasterlevel. Herworksarepublishedinseveralinternationaljournals.Herresearchinterests aremanagement,marketing,entrepreneurship/innovation,tourismandleisure studies(nature-andanimal-basedexperiences,ruraltourism,food tourism,events),foodstudies(veganism),andfuturesstudies(scenarios).
AlessioCavicchi isAssociateProfessorattheDepartmentofEducation,Cultural HeritageandTourismatUniversityofMacerata(Italy).Hismainfieldsof interestandresearchareconsumerfoodchoice,economicsoffoodquality andsafety,sustainabletourismandinnovationintheagro-foodsector.He hasexperienceascoordinatorofseveralEU-fundedprojects,andasaninvited expertforseveralprogrammesandDGsoftheEuropeanCommissioninthe foodsector(DGAgri,DGResearch,DGRegio-Urbact,JointResearch Center,EuropeanAgencyforCompetitivenessandInnovation).
AlanClarke isemployedattheUniversityofPannoniainHungary,wherehehas beenappointedasafullHungarianprofessor.Hiscommitmenttocommunities hasbeenmarkedthroughouthiscareer,beginningwithhisteachingincommunityeducationinSheffield,followedbytimewiththecommunityeducation teamattheOpenUniversity.HehasledresearchintheinnercityofSalford andworkedwiththeRomaCommunityintheNorthWestofEngland.He hasbeenknowntosaythatthebestchapterinhisPhDwastheoneoncommunitydevelopment(whichneverappeared).TheDerbyJubileeCommunity Festivalcrystalisedanumberofissues – power,hegemony,inclusion,engagementandcapacitybuilding – plustheopportunitytodevelopalifelongfriendshipwithAllanJepson.AlanmovedtoHungarywherecommunitiesand festivalsareconstructeddifferently.Therewerehardlessonsincomingto termswiththis – cultures,structuresandstakeholderrelationshavetobe seenthroughdifferentlysensitisedlenses.Thisopenedupaninterestwithreligiousandheritagetourismandthewaysthesebeliefsystemsimpactedonthe culturesinwhichtheyareexperiencedinthecommunitiesthatgivethemlife. Itwasherethathemadethesignificantbondwithhisco-editor,Peter Wiltshier.
AmranHamzah (PhD)isaprofessorintourismplanningatUniversitiTeknologi Malaysia.Hisareaofspecialisationistheinterfacebetweencommunity-based tourismandconservation.BesideshisacademicdutiesAmranisactiveis researchandconsultancyhavingledmorethan50consultancyprojectsfor internationalagenciessuchasAPEC,IUCN,theMinistryofEnvironment JapanandtheASEANSecretariataswellasnationalagenciessuchastheMinistryofTourismandCultureMalaysiaandTourismMalaysia.Amongothers hewastheleadconsultantfortheNationalTourismPolicy2019–2050, NationalEcotourismPlan2016–2025andBusinessStrategiesforUpscaling theMalaysianHomestayExperience2017to2028.Amranisalsoaregional councillorfortheInternationalUnionforConservationofNature(IUCN) fortheterm2016to2020.
NutfilloIbragimov isaprofessoratBukharaStateUniversity,Departmentof EconomicEducationandTourism.Heobtainedhisdoctorate(PhD)inEconomicsfromtheSamarkandInstituteforEconomicsandServicein2007. Hisdoctoralthesiswas “TheapplicationoftheconceptofdestinationmanagementinthedevelopmentofinternaltourisminUzbekistan”.Nutfillocompleted amaster ’sdegreeinMacroeconomicsatBukharaStateUniversityin2000–2002.Furtheron,inyear2002hebegantostudythedisciplineofdestination management” inTrentoTourismAcademyinItaly,underthesupervisionof ProfessorUmbertoMartini.Heistheauthorofmorethantwentyarticles, includingamonograph “DestinationManagement:theArtoftheManagement ofInternalTourismwithMarketMeasures”.AsCo-founderandDirectorof “Jahongashtaturservice” LLCin2014,hehasbeenleadinghiscompany withtouroperating(internaltourism)activity.Basedonthelicencegiven from “Uzbektourism” nationalcompany,whichdealswiththeorganisation ofcultural-enlightenmenttoursaroundUzbekistanforonlyUzbekistanresidents,heproposesavarietyofprofessionallyarrangedtourstodifferent sections.
TadejaJereJakulin (PhD)isProfessorofTourismSystems,Modelling,Simulation,CulturalEvents,SocialNetworksinTourismandPilgrimageTourism inUNESCO’sUniTwinFacultyofTourismStudies-TURISTICAatUniversityofPrimorska,Slovenia.SheobtainedherPhDforresearchonthe systems,modellingandsimulationintourismfromtheUniversityof Maribor,Slovenia.Sheresearchesandteachesinthefieldofsoftsystems (organisationalnetworks,socialandtourismsystems)andconsciousnessas theevolutionarysystem.Theresearchworkgainedherinternationaland nationalprizes(Prometheusdocumentofgratitudeforexcellenceinscientific communicationandteachingexcellence.Shelecturesaroundtheworldand hasbeenappointedasavisitingprofessorattheUniversityofRijeka, Croatia.SheisamemberoftheUNWTOPanelofTourismExperts,anda memberofChairsofCulturalTourismwithinUNESCOUNITWINChair ofCulture,Tourism,Development(Paris-Sorbonne).Sheisaninternational reviewerfortheareaofsystemsapproachintourismandnationalreviewer fornationalvocationalprofessionsintourism.Sheisa “doctorhonoris causa” oftheIIAS(InternationalInstituteforAdvancedStudiesinSystems ResearchandCybernetics)andanactivememberofColourMirrors (chromopractitionersandteachers)network.
AllanJepson currentlyworksintheTourism,HospitalityandEventManagement GroupatTheUniversityofHertfordshire,UK.Hisresearchjourneybeganby investigatingrelationshipsofhegemony/powerinlocalcommunityfestivals (PhDthesis)todemonstratealackofculturalinclusion/engagementincommunityfestivalsandevents.Followingthishehasundertakenresearchinto: engagementinthefestivalandeventplanningprocess(MOAmodel/selfefficacy),andknowledgemanagement.Hehaspublishedfouredited books(ExploringCommunityFestivalsandEvents; ManagingandDeveloping
Communities,FestivalsandEvents; Power,ConstructionandMeaninginFestivals,withAlanClarke.And: EventsandMarginalisation withTrudie Walters)toadvanceknowledgeinthefieldofeventstudies/criticalevent studies.Hiscurrentresearchisconcernedwithusinginnovativemethodsto betterunderstandcommunitiesandwell-being,whichincludessociological impacts(psychosocial/physiological,andcultural)oflocalisedeventsupon theircommunitiesandinparticularresearchintoparticipatoryartsevents, emotion,andcollectivememory.Furtherdetailsofhisresearchareavailable here:https://eventsandwellbeing.wordpress.com.Outsideofworkheis Daddytothreeveryspeciallittlepeople,andhusbandtooneveryspecial lady.Heplaysfootball,runswithhisdog,andalthoughtheeditormaywant todiscussthisfurtherhesupportsthegreatestfootballteamontheplanet(NottinghamForestFC).
AndrewJones holdsasenioracademicpostattheUniversityofMaltaand hasalsoheldpositionsatTheUniversityofWales,InternationalFaculty CardiffUK,SwanseaBusinessSchool,UKandtheUniversityofBrunei. Andrewhasprofessionalexperienceinplanning,environmentalmanagement andtourismatbothinternational,regionalandlocallevelsandhasbeenan enthusiasticcontributor,foroverthirtyyears,totheacademictourismcommunitywithinMalta,theUKandinternationally.Andrewfirstqualifiedinurban andregionalplanningbutjoinedhighereducationinthelate1980swhere hefocusedhisresearchontourism,sustainabilityandenvironmentalplanning. InhismostrecentworkAndrewhasfocusedpartofhisteachingandresearch specialisingintwodistinctareas:i)sustainabletourism – specialisingin communityandnichemarketdevelopment,coastaltourismandclimate changeandii)thedevelopmentoftransnationaleducation(TNE).Inthis respecthehashadtheopportunitytoworkwithinacademicsectorsinternationallyinEurope,Central,SouthandSoutheastAsia.Theseincludeassignmentsin Japan,China,India,HongKong,Singapore,Uzbekistan,Malaysia,Japan, GermanyGreece.Italy,Bulgaria,RomaniaandtheUKoverthelasttenyears.
ValeriaKlitsounova isanassociateprofessoratBelarusianStateUniversity,and ChairoftheBoard,BelarusianAssociationofAgroandEcotourism “Country Escape”.SheintroducedtheideaofagrotourisminBelarusandisconsidered thereas “agrotourismmother”.Shespecialisesinruraldevelopmentthrough tourism.ShehasbeenworkingwithmanyBelarusianruralcommunities tryingtoimplementatourismclustermodelwithaclearbrand.Herspecial interestisgastronomytourismandtraditionalBelarusiancuisinerevival. Shehaspublishedthreebooks,includingatextbookaboutagro-ecotourism. Shedevelopedsixindividualteachingcoursesaboutruralandecotourism, marketingandpromotionintourism,heritageinterpretation,andeventspromotion.SheisactiveonFacebookandworkswithpopularsitesandbloggers.
LelokwaneLockieMokgalo isaprogrammeleaderintourismstudiesat BotswanaAccountancyCollege(BAC).BeforehejoinedBAC,Lelokwane
LockiestartedhisacademiccareerwiththeUniversityofBotswana.Heholds aBScintravelandtourismmarketingaswellasanMSc.inresponsibletourism managementwiththeInternationalCentreforResponsibleTourism(ICRT)at LeedsBeckettUniversity(formerlyLeedsMetropolitan).HeispresentlypursuinghisPhDstudieswithNorthWestUniversityinSouthAfricawithathesis focusedonformulatingstrategiestomitigatethebanofhuntingonlocal communitiesandconservation.LelokwaneLockieispassionateaboutsustainabilityinthetourismindustryandhaspublishedarticlesinthearea,cultural heritageaswellasdomestictourisminBotswana.Hisotherpassionis mentoringandplayinganadvisoryroletoyounglearnersintourismand otherbusinessfields.Hisresearchinterestsare;responsibleandsustainable tourism,culturalheritagetourism,domestictourismandoperationsin tourismbusinesses.
DaniellaS.Marcondes livesinBrazilandisaconsultantintourismplanningin protectedareasandtraditionalcommunitieswithtwelveyearsofexperience. Sheholdsamaster ’sdegreeintourismdevelopmentfromSchoolofArts, ScienceandHumanitiesofUniversityofSaoPaulo(2018)andabachelor oftourismfromtheMethodistUniversityofPiracicaba(2002).Sheattended PGcertificateinBrazilianandPortuguesestudies(2008)atKingsCollege London.Inpublicmanagement,sheactedastheDirectorofEcotourismfor themunicipalityofIlhabela(2011–2015).Thisinvolvedworkingonthe relatedtopicsofecotourism,naturalresourcemanagementandpublicusein protectedareasofnatural,environmentalheritageandcommunity-based tourism.From2013to2017,shecoordinatedtheTechnicalChamberofEcotourism,wasamemberoftheadvisoryboardoftheTourismCouncilofIlhabelaandStateParkCouncil,offeringasavolunteertechnicalsupportfor tourismdevelopment.ShecurrentlyworksasaconsultantatMaembipeEcoturismoConsultoriaactingintraditionalcaiçaracommunitiesusingnon-formal educationtofosterlocalempowerment.Linktoresume:http://lattes.cnpq.br/ 8034334548382667.
GwinyaiMercyMusikavanhu(Manhotoma) isanaccomplishedacademicand researcherinBotswana.HerexperienceineducationinBotswanaspans almostadecadeinthetertiaryeducationsector.GwinyaiMercyhasalso servedinmanagementpositionspreviouslyinthetourismandhospitality industryinZimbabweandthenBotswanabeforejoiningthetertiaryeducation sector.Shehaspublishedinthefieldsofhospitalityandtourism.Herresearch interestsincludetourismdiversification,serviceexperience,servicequality andnichetourism.Sheismainlyaproponentofserviceexperience.Her workscomprisepeer-reviewedarticlesininternationaljournalsandrefereed conferenceproceedings.SheisafellowoftheHigherEducationAcademy intheUK.
VikneswaranNair (PhD)iscurrentlytheDeanofGraduateStudiesandResearch attheUniversityofTheBahamas(UB)inNassau,Bahamas.Priortojoining
UBinAugust2017,VikneswaranwasatTaylor ’sUniversity,Malaysia, fornineteenyearsasafullprofessorofsustainabletourism,attheSchool ofHospitality,TourismandCulinaryArts;programmeleaderfortheResponsibleRuralTourismNetwork;researchfellowoftheCentreforResearchand InnovationinTourism(CRiT)andthefoundingDirectoroftheCentrefor ResearchandDevelopmentattheuniversity.Aconsultantwithmanynational andinternationalprojects,Vikneswaran’sexceptionalresearchachievements withmorethan200publicationstohiscredithaveearnedhimmanyinternationalandnationalawards.Between2001and2016,heledanationalproject worthUS$3millionindevelopingaresponsibleruraltourismframeworkfor Malaysia.HerecentlycompletedhisfirstconsultancyworkintheBahamas whenheledtheprojectinwritingthecountryreportfortheBahamasfor UNDP’sSustainableDevelopmentGoals.Hisresearchspecialisationisinsustainableandresponsibletourism,ruraltourism,ecotourismmanagement,environmentalmanagement,community-basedtourismandgreentourism.
AdeOriade (PhD)isSeniorLecturerinTourismandCourseLeaderforMAHospitalityandEventManagementattheUniversityofWolverhampton.Ade’s researchinterestsareinservicesmanagementandmarketingintourism/ hospitality/event.Healsofocusesonsustainabletourismdevelopmentand planning,anareainwhichAde’sworkcontinuestocontributetodecision makingintheindustryandenhancethesocio-economicdevelopmentofdestinations.ThecommonthreadrunningthroughAde’sresearchisauniqueinterestinproducingimpactfuloutputtocreatetheoreticalknowledgeandhelp tourismdestinationsandservicessectororganisationsdeveloptheirproducts andenhancecustomers’ experiences.Adehasawiderangeofacademicpublicationsinjournalarticles,books,bookchaptersandreports.Hehaspublished numerousconsultancyreportsandpeer-reviewedarticlesinjournalssuch as InternationalJournalofTourismResearch, JournalofDestinationMarketing&Management and EventManagement,anInternationalJournal.Ade’s researchhasbeenpresentedatseveralnationalandinternationalworkshops andpeer-refereedconferences.InhisnumerousscholarlyactivitiesandengagementsAdeservesaseditorialmember,guesteditorandreviewerformany high-impactjournals.
GigliolaPaviotti isadoctoralcandidateineducationattheUniversityofMacerata.Herresearchinterestsincludeemployability,transitionsfromeducationto work,andengagementofuniversitiesforregionaldevelopment.Sheiscurrentlyinvolvedinresearchprojectsrelatedtopedagogyforemployability andco-creationapproachesforemploymentandentrepreneurshippurposes.
AkmalRahmonov isCo-FounderofJahongashtaTurServis(adomestictour operatorinUzbekistan).HeisconcurrentlyChiefExecutiveOfficerof PilgrimTravelSystem.HehaspreviouslybeenavolunteerinasocietyofdisabledpeopleinGermany,LebensgemeinschaftRichthof.Akmalhaspublished “ThedestinationmarketingtoolsforSevenSufiSaintsofnoble
Bukharapilgrimagecluster” and “Improvementperspectivesintourismby clusteringmulti-confessionaldestinationsofUzbekistan”.Heisfluentin English,German,Russian,UzbekandTadjik.
PeterRobinson (PhD)isHeadoftheCentreforTourismandHospitalityManagementatLeedsBeckettUniversity.HeisafellowoftheTourismManagementInstituteandafellowanddirectoroftheInstituteforTraveland Tourism.HeisamemberoftheTourismSocietyandisaprincipalfellow oftheHigherEducationAcademy.Peterenjoysworkingwithbusinessesin thetourismandhospitalitysectorsandhasworkedonconsultancyprojects withFirstRateExchangeservices,theBritishMotorMuseum,Lichfield Cathedral,LeicesterCathedral,BurlingtonSlateandTheHolkerGroup, UtopiaLeisureandTUI.Peterteachesabroadspectrumofsubjectsbutspecialisesintourismbusinessdevelopment,destinationcreation,visitorexperience,heritagetourism,darktourism,destinationmarketingandurban regeneration.Peter ’sresearchinterestsfocusonprosumptionwithintourist experiences,ColdWartourism,nostalgia,urbanexplorationandvisitorexperiences.Peterisareviewerforseveraljournalsandhasbeenaguesteditorfor the JournalofDestinationMarketingandManagement andthe International JournalofManagementPractice.Peterhaswrittenseveralbooks,including thefirsttextbookdiscussingoperationsmanagementinthetravelindustry.
SusanL.Slocum isanassociateprofessoratGeorgeMasonUniversityinFairfax, Virginia.Shespecialisesinsustainableeconomicdevelopmentthroughtourism andpolicyimplementationattheregionalandnationallevel.Workingwith communitiestoenhancebackwardlinkagesbetweentourismandtraditional industries,SusanhasworkedwithruralcommunitiesintheUnitedStates, theUK,andwithindigenouspopulationsinemergingtourismdestinationsin Tanzania.Inparticular,sheisinterestedinbalancingpolicydevelopmentand integrationtoprovideamorebottom-upformofplanningwithintourismdestinationsandhasapproachedsustainabletourismfromacontemporaryview, whichincludestheadditionofinstitutionalreformandsocialjustice.Shehas publishedfoureditedbooksandauthoredtwobooks,includingatextbook onfoodandagriculturaltourism.
SabrinaTomasi isadoctoralcandidateinhumansciencesattheDepartmentof Education,CulturalHeritageandTourismattheUniversityofMacerata (Italy).Hermainfieldsofinterestandresearchare:educationaltourism,ecotourism,healthtourismandexperientialtourism.SheisinvolvedinEU researchprojects(TheWineLabandFoodBiz)abouttheroleofhighereducationinstitutionsinpromotingbottom-upapproachesandstakeholder engagementtofacilitateinnovationandco-creationinruralareas.
PeterWiltshier hasaPhDwhichexploredresponsibledevelopmentoftourism inacreativeanddedicatedfashion;creativelysupportingcommunitiesto provideresourcesfortheirwelfareanddedicatedtothepursuitofaresponsible futurewithafocusonthebeautifulandimportant “GreenLungs” ofrural
BritainintheEastMidlandsandinNewZealand.HisroleasSeniorLecturer –destinationandcommunitytourismmanagementattheUniversityofDerby Buxtonistoensurethatthepublicandprivatesectorworktogetherto developresourcesandskillsforcommunitiestotakechargeoftheirowndestinies.HealsoworkswiththeDioceseofDerbytoidentifyhowtourismcan benefitchurches.Hesupportsthecounty,thedistrictandparisheswithinDerbyshireandthePeakDistrictintheirendeavourstocreateabetterenvironment forallthroughpurposefulleisureandrecreation.
JulianZarb isavisitingseniorlecturerattheInstituteforTourismTraveland CultureattheUniversityofMalta.HehasheldpositionsintourismandhospitalityinvariousorganisationsinMaltaandinternationally.Beforehistime attheUniversityJulianheldthepositionofDirectorofTourismattheMinistry forTourism:Malta.HeisanactiveandfoundingmemberoftheMaltaTourism SocietyandisafellowoftheTourismSocietyUK,theRoyalGeographical SocietyandtheInstituteofHospitality.Presentlyheisconcludinghisdoctoral studies.Hismainresearchinterestsarewithsustainableandcommunity tourismandlocaltourismplanning.
1Principlesandpractices Casestudiesininnovation PeterWiltshierandAlanClarke
Introduction Wedefineemergingtourismdestinationsinthecontextofcommunity-based tourism(CBT)asplacesthathaveyettoachievematurityindevelopedor masstourism;asspacesthathavethecapacitytoexplore,analyseandinterpret visitors’ responsestoanoffer;asareasfortheapplicationofcontemporaryand emergingvisitormanagementpractices(Coccossis,2017;DangiandJamal, 2016).Theseemergingdestinationshavequitelikelynotreachedacrisisin capacitycontrolorexceededlimitsofacceptableimpactsfromtourismaccordingtocommentatorsandasjudgedperhapsbytheacademyaswellasby visitors.
Furthermore,thewarningsignsforexceedingtheseconstraintsofsocialenvironmentalresponsibilitymaynotyethavebeennoticed.Contributorstothis bookhaveclearlysignpostedopportunitiesforfuturedevelopmentfrom tourism;contributorsalsoacknowledgedestinationstrengthstostriveforasustainablefuturethatincludestourism.
ThebookcapturesglimpsesofopportunityandindicatesstrengthsindestinationsfromZambiaandMalawitoUzbekistanandBelarus.Chaptersalso acknowledgedemocraticpoliticalprocessesinplayfromMalaysiatoBotswana. Theliteraturesurroundingcommunity-basedtourism(CBT)hascommonfeatureswiththeliteratureimpactingsocialwelfaresystems,healthandeducation. Ineffect,someoftheunderpinningconceptsthatareemployedinCBTemerge fromthebodythatconcernscommunitieswishingtodevelop,rejuvenateand refresh.Inthistexttheunderpinningtwenty-firstcenturycontributionsarediscoursesaboutresilience,equity,accessibility,wellbeing,affordability,localisationandresponsibility.Theissuesunderpinningallofthesecontributionsare emergingfromthedevelopmentandimplementationofthesustainabledevelopmentgoals(seeBoluketal.,2017).
Therefore,thistextaddressestheconceptualcontributionsandmeldsmethodologicalanddiscursiveviewswiththecasestudiesexploredbythechapter authorsfromthedialecticsofemergingdestinations.Toclarify,theeditors seektobalancetheconceptualstartingpointsfortoday’sstakeholderwiththe actualpracticesinemergentdestinationsandaddressthoseneeds,expectations
andaimsofstakeholdersdeliberatelyseekingtousetourismasaspringboardfor communitydevelopment.
Wealsoseeparallelswiththedebatesaroundthedevelopmentofsustainable tourism.Therearerootsintothecommunitiesastherhetoricbuildstheharmoniousdevelopmentofeconomy,environmentandsocio-culturalfactors.Theseareas shouldnotbeseenasseparableinanythingotherthanananalyticalsense.Economicshasbeenconsideredtobethecornerstoneoftourismdevelopmentas withoutaprofitthereisnomotivetodriveorguidetourismdevelopment. Morethanthat,however,CBTallowseconomicstobevaluedinmoreopen waysasitallowstheexplorationoftheconnectionsbetweenandthroughparts ofthecommunities.Similarly,theenvironmentshouldnotbeviewedasa canvasonwhichtourismistobepainted.Theenvironmentisanactiveagent shapingandbeingshapedbythewaycommunitiesgrewthroughthem,liberating somefeaturesandconstrainedbyothers.Whatmakestheseinterconnectionspossibleisthesocio-culturalaspectsofthecommunities.
Thebasicmodelofthethreeelementsalsoformthefoundationsofthetriple bottomline – oftenusedinthecritiquesofcapitalistdevelopment:people,profit andplanet.Thetriplebottomlinelensseemstoofferasharperlookatthebusinessactivitieswithinthecommunities.Italsooffersanalternativewayinto understandingtheconstructionofstakeholderspacesandplaces.
Weseestakeholdersasrepresentativesofdemandandsupplyinastrictinputoutputeconomicmodel(Slacketal.,2013).However,stakeholdersarecoincidentallyfillingkeyrolesindemandandsupplyundertheauspicesofthesharing economy:theeconomyofco-creationandco-productioninwhichlinesofstrategy,operationandcontrolarenotmutuallyexclusiveforsupplierorconsumer. Theessenceofthe ‘co’ inthesetermsisembeddedintherolethestakeholders haveinmulti-directionalcommunications.Thesearetheagentswhohavetobe engagedinshiftingthedirectionofdevelopmentfrom ‘top-down’ to ‘bottomup’ practices.Aphenomenonofsharedresponsibilityindrivingcommunitybasedtourismisanemergingthemewhichisfurtherexploredinchapterson theSouthernAfricancommunities.
Inadditiontoaneconomicfocuswetakeastanceonqualityandcompetitivenessasdriversofsuccessinendeavourstounderstandandgrasptheessentials ofCBTinemergingdestinations.Qualityandcompetitivenesshaveasolidcontributioninthemesofexemplarcasestudies.Managingsystemsandbusiness processesmustgohandinhandwithsuccessinpractice(Uzumeri,1997). Serviceimprovement,qualitymanagement,andacustomer-relationshiporientationaccompanymoreprosaicissueslikestandardsassurance,environmental managementpractices,knowledgeexchangeandretentiontoaddressneedsof resourceandskillsshortagesandmanagementofmonitoringandperformance dataanalysis(Dumasetal.,2013).Sharingandcreativeeconomiesrelyon adaptabilityandhumancreativity.Itiswiththiscreativityandimmensezest forlifeandgratitudeforbeingagiftedandrelied-onindividualthatcommunities turnintodestinationsthataredistinctiveandtypicalofhumancreativity(Florida, 2006).Individuals,aspartofthelargersharingcommunity,perceivethatthey
givevaluetoallpeople,organisationsandthewidersociety(denOuden,2011). Innovationistypicalofexperientialservicessuchastourisminphysical,delivery,andsupportrolesandsupplychainandisexemplifiedinthesecases(see VossZomerdijk,2007;Pechlaneretal.,2012;Weiermair,2004).Suchdestinationsareemblematicofcontinuousimprovementandinnovationstrategiesand feature,aswecanseefromeachstudy,cyclesofregularinnovation,nicheinnovationandrevolutionaryinnovation(PikkemaatandWeiermair,2003).
SocialissuesforCBTreflectthewithdrawalofresourcesandpolicyandplanningworkfromcentralgovernmentwithderegulationanddecentralisation.The factthatthismightnotbeasurpriseprobablycomesfromthewaytheseargumentshavebeenwelladvancedforalmostfortyyearsinEuropeandNorth America,Putnam,2001.
Outcomesinsociallyequitableandadaptablecommunitiesrelyonskillspossessedofawidearrayoflocalstakeholders;sometimestermedmodernisation andengagedcommunitypractices(HoggettMayoandMiller,2008).Such socialadaptationsrelyoncreatingalocallyskilledandresilientcommunity thatcancapturedestination ‘habitus’ (Bourdieu,1979)andcommunityimage, valuesandbrandingwithoutalienatingstakeholdersnorignoringtheneedfor ananalyticalapproachsupportiveofpoliciesaddressingequity,sustainability andinnovation.BuildingCBTfrominsidethecommunityfromthebottom upwardsbuildsahealthyrepositoryofnewsocialcapitalforfutureaspirations ofentrepreneursandpublicsectorworkersintentonrenewalincommunities (Flaccavento,2016).Prescientlysomechaptersidentifythattheempowered eliteswherewealthhastraditionallybecomeconcentratedarerespondingto equityandequalityissuesbyfocusingoncapitalinvestedtosocialenterprise (withinthesharedeconomy),onsmall,evenmicro-,businessesthatcanbe managedbysmallgroupswithinthecommunity.Inordertodothis,wedo seeafocusonnarrativesthatcaptureuniqueanddistinctivestoriesfordispersal withinthecommunity,andimportantly,acrossboundariestoacknowledge meetingchallengesinbothmobilityandaccessibilityoftheco-createdeconomy.
Ourcasestudiesrepresentwhatisperceivedtobeexcellenceinsocialadaptability,practicesinambiguityanddilemmasofdevelopmentthatidentify,apportionandmonitoroutcomesfromsharedresponsibility.
Elementsofeconomics,societyandthephysicalrepresentationofdestination thusformthebasisofasystemicapproachtoasustainablecommunity-driven modelofgoodpractices(JamalandStronza,2009).
Essentially,onthreeenvironmentalfronts,andwithempowermentasakey theme,authorsidentifysuccessesinemergenteconomieswherecommunities canbeturnedintodestinations.Successesfeatureissuestodowithacknowledgingthespecialanduniquenatureofcommunities(habitus).Simultaneouslythese successesreflecttheco-creatingfacilityandcapacitytoinnovate,reflect,and acquiredeeplearningtocreaterepositoriesofcompetitiveness,qualityanddifferentiation.EachcasestudyrepresentsthebestinproductinnovationinBelarus, processinnovationinBrazil,managerialinnovationinMaltaandZambianinstitutionalinnovation(Hjalager,2010).
Theeditorsacknowledgepriorresearchtomanagecommunity-basedtourism withembeddingbestpracticesandthereforerecommendtheACESmodeltodestinationmanagers,studentsoftourismmanagement,practitionersinconsultation incommunityregenerationandrenewal,investorsintourismandstorytellers willingandabletoadduniqueofferstohostsandguestsinemergingdestinations worldwide.WecommendoureightstageACESmodeldetailedasfollows.
Revitalisationandrejuvenation Asituationalanalysisofadestinationfromaparticipantobservationperspective ispresentedinPart2wherefuturedirectionsforthatdestinationareoffered.The bottom-upandcommunity-drivenaspirationsfortourismarepresentedasa partialsalvationtocommunitycapacitybuilding(Giampiccoli,2015;Zahra, 2010;MairandReid,2007;Beeton,2006).Tourismthereforecanbeperceived asaconduitforcaptureofcommunitybeliefsandvaluestobeembeddedby stakeholdersinavarietyofbusinesstrajectories.Tourismcanreflectmanystakeholders’ concernsforrevitalisation,rejuvenationandindependenceandmirror resilienceandtheuniquenaturethatlocalcentresofexcitementoffer.Thirty years’ reflectionsonPhilipPutnam’s’‘BowlingAlone’ illustratetheneedfor localisationandforindividualstoworkcollectivelyatgrassrootslevelto elevatetheirenvironmentsandsummarisetheiroffertoinvestorsandguests.
Turningacommunityintoadestination: “Whyshould weadopttourism?” Everystakeholdermustconsideranddevelopplansforfuturesuccessincommunitydevelopmentandresilience(SwansonandEdgell,2013).Thesechapters reflectplansthatmayincludetourismdevelopmentasthemesforfuturerelevanceandendurance.Havingasubstantiveplanfortourismdevelopmentthat reflectscontemporarypoliticalpolicyguidelinesandthereforemirrorsaneed tobeembracedatalocal,orevenaregional,levelisconduciveforeducators andpolicydirectorstoenticetourismbusinesstotakeaconfidentapproachto developmentalongsidekeyelementsofbusinessdevelopmentandpartnership withnegligiblefearscontradictingstart-upbusinessormicro-business.There shouldbefewcontraindicationsforsuccessinreturnoninvestmentordubious marketingandbrandingactivityundertakenbynewoperatorsinthecommunity. Thishasbeenrelativelywelldocumented(seeforexample,Thomasand Thomas,2006;GetzandCarlsen,2005;or,Middleton,2001).
Processofbuildingadestinationstartswithvalues,beliefsand identity: “Evidencetosupportourbeliefsintourism”
Afifteen-yearwindowofrelevancetocollectinalienablebeliefs,valuesand identitieswasdrawnupforKangarooIsland,SouthAustraliabyManidisRobertsin1997.Itappearsthatallcommunitiesmustreflect,sift,analyseand
blendthesevalues,beliefsandresultingidentityoverextendedperiodstojoyouslyproduceplansforthefuturethatindicatewherethedestinationjourney hastakenstakeholderstothecurrenttime.Again,weexpecttoidentifyand prioritiseopportunitiesformicro-businesstocooperatewithpartnersinsupply chainsandrecognisethatevolvingpracticesstillmirrorbeliefsandvaluesas theywillinevitablychangeandnotfeeldiscouragedtoembarkondiversification orproductdevelopmentinthecontextofexternalnegativepoliticalorsocial pressures(ZehrerandRaich,2013;Wiltshier,2007).
Resourcesneededfordestinationbuilding: “Whatdoweneedhere ”
Toundertakeanexerciseinreflection,aninventorytoaccompanythevalues andbeliefsstatement – abriefdocumentexploringwhatisrelevantand largelyagreedtobeusedinbuildingtourismforthecommunityfromthis moment – isessential(TinsleyandLynch,2007).Simplyput,communities mustacknowledgeresources,aninventoryofproduct,businessoperatorspossessedoftheskillsandaptitudestocapitaliseonresourcesandunderlying opportunitiesandstrengthswithinthecommunityasawholetoproducereliable outcomesandmeetkeyperformanceindicators(Robertsetal.,2017;Altinay etal.,2016).
Analysisofkeymarketsandprospects – movingbeyondMichael Porter: “Whoisgoingtocomeherenexttime?”
Operationallystakeholdersshouldgatherdatatoreinforceourknowledgeofthe suppliersandconsumersthatarecurrentlyusingourresourcesintourism (Sheehanetal.,2016).Thedatacanbeanalysedandkeymarketscategorised toidentifyandcontinuetocollectrelevantdataformanagementandmonitoring purposes.Suchitemsincludeinfrastructure,accommodationandperformance spacesthatarebuildingblocksforthetourismindustrytocarveaprofile.
Assigningresponsibilityforbuildingandtrackingprogress (howtodoit)
Governanceandassigningresponsibilityarekeyhere.Whowillmanageand monitorprogressandreportoutcomes.Thereareexampleswherestakeholders havetakenresponsibilityfortourismdevelopmentinitiativesandassigned taskstootherstakeholderstoensureasmoothtransitionfromplanningtooperationstomonitoringandongoingmanagementwithkeyperformanceindicators andoutcomesdetermined(Valenteetal.,2015;Gösslingetal.,2012;Jamaland Getz,1995).Wecanstartassigningtaskstokeystakeholderswhereboundaries arecrossedinhealthcare,education,businessdevelopment,creativeanddesign elementsthereof.
Reviewandreflectiononprocesses Sharingnewsocialcapitalisakeyoutcomethatisexpressedattheoutsetand completionofmanyprojectsinCBT(seeMoscardo,2014;Macbethetal., 2004;FalkandKilpatrick,2000).Underpinningnewsocialcapitalistheenduringidentifiablebrand,identityandfocusforfuturedevelopment(McGehee etal.,2010),linkingpotentiallydisparategroupsoradversarialpartiesincommunitywellbeingthroughalliancesinmeetings,publications,sharedspacesin socialmediaetc.
Aswehavedemonstrated,ourapproachtoCBThasbeeninfluencedbymany sourcesofpolicyandpracticalresearch;weseetheworldfrommanyperspectives andthroughlenseswhicharesometimesdifficulttoalign.Thisshouldnot beasurpriseasoneofusmaturedintheSouthernHemisphereandtheother intheNorthernHemisphere.Wefolloweddifferentpatternsofstudy,work andresearchbutfoundaddeddepthbybringingourexperiencesandinsights together.Webelievethatthevirtueinthiscomingtogetherisalsosharedwith ourcontributors – whobringtheirdifferentknowledgesetstogoodeffectin exploringthecomplexitiesoftheCBT.SomemayarguethatweshouldhavestandardisedboththewrittenEnglishandthereferencestoasingledominantEnglish. Webelievethatmuchwouldhavebeenlosthadwedoneso.Wehopethatthe voicesofourauthorscontributetothevalueoftheirchaptersandtosharing theirunderstandingwithotherstoextendourfeelingforthenexusofissues whichunderpinCBT.Whilstitistrueandimportantlysotoadmitthatweare stilllearninganddevelopingouranalyticaltechniques,wedohaveonethatwe useinourworkandwillelaboratehere.
TransformativetourismthroughtheACESmodel:accrualof relevantresponses
InunderstandingandusingCBTwepositthatnewmodelsofdevelopmentare capturedforfutureapplicationandemulation,enlargement,interpretationand re-investmentinnascentaswellasmaturingvisitordestinations.
Cohesionofideasandthemestoexplore Theaccrualofnewknowledgeandsuccessinpracticewillrequireongoing reflectionandre-workingtoassuretheacademyandpractitionersthatsuchexperienceshavelargelybeenbeneficialincasestudiesandproductiveofperformanceindicatorsandoutcomesgenerallybeneficialtocommunitiesand regions(Giaoutzi,2017;Robertsetal.,2017).
Enduringnetworksandpartnershipbetweendisparategroups
Priorapplicationsofdiscourseandnewworldviewsdemonstratethatnotions andpracticesofpartnershipandnetworkhavebeencriticalinsuccessfor
communitiesandforplanningresponsibledevelopmentacrosstheglobe(Saarinenetal.,2017).
Sharinginputresourcesandoutcomevalue-added
Ademocraticapproachtonewknowledgesharinghasbeendemonstratedto makewiseuseofscarceresourcesthroughvariousplatformsemerginginthe currentdevelopmentdiscourses.
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2Abenchmarkedstepbystep community-basedtourism (CBT)toolkitfordeveloping countries VikneswaranNairandAmranHamzah
Introduction AtaUnitedNationsspecialsummitonsustainabledevelopmentheldonthe25th ofSeptemberof2015,allcountriesadoptedthe2030AgendaforSustainable Development,whichincludesasetof17SustainableDevelopmentGoals (SDGs)and169associatedtargets.TheSDGsofficiallycameintoforceon1 January2016.TheSDGsareaimedatendingpoverty,fightinginequalityand injustice,andtacklingclimatechangeby2030.Thus,theimpactoftheseSDGs oncommunity-basedtourism(CBT)isimportantfordevelopingnations.Rural communitydevelopmentisattheheartoftheSDGswherethereisanaimof leavingnoonebehind.
IntheinauguralTourismMinisterialMeetingheldinKoreain2000,communitybasedtourism(CBT)isgivenimportanceintheAsiaPacificEconomicCooperation(APEC)Forum’sTourismCharter.TheCharterimplicitlyhighlightsthe significanceofCBTthroughthefollowingthreestatements(APEC,2000): (a)animportantgeneratorofbusinessopportunityforsmallandmedium-sized enterprises;(b)aneffectivevehiclefordispersingeconomicbenefitswithin andamongeconomies,particularlyattheprovinciallevel;and(c)acatalyst forpartnershipbetweenthepublicandprivatesectors.
TheconceptofCBTisnotnew.Fordecadesithasbeenappliedindeveloping economieslikeVietnam,Indonesia,ChinaandMalaysia,aswellasdeveloped membereconomiessuchasCanada,NewZealandandAustralia(Ashleyand Garland,1994;BramwellandSharman,1999;CanadianUniversitiesConsortium, 2000).InterestinCBTstartedlongbeforetheAPECForum,whichcommissioned areviewofCBTprojectsin1999withtheaimatidentifyingfactorsthatinfluencedmembereconomiestoimplementCBT(Chebuskorn,2003;Hatton, 1999).Thelong-termeconomicviabilityofCBTinthisregioncarriedoutvia theAPECfundingin2009resultedintheknowledgetransferandsharingof thestudyfindingsintheformofaCBTtoolkitfordevelopingcountries.
Hence,theaimofthischapteristoprovideamethodologyusingatoolkitto prepare,developandsustainCBTbasedonbenchmarkingofbestpracticesin boththedevelopinganddevelopednationsinresponsibleruraltourismdevelopment.Thefocusofthechapterwillbetoprovideabetterunderstandingofthe
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