Species conservation in managed habitats the myth of a pristine nature with a preamble by Josef H Reichholf
1st Edition Kunz
Visit to download the full and correct content document: https://textbookfull.com/product/species-conservation-in-managed-habitats-the-mythof-a-pristine-nature-with-a-preamble-by-josef-h-reichholf-1st-edition-kunz/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant download maybe you interests ...
The Endangered Species Act and Federalism Effective Conservation through Greater State Commitment 1st Edition Kaush Arha Barton H Thompson
https://textbookfull.com/product/the-endangered-species-act-andfederalism-effective-conservation-through-greater-statecommitment-1st-edition-kaush-arha-barton-h-thompson/
The Roles of Remote Sensing in Nature Conservation A Practical Guide and Case Studies 1st Edition Ricardo Díaz-Delgado
https://textbookfull.com/product/the-roles-of-remote-sensing-innature-conservation-a-practical-guide-and-case-studies-1stedition-ricardo-diaz-delgado/
A World Trimmed with Fur Wild Things Pristine Places and the Natural Fringes of Qing Rule 1st Edition Jonathan Schlesinger
https://textbookfull.com/product/a-world-trimmed-with-fur-wildthings-pristine-places-and-the-natural-fringes-of-qing-rule-1stedition-jonathan-schlesinger/
The Politics of Sacrifice in Early Greek Myth and Poetry Charles H. Stocking
https://textbookfull.com/product/the-politics-of-sacrifice-inearly-greek-myth-and-poetry-charles-h-stocking/
Conservation Concepts Rethinking Human Nature Relationships 1st Edition Jax
https://textbookfull.com/product/conservation-conceptsrethinking-human-nature-relationships-1st-edition-jax/
Exploring the Health State of a Population by Dynamic Modeling Methods 1st Edition Christos H. Skiadas
https://textbookfull.com/product/exploring-the-health-state-of-apopulation-by-dynamic-modeling-methods-1st-edition-christos-hskiadas/
Bats in the Anthropocene Conservation of Bats in a Changing World 1st Edition Christian C. Voigt
https://textbookfull.com/product/bats-in-the-anthropoceneconservation-of-bats-in-a-changing-world-1st-edition-christian-cvoigt/
Sky Dance of the Woodcock The Habits and Habitats of a Strange Little Bird Greg Hoch
https://textbookfull.com/product/sky-dance-of-the-woodcock-thehabits-and-habitats-of-a-strange-little-bird-greg-hoch/
Birds as Useful Indicators of High Nature Value Farmlands Using Species Distribution Models as a Tool for Monitoring the Health of Agro ecosystems 1st Edition Federico Morelli
https://textbookfull.com/product/birds-as-useful-indicators-ofhigh-nature-value-farmlands-using-species-distribution-models-asa-tool-for-monitoring-the-health-of-agro-ecosystems-1st-edition-
WernerKunz
SpeciesConservation inManagedHabitats
WernerKunz
SpeciesConservationinManagedHabitats
TheMythofaPristineNaturewithaPreambleby JosefH.Reichholf
Author
WernerKunz
Heinrich-Heine-University InstituteforGenetics Universitätsstraße1 40225Düsseldorf
Germany
Translator
TranslatedfromoriginalGerman textintoEnglishbyRonShankland/Mörlenbach
Illustrationcredit
Colorplatescontainphotosoftheauthor; graphicallydesignedwiththecollaborationofMonikaDörkes/Nettetal
Covercredit
Coloredbackgroundby“fotolia_©piapictures”;sepiabackgroundby“fotolia_© l-pics”
Allbookspublishedby Wiley-VCH are carefullyproduced.Nevertheless,authors, editors,andpublisherdonotwarrantthe informationcontainedinthesebooks, includingthisbook,tobefreeoferrors. Readersareadvisedtokeepinmindthat statements,data,illustrations,procedural detailsorotheritemsmayinadvertently beinaccurate.
LibraryofCongressCardNo.: appliedfor
BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-Publication Data
Acataloguerecordforthisbookis availablefromtheBritishLibrary.
Bibliographicinformationpublishedby theDeutscheNationalbibliothek TheDeutscheNationalbibliothek liststhispublicationintheDeutsche Nationalbibliografie;detailed bibliographicdataareavailableonthe Internetat <http://dnb.d-nb.de>.
©2016Wiley-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co. KGaA,Boschstr.12,69469Weinheim, Germany
Allrightsreserved(includingthoseof translationintootherlanguages).Nopart ofthisbookmaybereproducedinany form–byphotoprinting,microfilm, oranyothermeans–nortransmitted ortranslatedintoamachinelanguage withoutwrittenpermissionfromthe publishers.Registerednames,trademarks, etc.usedinthisbook,evenwhennot specificallymarkedassuch,arenottobe consideredunprotectedbylaw.
PrintISBN: 978-3-527-33845-0
ePDFISBN: 978-3-527-68886-9
ePubISBN: 978-3-527-68885-2
MobiISBN: 978-3-527-68887-6
oBookISBN: 978-3-527-68884-5
CoverDesign Adam-Design,Weinheim, Germany
Typesetting SPiGlobal,Chennai,India PrintingandBinding
Printedonacid-freepaper
Contents
OpeningRemarks:PreservationofRareSpecies–BreakingGroundsfor aNewApproachbyJosefH.Reichholf XI
Preface XV
1Introduction:RareSpeciesandNear-NaturalHabitatsinCentral Europe 1
1.1PreliminaryRemarks 1
1.2APleaforOpenLandscapes 3
1.3CentralEuropeIsNotBrazil:APleaforTechnicalBiotope EngineeringandManagement 8 References 10
2LookingBacktotheLostLandscapeStructuresofthePast 13
2.1TheSpeciesRichnessofFormerHabitats 13
2.2TheDeclineofthe‘Biomass’inCentralEurope 15
2.3LostLandscapeStructures–WhereCanTheyBeFoundToday? 16 References 19
3WhatDoesNatureConservationWant:CleanAir,UntouchedHabitats, toMakeRareSpeciesMoreNumerous? 21
3.1WhatIsNature?WhatIsNatureConservation? 21
3.1.1WhatIsNature?NatureIsWhatHasNotBeenCreatedorFormed byHumans 21
3.1.2WhatIsNatureConservation?ForWhomShouldNatureBe Protected? 24
3.1.3WhatIsNatureConservation?FromWhomShouldNatureBe Protected? 27
3.2WhichSpeciesShouldBeProtected? 30
3.2.1TheFirstOption:OnlyThoseSpeciesShouldBeProtectedinanArea inWhichaSignificantProportionofTheirGlobalPopulationIs Present 31
3.2.2TheSecondOption:OnlyOriginal,‘Homeland’SpeciesShouldBe Assisted 32
3.2.3TheThirdOption:TheSpeciesWhichAreofImportanceforthe EcosystemorforHumansShouldBeProtected 37
3.2.4TheFourthOption:TheObjectiveofSpeciesProtectionandHabitat ManagementShouldBetheAchievementofaMaximumNumberof Species 40
3.3SeparationoftheTermsEnvironmentalProtection,Nature Conservation,SpeciesProtectionandAnimalProtection 43
3.3.1NatureConservation,EnvironmentalProtectionandSpecies ProtectionAreNotOneandtheSame 43
3.3.2AnimalProtectionandSpeciesProtectionAreNotOneandthe Same 50
3.4NatureConservationMisunderstood–FightingtheWrong Enemy 52
3.4.1WhatIstheSignificanceoftheCampaignagainstClimateChangefor theCentralEuropeanSpecies? 53
3.4.2WillAppleJuiceBringBacktheWrynecktoUs? 55
3.4.3BansonCollectingandCatchingSpecimens–ADistractionfrom theMainCausesofSpeciesLoss 56
3.5WhatAreNatureReserves? 60
3.5.1Many‘NatureReserves’inCentralEuropeAreAreasThatMustBe Protected from Nature 61
3.5.2AirportsasRefugesforThreatenedSpecies 63
3.5.3TheRe-naturalisationofOpen-CastMiningSites–ADestructionof RareSpecies’Habitats 65
3.6TheProtectionofOneSpeciesMeansDeathforAnother 68
3.6.1TheCompetitionAmongSpeciesforResources 69
3.6.2TheEarlierAssessmentofSpeciesAccordingtoTheirUsefulnessfor Humans 70
3.6.3RegulatoryInterventioninAnimalBiologicalCommunities–Saving EndangeredSpeciesbyEliminatingTheirCompetitors 73
3.7WhoKillsMoreBirds–TheFowlersofWesternEuropeandthe MediterraneanorOurHouseCats? 75
3.7.1HowManyBirdsAreKilledbyCats? 77
3.7.2TheKillingofMigratoryBirdsthroughFowling,fromFranceto Egypt 79
3.7.3TheMainDamageThatFowlersWreakIsNottheFactThatTheyKill theCreatures–TheyMakeThemTimid,withtheResultThatThey CannotSettleinHabitatsNearHumans 82
3.7.4TheHighReproductionRateoftheOrganisms 84 References 86
4Objectives,ContentandLimitsoftheRedListsofEndangered Species 91
4.1TheObjectivesandtheOriginoftheRedListsofEndangered Species 91
4.2TheClassificationofThreatenedSpeciesinEndangerment Categories 100
4.2.1EndangermentCategoriesandClassificationCriteria 100
4.2.2StatusCategories–RegularlyOccurringSpecies,Irregularly OccurringSpeciesandNeobiota 104
4.2.3TheMeaningofPopulationTrendsintheGermanRedLists 106
4.2.4TheHarmonisationoftheIUCNCriteriawiththeClassification CriteriaoftheRegionalRedLists 108
4.3TheNationalResponsibilityforCertainSpecies 109
4.3.1AProtectedRarityinOneCountryIsOftenCommon Elsewhere 109
4.3.2TheOccurrenceofaSpeciesIsDividedintoCoreAreasandBorder Zones 111
4.4SpeciesorGeneticallyIsolatedPopulations–WhatShouldBe Protected? 114
4.4.1WhatAre‘Species’?TheFinalDecisionIsMadebyMan 114
4.4.2BarcodeTaxonomy–AConflictbetweenApplicationandthe TheoreticalBasis 116
4.4.3TheProtectionofEvolutionarilySignificantUnitsInsteadof Species 119 References 124
5ChangesinthePopulationSizesofBirdsandButterfliesinCentral EuropeandGermany 127
5.1ChangesinthePopulationSizesofBirdsinGermany 127
5.1.1TheIncreaseinIndividualNumbersofSomeBirdSpeciesintheLast DecadesIsBasedontheCessationofChase,NotonanImprovement ofHabitats 127
5.1.2TheRed-ListedBirdsontheDeclineAreAlmostExclusively Open-CountrySpecies 131
5.2ChangesintheButterflyPopulationsinCentralEurope 134
5.2.1TheProportionsofGermanyandEuropeintheGlobalDistribution AreasofButterflies 134
5.2.2TheDrasticDeclineofButterfliesinGermanyandCentral Europe 136
5.2.3ThePositiveConsequencesofGlobalWarmingfortheButterflies AreNegatedbytheNegativeEffectsofHabitatDestruction 139
5.2.4ManyButterfliesinCentralEuropeNeedGrasslandsorLight-Rich ForestsThatAreNotPristine 141 References 142
6TheSpecialSituationofSpeciesinCentralEurope 145
6.1CentralEurope’sLandscapeIsNot‘Nature’ 145
6.1.1AlternatingForestandSteppeinCentralEuropeledtoWavesof ExtinctionsandtheReimmigrationofSpecies 145
6.1.2TheDisappearanceofLargeAnimalsattheEndofthe Pleistocene 149
6.1.3PastExploitationofNatureCreatedtheOpenLandscapesandthe SpeciesRichnessofCentralEurope 152
6.1.4WhatIs‘Natural’FaunaandFlorainCentralEurope?–The ImplicationsforNatureConservation 156
6.2CanEndangeredSpeciesinCentralEuropeBeSavedthroughForest NationalParks? 160
6.3NitrogenIsSuffocatingSpeciesRichnessinCentralEurope 166
6.4TheRescueofManyRedListSpeciesinCentralEuropeRequires TechnicalInterventionsinNature 170
6.4.1UntouchedHabitats,ComparedtoHabitatswithDisruptive Encroachments 171
6.4.2TheAnimalsoftheAgriculturalLandAreLost:LandSparingversus LandSharing 173
6.4.3AFuturefortheProtectionofSpecies:TechnicallyManipulated Habitats 176
6.5TheGoldenPlover,theGodwitandtheGreat Bustard–hemerophilesinCentralEurope 181
6.5.1TheGoldenPlover,aBirdoftheSheepPasturesandthePartly DrainedHighBogsintheNorthernRegionofCentralEurope 182
6.5.2TheOccurrenceoftheBlack-TailedGodwitintheWesternand CentralEuropeofTodayHasNothingtoDowithPristineand UntouchedNature 185
6.5.3TheGreatBustardinCentralEurope:FromFrequentAgricultural PesttoaBirdThreatenedwithExtinction 187 References 194
7TheForestasaMythinGermany 199
7.1WhyDoGermansLovetheForestSoMuch?ManDidOriginatein theSavannahs 199
7.1.1IntheMindsoftheGermans,theForestOccupiesaSpecialPosition; TheyEquateItwith‘Nature’ 199
7.1.2CentralEuropeanForestsAreNotNatural 201
7.1.3CentralEuropeanForestsintheEyesofthePoetsandoftheGerman Nationalists 203
7.1.4CentralEuropeanForestsAreNotParticularlyRichinSpecies 205
7.2HumanEncroachmentupontheCentralEuropeanForestsduring theNeolithicandBronzeAges 207
7.2.1PrehistoricNeolithicandBronzeAgeSettlersWroughtProfound ChangesintheForests 208
7.2.2PrehistoricSettlersChangedTheirAbodesatShortIntervals, DestroyingForestsThroughoutLargeAreasofCentralEurope 211
7.2.3The‘ConservationofNature’CannotbetheReasonBehindthe ProtectionofCentralEuropeanBeechForests 213
7.2.4HumanEncroachmentonTropicalForestsinPrehistoricTimes 215
7.3TheForestinCentralEuropefromRomanTimestotheModern Era 216
7.3.1TheCentralEuropeanForestintheRomanandCarolingian Periods 217
7.3.2ThePermanentDestructionofForestsinCentralEuropefromthe EarlyMiddleAgestotheNineteenthCentury 219
7.3.3TheRichnessofBiodiversityintheRuinedLandscapeduringthe NineteenthCentury 220
7.3.4AfforestationasaNationalIdeologyinGermanySincethe EighteenthCentury 221 References 224
8TheApocalypseofGlobalExtinctionofSpecies 227
8.1HowManySpeciesLiveintheWorld? 227
8.1.1TheUncertaintyAboutWhataSpeciesActuallyIs 227
8.1.2DifferentMethodsofAssessingtheSpeciesThatActuallyLiveinthe World 230
8.2DoesaGlobalExtinctionofSpeciesExistToday? 233
8.2.1Germany–ACountryofCautionandPrecautionagainstDeplorable CircumstancesThatOccurEitherNeverorOnlyRarely 234
8.2.2TheLifespanofSpecies,andtheFiveMajorMassExtinctionsof SpeciesinthePast500MillionYears 236
8.2.3TheExtinctionofManySpeciesbyPrehistoricandRecent Humans 238
8.2.4IstheEarthSufferingItsSixthMassExtinctionofSpecies Today? 241
8.2.5ConflictingFiguresandScepticismRegardingToday’sMass ExtinctionofSpecies 243 References 246
AnimalIndex 249
SubjectIndex 253
Colourplates 255
OpeningRemarks:PreservationofRareSpecies–Breaking GroundsforaNewApproach
ManyspeciesaredeclininginCentralEuroperightnowinourtime.Mostofthem arethreateneddespitethefactthattheyareprotectedbylaw.Asubstantialnumberhavewithdrawncompletelyfromthecountrysideinrecentdecades.Some havefoundanalternativetomaketheirlivingincities,onairfieldsandindustrialareas,however.Thesenon-naturalhabitatsbecamemoreattractiveeventhan protectedareas.Whatisgoingon?
Whyisourmodernandseeminglyhighlyenforcednatureconservationlegislaturesoinsufficientingeneral,thoughsomelargerspeciesofmammalsand birdsareexpandingtheirrangesandincreaseinabundance?Forgloballythreatenedbirdssuchasthewhite-tailedseaeagle,Germanynowrangesamongthe mostimportantcountrieswithasubpopulationapproachingathousandbreeding pairs.Thereisalsoasoaringpopulationofwildboarnumberinginmanythousands.Greywolfsarethrivinginasmallbutawell-doingpopulationinEastern GermanywhichhasbeentheGermanDemocraticRepublicaquarterofacenturyago.Andinthewintermonths,nearlyeverybodycanmaketheexperience ofseeingasnowywhiteheronstandinginthesnowoutinthecountryside.The numbersofwinteringgreatwhiteegretsnowvastlyexceedtheformerbreeding populationofthisrareEuropeanbirdspecieswhichmanagedtosurvivehalfacenturyagomainlyjustattheinaccessibleborderareasofthetimeoftheColdWar, forexample,ontheLakeofNeusiedlsoutheastofVienna.Ornithologistshave beenveryhappytocatchaglimpseofthethenshyandelusivewhiteheronsby approachingtheAustrian–Hungarianborderascloseassecurityallowed.What adifferencejustahandfulofdecadeslaterwithgreatwhiteegretsoutnumbering the‘normally’muchmorecommongreyheroninmostregionsofCentralEurope inwinter.Inwinter!Thismatteroffactchallengesthelongstandingviewofthe ‘niche’ofthis‘tropicalbird’andmanyotherbirdandmammalspeciesaccording toconventionalecologicalwisdomofformertimes.Evenintextbooksofecology alotofspecieshasbeenmisplacedaccordingtothelimitedknowledgeofwhere theycanorcouldlive,whichmoreoftenthannotisdifferentfromwherewedid findthemunderthelocalorregionalconditionsatacertaintime.
Soagainthequestion,whatisgoingon‘outinnature’aswetendtosay,because we,thehumanpeopleofthemodernworld,usuallyseparateourimmediaterealm oflivingfromtheso-calledfreenature.Whybecamesomanyspeciesrareor
XII
OpeningRemarks:PreservationofRareSpecies–BreakingGroundsforaNewApproach vanishedatallfromourneatandcleanandprogressivelyhealthierenvironment despitesuchanextraordinaryamountofconservationeffortsandsomanymillion Euros,whichhavebeenspentbyournatureconservationorganisations?
Theanswersgivenpointatastilltoomuchspoiledandpoisonedenvironment, claimunbearablehighlevelsofhumandisturbanceandtheexcessiveconstruction ofroads,spreadofsettlementsandotherformsof‘development’whichgenerally meansdestructionofnature.Thebirdsandbees,thebutterfliesandbats,they cannotfindenoughsuitablehabitatsforsufficientlylarge,extinction-resistant populations.Orsothesayinggoes.Thismaybetrueinanumberofspecial cases,butcertainlynotinall,however.Thecommonview,asexpressedbymost natureconservationistsandwidespreadinthepublicopinionasaresultoftheir campaigning,ishighlybiasedinfact.Itisthisbiasofamuchtoohuman-centred viewofnatureandhowitshouldlooklikewhichresultedinsuchalowsuccess orfailureofthespeciesconservationefforts.Acloserlookontothedemiseof thevastnumberofsmallerspecies,bestexemplifiedbybutterflies,mothsand songbirdsduetoextensivefieldstudiesavailablefromrecentdecades,revealsthe shortcomingsandsimultaneouslymakesunderstandablethesuccessofthefew largerones,whichareexpanding.
Thespreadofgreywolfsandwhite-tailedseaeagles,ofgreatwhiteheronsand blackstorks,ofperegrinesandbeaversandalsothefinallysuccessfulreintroductionofthelammergeyerintotheAlpsbeyondanydoubtistheresultofaverymuch reducedhuntingpressureposedonthatandotherincreasingspeciescompared withthesituationofthepre-SecondWorldWartimes.Theycouldrecoverdueto reducedlossesbyshootingandpoisoningandalsoduetoamuchgreatertoleranceofhumanpresencetheyachievedinrecenttimes.Thegreatwinnersinfact havebeensuchspecieswhichfoundtheirwayintotherelativelyhighsafetyofthe cities.However,astrikinggeographicalpatternisvisibleincentralEuropeinthe distributionandabundanceofmanyspeciesoflargermammals,birdsandinvertebrates.ItshowstheseparationofaspeciesrichEasternandanimpoverished WesternpartbywhathasbeentheIronCurtainaquarterofacenturyago.There isnonaturalecologicalconditionorconstraintexistingforthisoncepoliticalseparation,butquiteamassiveonewithrespecttotheintensityoftheagriculturaluse ofthecountryside.IntheformerEastmajortractsofland,manyfinescalestructuresofunusedsitesandstillalowerexpectationonhowhightheyieldsofthe fieldsshouldbecomecharacterisetheEastandcontrasttotheWesternattitude ofmaximumexploitation.Moreover,abandonedvillages,cottages,onceusedsites forindustrialproductionandhighlycontaminatedareasfromsocialisttimesarein existenceandprobablywilllastforsomedecadesmore,beforetheybecomesubjectedtothecleansingaccordingtotheWesternstyle.Thereevensmallgravelpits havebeenviewedas‘woundsinnature’whichhavetobehealedassoonaspossiblebyre-cultivation,whichinvariablymeantplantingtreestocoverthe‘offenceto theeyes’withouttakingtheneedsofsomanyspeciesofanimalsandplantsinto consideration.Thisisoneofthemajorpoints,whichismadeinthisbook,and whichwillmakeithardtodigestwithoutputtingasideallthepreconceivedviews how(clean)natureshouldbe.
OpeningRemarks:PreservationofRareSpecies–BreakingGroundsforaNewApproach XIII
Theothercentralpointdealswiththeinvisiblestuffcallednitrogencompounds whichfloodsthewholeofCentralEuropesincedecadesduetoover-fertilisation ofthearablefieldsandflushingthemeadowswithliquidmanure,thelatterina totalamountwhichgreatlyexceedsallthepeoples’sewageinGermany.Thisgeneraleutrophicationpromotesthegrowthandecologicaldisplacementstrengths ofaverylimitednumberofplantspeciesandhasledtoamuchwetterandcooler microclimatedownatthevegetationlevelofthecountrysidethanisindicated bytheofficialmeteorologicalmeasurementsand‘expected’asaresultofclimate warming.Mostofthewarmth-loving(thermophilic)speciesareinseveredecline eveninprotectedareasandtheyformthegreatestbulkofspeciesinthe‘RedLists’. Infact,mosthabitatsbecamecoolerinthelasthalfofacentury,notwarmeras expected.Therefore,andthisisthegreatmessageofthebook,weareinbadneed ofopen,dryand‘unproductive’areas,unfertilisedandmanagedinaproperwayto actagainsttheaccumulationofplantnutrientsduetotheinfluxofnitrogencompoundsandnutritivedustsfromtheskybywindandweather.Thesmallscientific communitywhichhastheprivilegetolookintothemilitarytrainingareasatsome timesknowsthatthesearethemostdiversesiteswiththehighestnumbersofrare andendangeredspecies–andnotthoseprotectedbylawofficially.Secondtothe militarytrainingareasinspeciesrichnessaremajorcitiessuchasBerlinorthe vastRhine-Ruhr-Agglomerationwherealotofraritiesfoundtheirplaceofliving amidstthedensesthumanpopulationconcentrations.
Sucharethe‘goodnews’,thoughnotfromaconventionalnatureconservationist’spointofview,becauseitmeanswehavebetterpossibilitiestopreservespecies onuptonowlargelyneglectedandunder-ratedareassuchasopenminingsites, abandonedindustrialareasandhighlydisturbedplaces.Theyarethelastheavensforquitealotofspecieswhichagreatmanyofournatureloverswouldnot liketomisssuchasthesingingskylark,whichisbestseen,underuncomfortable acousticconditionshowever,onthemajorairports.Summingup,weasconservationistsshouldapplymuchcloserlooksontowheretherareandendangered speciesstillexistratherthanhangingonconceptshowwewouldliketoseethe so-calledfreenaturewithalowintensityofagricultureclosetothehungerlevelof thepeasants.Suchconceptswhicharebasedontheconditionofthenineteenth centuryareoutofdateinmoderntimesnotonlyduetothefactthateverything haschangedoverthelastoneandahalfcentury,butalsobecausetheyprovideno realisticoutlookforthefuture.Thebestguidescertainlystillarethespeciesthemselves.Conservationistsshouldfollowtheirguidanceratherthantheiroutdated, moreorlessromanticideals.Thisisthecombinedmessageofallthethreadsand newapproacheswhichWernerKunzexploresinhisoutstandinganddemanding book.Ifreadcarefullyandopenminded,itcouldbecomeasimilarbenchmark publicationlikethe‘SilentSpring’byRachelCarson,becauseofthe‘newsong’it offerstonatureconservation.
Prof.DrJosefH.Reichholf München,Germany
Preface
Natureconservationisagoodthing.Whowoulddaretoraiseobjectionsagainst it?However,itisthemoral–ideologicalandexaggeratedapproach,closelyassociatedwiththeconservationmovementsincethesecondhalfofthelastcenturythat leadstothedrawingofwrongconclusions.Natureandwildlifeconservationwere originallyorientedonspecificobjectives,namelytheprotectionofnatureand species.Inthe1970sand1980s,however,anewconceptwaspropagated,which embeddednatureconservationandspeciesprotectionintothevisionofaclean environmentandintothehealthofthepopulation.Thisdevelopmentexpanded anarea(thatpreviouslyhadreflectedtheinterestsofonlysomespecificindividuals)intoagenerallybindingmoralpostulate.Peoplehadtobemadeawarethatthe protectionofspeciespresupposedanintactnatureandthatrubbishandpollution intheenvironmentreallyendangeredspecies.Sinceitwasamoraldutytoavoid environmentalpollution,everyonehadtoautomaticallycombineenvironmental cleannesswithnatureconservationandtheprotectionofspecies.
However,theprotectionofsomespecieshasnothingatalltodowithnature conservationandevenlesswithacleanenvironment.Hygiene,cleanlinessand orderlinessarethingsthatmanneeds;buttheyarenotwhatmanyspecies necessarilyneed,atleastnotintheforminwhichhumanbeingswouldliketo seethem.Exactlytheoppositeisoftentrue.Inrecentcenturies,hygieneand orderlinessinourhomeshaveputmanyformerlycommonanimalsintothe endangeredspeciescategories.Forexample,thehouserat(Rattusrattus),notto beconfusedwiththebrownrat(Rattusnorvegicus)hasbecomeextremelyrare. IthadtobeclassifiedinGermany’sRedListofThreatenedAnimalsas‘critically endangered’(Category1).Thepopulationsofthecommonbedbughavedeclined sharplyinCentralEuropeincomparisontothoseofpreviouscenturies.The samegoesforfleasandlice.AllthesespeciesusedtobeverycommoninCentral Europeandtheystillaretodayinothercountriesaroundtheworld.Theybecame rareinCentralEuropethankstohygiene,cleanlinessandmeasuresthatserve thehealthofhumanbeings.Mostofushaveofcoursenoloveforthesecreatures inourhomes,butitisexactlythisperceptionthatreflectstheanthropocentric standpoint.Itiswhathumanbeingswant,notwhattheanimalswant.
Justasinearliertimes,civilisationsawhomesbeingthoroughlycleanedofdebris anddirt,andtoday’smodernagricultureis‘cleaning’thelandscapetoaneverincreasingextent.Wehaverecentlybeguntotransferaprocess,whichformerly serveddomesticcultureandhealth,tothecountryside.DuringthelasthalfcenturyinCentralEurope,farmlandandpastureshavebeenoptimisedformaximum yieldandcleanedformachineprocessing.Agriculturallandwasclearedofstones andweedsandsandyormuddysurfacesandunevengroundwereeliminated.The lastsquareyardsofunusedgaps,cornersandedgeareaswereincorporatedinto theproductionareas,andwasteandcropresidueswerenolongerleftlying.Modernfarmlandisabsolutelyclean,homogeneousandasflatasatable.
However,animalshavealsobeenclearedfromthefields,tothesameextentas thefieldshavebeenclearedof‘refuse’.Themodernfieldisalmostspecies-free. Beingcleanandhygienic,itmakesa‘proper’impressionofcourse,butitisactuallyadesertthatishostileforspecies.Justasthecleaningofhumandomiciles removedthepossibilitiesofsurvivalforrats,bedbugsandfleas,thecleaningofthe fieldshasleftnoroomforthespecies.Thebrowhare,greypartridge,skylarkand cornbuntingcannolongerfindareasforfoodandnesting.Ifyoutakeawalkover fieldstoday,youwillnothearthesingingoftheskylarkatmostlocations;anditis forsimilarreasonsthatnomorecricketschirpinourhomesandnomoreratsfrequentourcellars.Itisnotjustthetoxinsthathavemadeadesertoutofouragriculturalareas.Abitmoredirtandgrubbinesswouldhavebeengoodfortheanimals, aninsightthatisexpressedbytheprovocativesaying:‘Alazyfarmerpromotes biodiversitytoagreaterextentthantenhardworkingnatureconservationists’. Orderlinessandcleanlinesshavecontributedconsiderablytotheextermination ofmanyspeciesonagriculturalland;butthepopularbeliefthatacleanenvironmentalsobenefitsspeciescannotbeeradicated.Environmentalcleanliness doesindeedpromotemanyaquaticspeciesthatbreatheinthewater,butaclean environmentsimplydoesnotworkformanyterrestrialspecies.Ofcourse,itis unhygienicandnotatallaestheticwhenrubbishisdumpedinparkingspots,or whenfoodscrapsaresimplythrownoutofcarstolieonvillagestreets.Thisshould bepreventedintheinterestofthevastmajorityofpeople;butthiswouldonlybe intheinterestofourownhumanneedsfororderandhygiene.Inthesamebreath, weshouldnotthenregretthatthesparrowisdisappearingfromthevillagesand theyellowhammerfromthefields(Meyer,EilersandSchnapper,2003).TheoccurrenceofthepurpleemperorbutterflyonthestreetsinthemidstofsomeRomanian villagesisonlythankstothefactthattherearenosewersystemsintheselocations. Unpavedroadscausedustanddirt.Iftheroadsarepaved,wenolongermake ourshoesdirty,andthereisnotsomuchdustintheair;butthentheswallows cannotfindanymoremudtobuildtheirnests.Therearenomorepuddleson clean,pavedroads;sotherearealsonomoremosquitoes;butonlywehumans likethisstateofaffairs,swallowsdonot.
Crumblingwallsareatestamenttotheneglectofbuildingsandtheyareperceivedasbeing‘notorderly’.‘Orderly’andhardworkinghomeownersensurethat theirwallsarewell-plastered.However,alargenumberofmasonbeespeciesand otherhymenopteracannolongerliveonproperlyplasteredwalls;andtheyare
Preface XVII ontheRedListinGermanytoday.Cavitiesunderhouseroofsandontheirouter facadesarethebreedinggroundsofthebat,theswiftandtheowl,butthispresupposesthatsuchhousesareoldandinneedofrenovation,sothecavitiesand holesinthesebuildingshavemostlybeenclosedandfilledtosaveenergyandavoid losingheat.Everymeasuretakenforthepurposeofenvironmentalprotectionis directlyopposedtospeciesprotection,andthelistgoeson.
Besidescleanlinessandorderliness,thereisanotherideal,whichintheminds ofmanypeopleequateswiththeprotectionofspecies,butinmanywaysisthe oppositeofspeciesprotection–andthatisundisturbed,unspoilednature.Its importanceismuchtoohighlyrankedbynatureconservationists.
Thedecisiontowritethisbookwasmademanyyearsago,whenIfirstrealised somethingtheconsequencesofwhichIhadnothithertobeenawareof.While searchingforrarebirdandbutterflyspeciesasastudentinthedecadesafterthe SecondWorldWar,IverysoonnoticedthattofindanyremarkablespeciesIhad tovisitthedestroyedmilitaryairfieldsofthatperiod.Intheseareas,Iencountered birdsandbutterfliesthatcouldonlyberarelyseenelsewhere,ifatall.Itwasonly muchlaterthatthefullmeaningofthiscamehometome.Inanutshell,thismeant thatmanyendangeredspeciesarefoundinhabitatsthataredefinitelynotwildlife sanctuaries.Theseex-airfieldswerehabitatsthathadnothingtodowithnature andonlyowedtheirexistencetothefactthatnaturehadbeendestroyedinthem. Thesewereareasthatwerecharacterisedbyseveralfeatures.Firstofall,the formermilitaryairfieldsweretreeandshrub-freealmostasfarasyoucouldsee. Second,theywerelevelswithveryheterogeneoussurfaces(exacerbatedbythe manybombcraters),andthird,thegroundwasonlysparselycoveredwithvegetation,andthegrasslayerswereinterspersedwithbareearthandrockyand sandyareas(intensifiedbytheformerconcreterunways,nowdestroyed).These areashadnosimilaritieswiththecurrentlandscapeofCentralEurope.Theyhad agreaterresemblancewiththelandscapesofearliercenturiesthathadbeendevastatedbyhumanoverexploitationatatimewhentherewasnoafforestationand nomineralfertilisation.
Theseruinedairfieldareaswerehometomanybirdsandbutterflieswhichhad tomakewayforafforestationandeutrophicationelsewhere.Onthedryareasof theseairfields,Ifoundskylarksbroodinginlargenumbers;commonsnipe,redshankandcrakeswerenestingintherushesofthewetterareasandlittleringed plovershadfoundsuitableplacestolaytheireggsandreartheiryoungonthe destroyedrunways.Thewheatearpopulatedtheruinsoftheformerairportbuildingsandtawnypipitswerebreedinginconsiderablenumbersonthesandyearth wallsoftheformerairportboundaries(Kunz,1959).Onthislandscapethatwas onlysparselycoveredwithvegetation,silver-studdedbluebutterfliescouldbeseen everywhere,alconbluesfoundsuitablelivingconditionsonthewettersurfaces andsilver-borderedfritillarieswerecommon.
Inlateryears,IagaincameacrossanareatowhichmanyRedListspecieshad retreated,becausetheycouldnolongerliveonthemodern-day,over-fertilised agriculturalfieldsandovergrownareasofnon-agriculturalland.Hereagain, thisareawasnotawildlifesanctuary,nordiditmeetthecriteria,whichwould
XVIII Preface
haveclasseditas‘natural’.Itwasthelarge-scale,browncoalopen-castmining excavationswestofCologneinGermany.Thenatureandenvironmentalconservationassociationsparadedtheseareastothepublicasaterribleexampleof thedestructionofnature,anexamplethatshoulddiscourageusallfromallowing suchlandscapestoexist.Again,theseareaswerecharacterisedbythethree featuresmentionedearlier,whicharetheconditionsfortheoccurrenceofmany rarespecies:wideandtreelessopenspaces,aheterogeneoussurfacestructure andbareearth.
Meadowpipits,cornbuntings,wheatearsandwoodlarkswerebreedingon theuntreated,nitrogen-poorsoilsthathadbeenbroughtupfromthedepthsof themineandonthesubsequentstagesofthesesoils(providedthattheywere notalreadycoveredwithdensevegetation),andallofthesebirdsarenowon theRedListinGermany(Südbeck etal.,2007)(Plate1).Swallowtailandsmall heathbutterflieswereverycommonthere,andmorethan15speciesoforchids, theremainingpopulationsofwhichhaveshrunkinGermany(andthelocations ofwhicharetopsecret)werealsogrowingthroughoutthearea(Albrecht etal., 2005)(Plates2and3).
Manynatureobserversgottogetheronthislandscape,havingquicklyrealised thatheretheycouldfindtherarespeciesthathavedisappearedelsewhere.However,inthemindsofalargepartofthepopulation,theopen-castexcavationsare adevastationofnaturethatarousesdisgust,andtheyshouldreallyneverhave beenallowedtoexist.Somepeoplefailtorealisethatthepreservationofmany endangeredspeciesinCentralEuropehasnothingtodowiththeaestheticsofa landscape,norcanspeciesprotectionbeachievedbyleavingnatureuntouched. Oneobjectiveofthisbookistomakeitclearthattheprotectionofrareand endangeredspeciesinCentralEuropeinmanycaseshasnothingtodowiththe conservationofnature.Indeed,itiscorrectthatprotectingMotherNaturefirst andforemostmeansprotectingherfromtheencroachmentsofman,because humaninterventionsleadtodisruptions,sincetheyinterferewithnaturaldevelopmentprocesses.However,thisinitselfisnotalwaysspeciesprotection.Ifarare speciesstilllivesinaparticularhabitat,thenatureconservationassociationsstrive toplacethathabitatunderprotection,avoidinganyattemptsmanmaymakeat changingit.Itisindeedtruethatalteringthathabitatwouldeventuallydriveout thespecieswhichistobeprotected.However,whatmanypeopledonotunderstandisthatinmanycases,itisnotmanbutnatureitselfthatchangesthehabitat overtime,makingituninhabitablefortheendangeredspecies.
AlmostallthehabitatsinCentralEuropewouldbecomeovergrownwith treesiftheywerelefttothemselveswithouthumanintervention.Hugeareas ofCentralEuropewouldbecomewoodland.Youcouldsaythatthisisagood thing,adesirablenaturalcondition.Indeed,thisisanargumentthatcannotbe contradictedfromtheviewpointofnatureconservation;butspeciesprotection pursuesadifferentobjective.InCentralEurope,thereishardlyanendangered birdorbutterflyspeciesthatlivesinforests,apartfromsomespecialistspecies thatneedveryspecificforeststructures(nowmissingfromourforests)(Südbeck etal.,2007).Today,nuthatchesandalmostallspeciesofowlsandwoodpeckers
Preface XIX aremorecommonthantheyhavebeenforalongtime.Itismostlythespecies oftheopencountrythatareendangeredinCentralEuropetoday.Theseinclude manyspeciesofbirdsandalmostallthebutterflyspecies.Openlandscapesare thehabitatsthatarelackingtoday.Wehaveenoughforests.Anyonewhoreally wantedtosavethegreatestpossiblenumberofthreatenedspecieswouldnever advocatethecreationofnewforests.
Inthisrespect,CentralEuropediffersfromtherainforestareasoftheworld wherethelossoftheforestsisjeopardisingspeciesthatlivethere.InCentral Europe,however,manyspeciesdonotbenefitfromtoomanyforests,theyare morelikelyendangeredbythecurrentabundanceofforests.ThisisbecauseCentralEuropewasdeforestedbymankindforthousandsofyearsandasaresultis nowmainlyinhabitedbyspeciesthathaveadaptedtoopenhabitats.Speciesprotectionisfacingatoughdilemma:theopenlandspecieswerenotthreatenedfor centuriesinCentralEurope,becausetheycouldcoloniseagriculturallandwith noproblems.Fields,meadowsandpasturesprovidedenoughsuitablehabitatsin whichopenlandspeciescouldliveandpropagate.However,thesituationhas nolongerexistedforhalfacentury,becauseitwasthenthatagriculturalland becameyield-optimisedandofferedneitherahomenorfoodforthespeciesasa result.Thisiswhytheopenlandspecieshaveretreatedfromtheagriculturaland meadowlandareastonon-farmedopenareas;buttheserefuges,whichinclude mountainslopesandvalleybottoms,arestartingtobecomeovergrown,simply becausetheyarenolongerusedandarealsoover-fertilisedbynitrogenraining downfromtheatmosphere.Almosttheonlysparselyvegetatedlandscapesthat remainforthethreatenedopenlandspeciestodayarewastelandsincities,industrialareas,portfacilities,trafficareas(suchasmotorwayembankments),gravel quarryingsites,browncoalopen-castminingsitesandmilitaryareas(Plate4).
TheproblemofthecurrentbiodiversitylossinCentralEuropecannotbeadequatelysolvedbytakingawaytheeconomicalutilisationofhabitatsinwhichrare speciesstilllive,declaringthesehabitatstobe‘naturereserves’andessentially leavingthemwellalone.Protectedareaslikethismustbeprotectedfromnature itself.Toachievethis,permanenthabitatmanagementwithtechnicalequipment isrequired.Thisapproachmustbeadaptedtothehabitatneedsofparticularly endangeredspeciesandprovidethemwiththefoodandreproductiveopportunitiestheyneed;andthissometimesrequiresintensivetechnicalengineeringof thelandscape.
Butthereinliestheproblem.Publicawarenesshastobefullybehindthistype ofspeciesprotectionactioninordertoensureitsimplementation,anditisthis awarenessthatiswoefullylacking.Theemotionaldesireforanundisturbednature whichmustbeleftaloneisdeeplyingrainedintheconsciousnessofthepopulation–inexcessivelyideologicalmanner.ThisiswhythereisaconsiderableresistanceagainstacceptingthefactthatleavingMotherNaturetoherowndevices doesnotencouragethesurvivalofmanyspeciesinCentralEurope.Assoonas effortsweremadetosaveendangeredspeciesbycuttingdowntreesorpartially burningcertainareas,orforestrymachinerywereusedtoremovethetopsoilover largeareasinordertorecoverlostheathsanddrygrasslandlandscapes,storms
XX Preface
ofprotestfromthepopulationaremoreorlesspreprogrammed.Thesemeasures areperceivedasbeingadestructionofnature(whichtheyindeedare)andwould arouseincomprehensionandindignation.Thesensethatnatureconservationand speciesprotectionareonesingleentityissodeeplyentrenchedinthepublic’sconsciousnessthatanyattemptstodislodgeitaredoomedtofailure,becauseitwould beanattackagainsthumanemotions.Thisiswhyanylarge-scaletechnicalhabitat managementprojectsareverydifficulttoimplementpoliticallyinthisdayandage. InGermanyinparticular,thepoliticalconditionsforintensivetechnicalbiotope managementseemtobenon-existent,duetoinsufficientinformationofthepublic.Onecanonlytiptoecarefullyforwardsinverysmallsteps(asisbeingdone bysomelocalnatureconservationassociationstoday);butthesefewstepsmaybe toolatetorescuesomespecies.
References
Albrecht,C.,Dworschak,U.-R.,Esser,T., Klein,H.,andWeglau,J.(2005)Tiere undPflanzeninderRekultivierung–40 JahreFreilandforschungimRheinischen Braunkohlenrevier. ActaBiologicaBenrodis,(Suppl.10),1–238.
Kunz,W.(1959)DieVogelweltdesKreises Bersenbrück. SchriftenreiheKreisheimatbundBersenbrück , 6,1–159.
Meyer,W.,Eilers,G.,andSchnapper,A. (2003) MüllalsNahrungsquellefürVögel undSäugetiere,WestarpWissenschaften, Hohenwarsleben.
Südbeck,P.,Bauer,H.-G.,Boschert,M.,Boye, P.,andKnief,W.(2007)TheRedListof breedingbirdsofGermany,4thedition. BerichtezumVogelschutz, 44,23–81.
Introduction:RareSpeciesandNear-NaturalHabitatsin CentralEurope
Theprogressintheenvironmentalprotectionmeasuresofrecentdecadeshashardly stoppedthedeclineofmanyendangeredspecies.
Thehighlylauded,showpiecesuccessesinsavingsomeflagshipspecies,suchas thewhite-tailedeagles,cranes,blackstorksandperegrinefalconsactuallycreatea misleadingpictureabouttherealrecentthreattospeciesingeneral.
Thepreservationofmanywildlifesanctuariesisnotbeingthreatenedbyman, butbynatureitself.
Manyred-listedspeciesinhabitextremehabitats,whichinCentralEurope mostlybearnoresemblancetopristineandunspoilednature.
ThelossofspeciesinCentralEuropeisduetoverydifferentcausesthantheloss ofspeciesintherainforestareasoftheworld.Consequently,thespeciesprotective measuresbeingtakenforCentralEuropemustbedifferentfromspeciesprotection inthetropics.
Itisanillusiontobelievethatpastagriculturalpracticescouldonceagainbe revivedforthepurposeofspeciesconservation.Organicfarmingmethodswouldbe oflittlehelp.
Incertaincases,natureconservationassociationsmustenforcespeciesprotection,evenifitgoesagainsttheirownnatureconservationideals.
1.1
PreliminaryRemarks
ThisbookdealswithCentralEuropeanspeciesdecline,mainlyshownbythe examplesofselectedbirdandbutterflyspecies.Inthelastfewdecades,Central Europehaslostmorethanhalfofitsbirdsandamuchlargernumberofbutterflies (Thomas etal.,2004).Thebookgetstogripswithaphenomenon,namelythat althoughthemedia-effectiveactivitiesoftheconservationorganisationsdid changethepublic’secologicalawarenessinthe1970sand1980s,thedisappearanceofmanyspeciesisapparentlyprogressinginexorably,evendespitethe SpeciesConservationinManagedHabitats:TheMythofaPristineNature, FirstEdition.WernerKunz. ©2016Wiley-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co.KGaA.Published2016byWiley-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co.KGaA.
2
1Introduction:RareSpeciesandNear-NaturalHabitatsinCentralEurope visibleresultsinenvironmentalprotectionthathavebeenachievedbymany politicalmeasures.
However,theprogressintheenvironmentalprotectionmeasuresofrecent decadeshashardlystoppedthedeclineofmanyendangeredspecies.The disappearanceofmanyspeciesiscontinuingunabated,anditisunfortunately themajorityofthered-listedspeciesthatarebenefitinglessthanexpectedfrom theupwardtrendinenvironmentalprotection.Thewidespreadbeliefthata cleanenvironmentalmostautomaticallybenefitsspeciesisbeingputtothetest. Environmentalconservation(andevennatureconservation)isnotthesameas speciesprotection.
Butterfliesarelesswellknownandnotaspopularasbirds,sotheyarelesseffectivetoolsinthepromotionofnatureandenvironmentalconservationgoals.This iswhythenatureconservationassociationsdevotelessattentiontothem.Who knowsthedifferentspeciesoffritillaries,andregretstheirdramaticdisappearanceinrecentdecades?Uponhearingtheterm speciesprotection,mostpeople associateitwiththedeclineofmanyspeciesofbirds;butthefocusonbirdprotectioneffortsandtheirpartialsuccessgivesusafalseimpressionoftherealand recentthreattospeciesingeneral.Thehighlylauded,showpiecesuccessesinsavingsomeflagshipspecies,suchasthewhite-tailedeagles,cranes,blackstorksand peregrinefalconsactuallycreateamisleadingpicture.
WhenbirdersorinsectexpertsinCentralEuropewanttoseerare(and thereforedesirable)species,theyoftenprefernottogotonationalforestparksor eventothenaturereserves.Inmanycases,thosewhoarelookingforuncommon unusualbreedingbirdsormigrants,orthosewhowouldliketoseerarebutterflies donotgotothenear-naturalhabitats.Theytravelinsteadtotheman-madeopen spacessuchassandpits,sewagefarmsandtheareaswhereopen-castmining excavationshavebeencarriedout;becauseitisherethattheywillfindtherare red-listedspecies,andnotprimarilyintheareaswhichapproximatepristine natureinCentralEurope.
Thisbookisapleafortheprotectionofspecies.Manyofmyconclusionsare focussedonthefactthatthespecieswhichmustbesavedinCentralEurope arethosethatliveinhabitatswhichhavelittletodowithuntouchednature. Thesehabitatsareprimarilyendangeredbyecologicalsuccession;theycan onlybepreservedoroptimisedbytechnicalinterventions,someofwhichmust becarriedoutthoroughly.Thiswillpreventunspoilednature(andespecially theforest)frombeinggiventoppriority;butthatdoesnotequatewithnature conservationintheeyesofmanypeople,sotheydonotwantit;insteadthey wantaprimordialnature(andespeciallytheforest).Thatisunderstandable,and itisnotdealtwithnegativelyinthisbook.However,thisbookmakesitclearthat thedesirefornatureandthedesireforspeciesrichnessinCentralEuropearetwo differentissues,whichoftencannotbeachievedbythesamemeasures.People whodesireunspoilednatureandasmuchforestaspossiblewillhavetoadmit (albeitratherunwillingly)thattheydonotwantspeciesrichness.
1.2
APleaforOpenLandscapes
Anecologicalmovementwasestablishedinthe1970sand1980s.Itsobjective wastotacklethelackofenvironmentalawarenessinourindustrialsociety (Engels,2006).InGermany,theeffectivemediaappearanceofpersonalities suchasHeinzSielmann,BernhardGrzimek,HorstSternandothersfoundedan ideologyofallegedintactecosystemsbeingdestroyedbyhumanintervention. Ecologicalimportancewasattachedtospeciesandasenseofawarenessarose thattheextinctionofcertainspecieswouldcauseentireecosystemstocollapse. Thethreattomanyspecieswasassociatedwithahazardtohumanhealthand poisonedfood.Theeco-classic‘SilentSpring’byCarson(1962)becamea‘nature bible’formany.Thequestionofwhatan‘ecologicalbalance’andan‘intact ecosystem’actuallyare(ifthesetwoconceptsevenexist)wasnotaskedbymany people,orwasrepressed,becauseanon-contentiousandvaluableconvictionlay behindtheideologyfromtheoutset.Theextinctionofseveralspecies,however, hasnothingtodowithnaturalbalance.Thevalueofaspeciesequalsthevalue ofahistoricalmonument(Reichholf,2010).Thelossofmanyspeciesisofan ideationalnature;inmostcases,nobalanceisendangered.
Manwasseenasthemainenemyofmanyendangeredspecies.Targetedhuman interventionforhabitatregulationwasfrownedupon,andthepopulardefinitionofnatureconservationareaswasseenintheprotectionoftheremaining ‘residualnature’fromfurtherhumanintervention.Formanynaturereserves,however,itemergedthattheirpreservationwasnotbeingthreatenedbyman,butby natureitself.Gravelandsandsurfacesbecomeovergrown,drygrasslandsbecome coveredwithbushesandshallowwaterssiltup.Natureisuntamedecological succession.Itturnsmanycurrentlyexistingprotectedareasintobush-covered, overgrownareas,whichmakesthemworthlessformanyspecies,anditisexactly suchhabitatswhichcouldbedescribed(withmuchmorejustification)asbeing realnature.Natureitselfreducesthevalueofmanycurrentlyexistingprotected areasbyturningthemintohabitatswhicharenolongerrefugesformanyendangeredspecies.ManywildlifesanctuariesinCentralEuropearenotvirginnature, theyareman-madehabitats;andtheseman-madequalitiesareexactlythepropertiesofthenaturereservesthatmustbeprotected–notfromhumanintervention butfromnatureitself,becausenaturewouldreclaimthelandbyecologicalsuccessionifitwasnotpreventedfromdoingso.
Recentdecadeshaveseenmanynaturereserves(seenasrefugesforendangeredspecies)facingconsiderablecompetitionfromareaswhichearlierwould neverhavebeenexpectedtobecomeimportantfortheconservationofthreatenedspecies.Theseareareasthatwerecreatedforthemilitary,theeconomyand transport;inotherwords,theplanningandcreationoftheselandscapesdidnot pursuethegoalofsettinguparefugeforendangeredspecies.Forseveraldecades now,wastelandsintownsandindustrialsites,majorroadembankments,gravel
1Introduction:RareSpeciesandNear-NaturalHabitatsinCentralEurope pits,sewageplants,open-castminingsitesandmilitarytrainingareashavebeen thesitesonwhichmanyrarebirdssuchasthegrouse,thegreypartridge,thequail, thelapwing,thetreeandmeadowpipits,thewoodlark,thewheatearandthecorn buntingcanmostlikelybeseen,togetherwithbutterfliessuchastheswallowtail, thepalecloudedyellow,thecloudedyellow,thewallbrownandotherrarespecies (Plates1,2,5and6).Noneofthesespeciesowetheirpreservationtoanyactive speciesprotectionmeasures;theirpreservationevolvedpassivelyasaby-product ofman’slandscaping,whichwasintendedforcompletelydifferentpurposes.HabitatslikethishavenothingtodowithnatureandwouldnotexistinCentralEurope ifmanhimselfhadnotcreatedthem.
Whattheseareashaveincommonisthathumanskeepthemfreeofvegetation fortheirownpurposes;butthefactisthatspecificplantandanimalspeciesbenefit fromtheseareas,thepurposeofwhichwascertainlynotspeciesprotectionwhen theywerecreated.Earlier,sparselyvegetatedopenhabitatslikethisexistedalmost everywhere;butnowadaystheyhavebecomescarceashabitatsinCentralEurope andarelimitedalmostexclusivelytoindustrial,residential,trafficandmilitary areas(Plate4).Whileitiscorrectthatthecurrentexpansionofindustry,housing andtrafficpushesnaturebackmoreandmore,itwouldbewrong,however,to associatethedeclineofthespeciesinallcaseswiththesefactorsandtocomplain aboutthem.Speciesdonotalwaysneednature.
Manyred-listedspeciesinhabitextremehabitats,whichmostlybearnoresemblancetopristineandunspoilednatureinCentralEurope.Thisseemstobea paradox,becausethesehabitatsareusuallyinaconditionthatmakestheenvironmentalistswanttoavoidthemasmuchaspossible(andusuallytoeliminatethem) (Anonymous,2008).Thelapwingandthegreypartridge(bothRedListspecies) breedonbrownfieldsandontheterrainsflattenedbymachinesontheterrainof inlandportsontheRhineandElberivers,whereheavycranesandtrucksdominate thelandscape.Somerareplantspecieshaveretreatedtobrittleasphaltsurfacesin theparkingareasbetweendepartmentstoresbecausethesespacesaremoreor lesspreventedfrombecomingovergrownbylushvegetation.Endangeredplants whichhaveastrongaffinityforsalt(halophytes)haveagainfoundfavourablelivingconditionsontheedgesofmajorroadsandhavebeenabletopropagatethere, becausetheybenefitfromtheuseofroadsalt(Feder,2014).Theseareprobablythe bestexamplesthatshowwhyspeciesprotection,natureconservationandenvironmentalprotectionarenotthesame,butareoftenatoppositepolesofpurpose.
Nationalparkandnaturereservepoliciesaimtopreserveortocreateanecosystemthatisasnear-naturalaspossible.However,itishardtojustifywhatanearnaturalecosystemreallyisinCentralEurope;andafteritsmillennia-longexposure toman’sactivities,itisdoubtfulifpristinenaturecanberestoredatallinCentral Europe.Onething,however,wouldappeartobecertain:thehabitatsinhabitedby amajorproportionoftheendangeredRedListspeciesarenotnear-natural.
InCentralEurope,manyRedListspeciesliveinopen,sparselyvegetatedareas wherefewtreesandshrubsgrow.Thesespeciesneedopengroundorstone surfaces,escarpmentswithcrumblingearthorgravelbanks,thatis,surfacesthat warmupquicklywhenexposedtosunlight.Thickgrassgrowth,whichlooks sobeautifullygreenandhealthytothehumaneye(andgivestheimpressionof
1.2APleaforOpenLandscapes 5 intactnature),offersnopossibilitiesforlifeformanyRedListspecies,becausethe groundbeneaththedensegrassgrowthistoomoistandcool.Thisiswhysparsely vegetatedgrasslandsaremorespecies-richthangreenmeadows(Plate4).
Inpastcenturies,agreatvarietyofflowers,butterfliesandotherinsects flourishedontheoverexploitedandnutrient-poorsoils.Ithasalmostbecome anecologicalbasicruleinCentralEuropethatnutrient-poorareasproducea greatvarietyofspecies,butnutrient-richareasproducealownumberofspecies. ThisbasicrulealonemakesiteasytounderstandwhysomanyspeciesinCentral Europetodayhavebecomerare.Wearelosingthenutrient-poorareas.Intensive fertilisationinmodernagricultureandthenitrogenrainingdownfromabove (evenfarfromtheagriculturalland)havetakenawaythechancesofexistence formanyspeciesduringthelasthalfcentury.ThelossofspeciesinCentral Europeisduetoverydifferentcausesthanthelossofspeciesintherainforest areasoftheworld.Consequently,thespeciesprotectivemeasuresbeingtaken forCentralEuropemustdifferfromspeciesprotectioninthetropics.Itiswholly remarkablethatthisreceivesminimalemphasisinthepublicstatementson speciesprotection.
EvenintheearlyMiddleAges,theforestinCentralEuropecouldnolongerbe called wilderness.Wildernesswastheheathland.Innorth-westernCentralEurope andinmanymountainranges,dwarfshrubgrowthspreadrelativelyquickly,and inthewarmregionswithcalcareoussoilsitwasthesteppe-likejuniperheaththat propagatedprofusely.Areasthathadsteppetosemi-desert-likecharacteristics, gravelplainsandsandduneswerethedominantlandscapesinnorthernGermanyandalsoontheplateausoftheCentralGermanUplands(Mittelgebirge), inRheinhessenandonsimilarterrainselsewhereinCentralEurope.Paintings andwatercoloursfromearliercenturiesshowtheland,almostbereftofshrubs andtrees,reachingtofarhorizonsinflatland,orbarren,stonydryareasonthe slopesofthemountains(Tauch,1974).Thelandscapewasmorereminiscentof theMediterraneanarea,theeasternsteppesorthetimberlineofthenorththan theheartofCentralEuropetoday.
ItisnotsurprisingthattheCentralEuropeofpastcenturiesandmillenniawas settledbymanyopenlandspeciesofthenorth,theeastandtheMediterranean area.InCentralEuropetoday,manyspeciessuchasbrowhares,skylarks,buntings andmostbutterfliesarenotforestspecies;theywereonlyabletospreadwhen thesedentary,crop-cultivatinghumansstartedtopartiallyre-establishtheglacial primevallandscapeinthemidstoftheexpandingforestsduringthepost-glacial Holoceneperiod.Today,theforestsareregainingtheupperhandandthatiswhy itistheopenlandspeciesthatareontheRedLists,fromtheblackgrousetothe hoopoe.There-forestationofCentralEuropesincethenineteenthcenturymust bementionedattheforefrontifanexplanationforthecurrentlossofspeciesis sought.CentralEurope’smodernlandscapeiscompletelydifferentfromwhatit wasmanycenturiesago.Forestation,bushencroachmentandground-covering grassesandherbshavetakenupaconsiderableproportionoflandinthelast halfcenturyandtheybringaboutafrighteningspeciesdeclineandofinsectsin particular.
1Introduction:RareSpeciesandNear-NaturalHabitatsinCentralEurope
ThetransformationofCentralEuropefromanopenlandtoforestand scrublandhastakenplacealmostunnoticedformanypeopleanditisnota riskpotentialformanyspeciesthatthenatureandenvironmentalprotection organisationswishtodenunciatewithtoppriority.Ifamancouldgobackintime foronly100years,hewouldbelievethathewasinanentirelydifferentcountry. Inmanylocations,hewouldbeabletolooktothefarhorizon.Hewouldseethe neighbouringvillagefromtheedgeofhisownvillage.Hewouldseecastleruins thatstillexisttodaystandingonbarerockandnotonwoodedhills.Hewouldsee bareriverbanksandgravelbanks,andaboveallhewouldseesandyandearthy areaswithhardlyanyvegetationinthemiddleofmeadowsandfields.These macro-andmini-habitatshavedisappearedacrosstheboardinmanyplaces, andthishashappenedtoadramaticextent,particularlyinthelast60years.The CentralEuropeanlandscapehasnotlookedasitdoestodayformanycenturies, neitherinitsdetailnorinitsoverallpicture.
Sincetheavailabilityoffossilfuelsmadeitunnecessarytocutthefirewoodfrom theforests,cattlearenolongerdrivenintothewoodstograzeandtheeutrophicationofthelandscapehasincreasedthankstoexcessivenitrogen,aprocessis happeningwhichisverythreateningformanyspecies:CentralEuropeisbecomingovergrown.Natureisreclaimingtheareasthatwerekeptopenforcenturies andmillenniabecauseoffooddeficiency;openrock,stone,gravelandsandareas aredisappearing,becausethevegetationisnolongerbeingremovedandthelandscapeisbeingfertilisedbyanexcessofnitrogen.LargepartsoftheCentralEuropeanlandscaperesembleaneglectedgardenthatisnolongertendedandinwhich wildgrowthhasreturned.Heathsandmoorswereonceopenareaswithalmostno bushesandnotrees.Intoday’sterminology,sandypineforestsarecalled heaths andmarshybirchforestsaredesignatedasmoors.Therearepeoplewhonolonger knowwhatamoororheathis,eventhoughcertainareasandevenprotectedareas arestillgiventhesenames.
Somebelievethatthespeciesrichnessofearliercenturieshadsomethingtodo withthemorecaring,moreresource-conservingand,therefore,moresustainable relationshipwithMotherNaturewehadinthepast,whileourpresent-dayaffluent andthrowawaysocietysimplyexploitsher.Thisissimplynottrue.Thelandscape wasruthlesslyplunderedinthepastcenturies.Intheprevailinghardshipsofthose days,thesoilsweredrained,thehumuslayersoftheheathsandforestswerecut outandcarriedoff,theemergingvegetationwasremoved,theslopesofthehills wereovergrazed,andthebushesandforestswereclearedoratleastthinnedout inalmostalltheaccessibleplaces(Paffen,1940;Plachter,1997;Küster,2008).The fieldswereonlyusedforafewyearsinsuccession,untilnitrogenandtheother mineralswereexhausted;onlysparselyvegetatedareasremained.
However,itwasexactlythisexploitationofnaturethatsuitednumerousspecies inmanyways.Thecenturiesofagriculturalandforestexploitationofnatureand landscapeinCentralEuropewasaccompaniedbyanabundanceofspecies,the pinnacleofwhichwasreachedabout1850(Blab etal.,1984;Häpke,1990).The plunderingofthecountrysidedidnotharmthemajorityofspecies–onthecontrary,itevencausedtheexplosionofspeciesrichnessseeninthepast.Nowadays,
1.2APleaforOpenLandscapes 7 wecanonlydreamaboutmanyofthebirdandbutterflyspeciesthatexistedin Germanyatthattime.Thehenharrierusedtobreedinnumbersonthehigh plainsoftheEifel;themarginalzonesoftherockycraterlakesinthesouth-eastern EifelandtheembankmentsalongtheRhinewerethebreedingplacesformany rockthrushes;theRhineandMoselvalleysplayedhosttotheshort-toadeagle, whichfoundplentyofreptilesthereandthearidheathsofnorth-westernGermany–withanunobstructedviewstretchingtothehorizon–harbouredgreat numbersofblackgrouse.ThegreatbustardalsobredinGermanyinitsthousands (Schulze-Hagen,2005).
Thesparselyvegetatedsoilsurfacesofthepastwereabletobaskinhot,direct sunlightandwere,therefore,moresuitableforthermophilicspeciesthantoday’s overgrown,bushyandforestedlandscapesinthiseraof‘globalwarming’(Plates 1–4,7and8).Inthe‘LittleIceAge’thatlasteduntiltheearlynineteenthcentury, therewasagreaterabundanceofheat-lovingbutterflyspeciesinCentralEurope thanwefindtodayinthemidstofclimatewarming.
Anyonewhosearchesforrarespecies(e.g.rarebirdsorbutterflies)todaywill soonunderstandthatthenatureandenvironmentalconservationorganisations areleadingafightagainstthedestructionofnaturethroughgravelquarryingand open-castmining,sotheydonotwanttoencourageimportanthabitatswhichare actuallyrefugiaforrarespecies.Adiscrepancyisrevealedhere,onewhichisbased onthefactthatthefightforapristineandunspoiltnatureisnotthesameasthe struggletopreservetheRedListspecies.
Itisdifficultformostpeopletodaytounderstandthatthedeforested,exploited landscapeofCentralEuropebecameanidealhabitatforagreatvarietyofplants andanimalsthatarethreatenedspeciestoday.Thereasonwhyitissodifficult toassociateformerspeciesrichnesswithadestroyedlandscapecanbefound inthefactthatnodistinctionisbeingmadebetweennatureconservationand speciesprotection.Itisregardedasaparadoxthatadestroyednaturewasthe prerequisitefortheoccurrenceofmanyspecies.If,however,wecanunderstand thatnatureconservationandspeciesprotectionaretwodifferententities, thenspeciesrichnessintheearlierruinedlandscapeofCentralEuropewillno longerbeperceivedasacontradiction.InthelandscapesofCentralEurope, whichhavebeenanthropogenouslyoverformedformillennia,thenaturethat hasbeendestroyedcannotbeequatedwithacorrespondingdestructionof biodiversity.
Sincemostpeopledonotknowthedifferencebetweennatureconservation andspeciesprotection,theyfinditparadoxicalthatmilitarytrainingareashave becomeperfecthabitatsformanyRedListspecies.Theyareamazedthatrare speciesoccurinareaswheretanktreadsdestroyedshrubsandbushesandexplosionsrippedopentheearth.Publicopinionmustbecomefullyawarethattherare speciesdonotflourishonmilitaryareas‘despite thefactthattanksdrivearound there’,but‘because ofthefactthattanksdrivearoundthere’.Thetanksflattenand uprootthevegetationandexplosionsclearvegetation.Thisprovidesopenground, creatingthehabitatswhichhavebecomeveryscarceindeed.
Another random document with no related content on Scribd:
Eehe! Senta...
CHIARA (voltandosi)
In ogni caso, meglio così; meglio dormir tardi che far come un tale di mia conoscenza che alle sette è sempre in piedi. Cammina come se avesse le scarpe di piombo. Urta nei mobili, sternuta, sbadiglia, tossisce; non può dire una parola con voce un po’ moderata, da persona per bene. Esce in giardino, rientra in casa, ammorba le sale col sigaro, porta coi piedi la terra dei viali su tutti i tappeti. — Non ridere!
IGNAZIO (con flemma)
Non rido.
CHIARA
E come se non bastasse, tre volte per settimana attacca a sparar fucilate, fitte, che par d’essere in una finta battaglia. — Ah! non ridere sai.
IGNAZIO (con compiacenza)
Dalle sei alle sette — Un giorno sì, e l’altro no. — È l’ora che vi sono più passere in giardino. Quella è la mia caccia; piccola, ma comoda...
TROTA
Non per gli altri, già.
IGNAZIO
Non lo posso far tutti i giorni; per non disgustarle. Se si vedessero tirar tutti i giorni abbandonerebbero il giardino.
CHIARA
Bel divertimento. Questo si chiama non aver cuore. Che cosa ti fanno quelle povere bestioline?
IGNAZIO
Ah! Vediamo, cosa fanno a te, quando vengono poi in tavola al sugo? (all’Ida) S’io avessi una terrazza come quella, spargerei del panico, terrei l’uscio aperto, e di qui, senza muovermi... pan, pan... pan!...
CHIARA
Quando dico che non ha cuore! (all’Ida) Se tu vedessi come fa con Bijou, mai una parola, mai una carezza; come se non ci fosse. Se lo trova sulla poltrona, lo mette a terra e siede lui! — A tavola poi, non se n’occupa; di’ un po’ se si ricorda di dargli le creste od i fegatini dei polli... e sa quanto n’è ghiotto!... È un canino, e... si sa, poverino... Allora, bizze senza nome, chiama Stefano, urla: Matteo! chiede soccorso, come s’avesse l’inondazione in casa. — Dico io! Ma Bijou è intelligente, comprende e lo giudica.
IGNAZIO
Bontà sua... Lo tratto coi guanti: è il padrone di casa.
CHIARA
Lo giudica. E si regola in conseguenza.
IGNAZIO (brontolando)
Se si regolasse in conseguenza nel cortile, nel giardino... e non in camera mia.
CHIARA
Invece, con Trota, bisogna vedere...
TROTA
È un amore.
CHIARA
Ma Ida! — Sei ancora in città?
IDA (scotendosi)
Oh no! Son qui, tutta con voi. (tira a sè una panierina da lavoro, con un ricamo arrotolato).
CHIARA
Ci sei andata più volte in questo mese?
IDA
Due; forse tre, al più.
CHIARA
Non ci vado mai, durante la campagna. Tanto ci stò volentieri d’inverno, altrettanto ne rifuggo l’estate. Poca gente, eh?
IDA
Pochissima.
CHIARA
Non hai trovato persone di conoscenza?
IDA
Eh no.
Nemmeno... Laneri?
CHIARA
IDA (trasalendo)
Laneri?!... No. — Perchè avrei dovuto trovar Laneri? (fruga nella panierina).
CHIARA
Oh... perchè so che c’era.
IDA (con indifferenza)
Ah ecco.
CHIARA
So che c’era, da Trota che l’ha veduto ieri.
TROTA
Precisamente. Davanti alla stazione; io partiva, egli arrivava.
IDA
Proprio così. Ho veduto poca gente. Nessuno anzi. (svolgendo il ricamo con gesti un po’ febbrili, ne scatta fuori una lettera che sdrucciola a terra. La raccoglie con un rapido aggrottar di ciglia e la ripone nella panierina).
CHIARA
Oh! oh! (scherzando) un biglietto amoroso?
IDA
Pare.
IGNAZIO
Ecco l’amico Serra. — Quello è lesto a cenare!
SCENA V.
CLAUDIO poi CARLO, D
IGNAZIO
Lesto, lesto molto!
CLAUDIO
Non avevo grand’appetito.
IGNAZIO
Malgrado la camminata?
CLAUDIO
Malgrado.
IGNAZIO
Allora, a lei il moto non giova. Si vede anche. È pallido, sa. Annuvolato, direi. Quando si torna a casa così, vuol dire che la fatica fisica agisce sul morale. La stanchezza è già malattia... badi a me, che son mezzo medico: non si stanchi mai.
CLAUDIO
M’è andata male la caccia. (venendo dietro la sedia di donna Ida) E a lei, baronessa, è andata bene la gita?
IDA (dopo averlo guardato)
Benissimo.
CLAUDIO
Non aveva detto nulla ieri sera...
IDA (seccamente)
A lei, no.
Neppure al barone.
CLAUDIO (dolcemente)
IDA
Un’altra volta mi farò debito di prevenirli tutti e due.
CLAUDIO
Oh mi perdoni, non volevo con questo...
IDA (con un sorriso ironico)
Oh! deve capire che non parlo sul serio. (Claudio si volge altrove mordendosi le labbra).
CHIARA (sottovoce)
Ida, come sei nervosa stassera!
IDA (forte)
Non lo ero, pur ora... (lasciando il lavoro ed alzandosi) Ne accuso questo ricamo.
IGNAZIO
Ahaa! ecco anche il barone. (a Carlo che entra) Ora sì, ora che ci siamo tutti, si potrebbe passare al biliardo?
CARLO
Come volete.
Questo sì (si alza).
Dividiamoci in due campi...
TROTA
IGNAZIO
TROTA
Sì, sì, ma di là, poi. (a Chiara) Giuoca lei?
CHIARA
Io? — ma certo.
Baronessa?
TROTA
IDA
Vengo. (Trota, Ignazio, Chiara, Carlo si avviano. Serra volge un’occhiata alla baronessa, rimasta vicina alla tavola).
IDA
Serra?
Signora?
Ecco.
CLAUDIO (tornando)
IDA
(togliendo prestamente la lettera dalla panierina)
La ricusa?
Oh questa sì!
CLAUDIO
IDA
CLAUDIO (a mani giunte)
La supplico... Le do parola che è l’ultima. (esce).
SCENA VI.
IDA poi CARLO
Ida segue Claudio con lo sguardo, con un’espressione di sprezzo e di collera; straccia in due la lettera. Carlo sulla porta del biliardo vede l’atto.
CARLO
Ida, non vieni?... Di là vi è una dama sola e quattro cavalieri... (venuto a lei senza averle levato gli occhi dalle mani). Come mai... stracci le lettere senza aprirle?
IDA (non risponde).
CARLO
Anche ier l’altro, passando sotto la tua finestra, mi sono veduto venire addosso una piccola nevicata... Uno sciame di farfalline bianche. Cosa vuol dire questo sciupio di carta? (grave) Ida... Ida, cosa diavolo c’è? (le prende i brani di mano) Posso... posso vedere, anch’io, di che si tratta? (dopo una pausa) Eh via, perdonami.
IDA (muta, accigliata, non muove la mano a riceverli)
CARLO
Ah!... Ida, per carità!... Sono inquieto, sai. Te ne avvedi... Ho paura; non sei più come una volta, tu. Non capisco più. Se lo puoi... una parola?
IDA (con impazienza)
Ma se non ho niente a dire.
Non è vero.
CARLO
IDA (si volta a lui, gli afferra le mani)
Non puoi sapere quanto ti voglio bene!
CARLO
Adesso hai detto troppo.
IDA (staccandosi)
Nulla. Non ho voluto dir altro. Butta via quella carta; e non se ne parli più.
CARLO (apre la busta e svolge i brani)
IDA (tornando prontamente a lui)
Ebbene, ebbene leggi. — Oh infine bisogna finirla. Ero perplessa, esitavo ancora, ma poc’anzi, pur ora m’hai messo gli occhi addosso in un modo, m’hai parlato in un modo... Sono più giorni che ti vedo così. T’intendo, sai, ed è appunto per questo che non posso, non voglio regger oltre... Non comprendi più, m’hai detto? Anch’io, vedi sono a metà istupidita. Oh bisogna finirla... non posso fuggir sempre! Bisogna, bisogna finirla.
CARLO
Ida, Ida mia, senti... ti prometto, ti giuro anzi...
IDA (senza ascoltare)
Ho torto? Eeh, può darsi... Forse il mio dovere non esige tanto; potrei attendere, pazientare ancora, seguitare ad opporre il silenzio e la freddezza alla persecuzione. Perchè è così, sai, una vera persecuzione. Dovrei difendermi ancora, da sola? — Oh ma sono tanto stanca, nauseata, offesa. Atti, sguardi, lettere, parole... Da troppi giorni il mio cuore palpita di rabbia, tutto il mio orgoglio di donna si rivolta in me; e nulla vale il dimostrarlo, il dirlo schietto, con la più implacabile serenità. — Noi donne siamo spietate con chi ci annoia! E no, e non basta. Tu poi, tu stesso così franco e leale, tanto lontano da certe bassezze, tu colla tua fiducia illimitata, coll’assenza d’ogni gelosia, non comprendi che mi pungi, che mi offendi, che... senza volerlo... ti fai complice di chi m’insidia.
CARLO
Ma Ida!
IDA
Se ho il diritto di parlarti così! Proteggimi che lo devi. Sai bene che non posso avere altro rifugio, che non lo devo..... Oh adesso leggi, leggi, poichè siamo soli.
CARLO (siede e squaderna i brani sulla tavola)
IDA (va alla porta del biliardo: torna)
Vedrai che affetto, che amor di fratello, che amicizia leale, che sentimenti illibati...
CARLO (colla fronte fra le mani)
Dio santo! Se almeno non fosse lui!
IDA
E chi vuoi dunque che sia!
(Carlo legge rapidamente; poco a poco gli si spiana la fronte, la contrazione dei lineamenti cede luogo ad una espressione di accoramento, di pietà. Si alza e si caccia in tasca la lettera. Un silenzio).
SCENA VII.
CLAUDIO e D
CLAUDIO (viene avanti lentamente)
Abbiamo giuocato. La signora Chiara e Trota, contro Minchiotti e me. Abbiamo perduto... Minchiotti ne è desolato. Trota non gli dà pace. Ma con me non c’è caso che gli riesca la rivincita.
IDA
Vado io. Saremo due dame e due cavalieri. (sottovoce a Carlo) Tragedie, no.
SCENA VIII.
CARLO e CLAUDIO
Carlo rimonta la scena, a capo chino. Claudio siede sul canapè, spiega un giornale. Un silenzio.
Notizie?
CARLO (dopo averlo osservato dal fondo, torna lentamente)
CLAUDIO
Guardavo la cronaca: arresto, incendio, ferimenti... duello... Anche un duello, nella nostra città. A. C. pubblicista, R. B. avvocato. Ferito R. B. al braccio; i duellanti si comportarono colle regole della più perfetta cavalleria; eccetera... (lascia il giornale).
CARLO
Ti sei battuto mai?
Mai.
CLAUDIO (alzandosi)
CARLO
Nemmeno io. (dopo una pausa) Ne fui in procinto, una volta. Avevo avuto una questione con un compagno, all’Università; il duello era deciso, a condizioni gravi. Mio padre lo seppe; perdette la testa, povero vecchio, e trovò modo di chiudermi in casa. Pensai di ammattire dalla rabbia, dalla vergogna.
Sul terreno, un amico mio, giovane uffiziale, prese il mio posto, senz’altro. Colpì l’avversario al capo, subito. Vedendolo barcollare con gli occhi pieni di sangue, buttò l’arma ed avanzò istintivamente la mano per sorreggerlo. L’altro cieco, fuori di sè, non comprese: avventò l’ultima sciabolata, un mal colpo che colse il mio amico nella mano e troncò più che mezza l’articolazione... Si parlò di amputare per evitare il tetano. — Vedo ancora la faccia di sua madre! — Lui, freddo e sereno, rispondeva che nella sua condizione di militare preferiva la morte alla perdita della destra. Fu irremovibile... Guarì... Ma ti ricordi com’era impedito nella destra tuo padre. (dopo una pausa) Quello era un uomo. (stende la mano a Claudio)
CLAUDIO (si scuote ed esita a dar la sua)
CARLO (prontissimo)
No? (lo guarda fissamente con un sorriso amaro)
CLAUDIO (turbato)
Che hai?
CARLO (abbassando la voce)
Penso... che la tua passione per mia moglie è la più gran disgrazia che ci potesse toccare.
CLAUDIO
Carlo!
CARLO
Non negare... è inutile.
CLAUDIO (si lascia andare sul canapè e nasconde la faccia)
CARLO (in piedi, vicino)
Soffri?... Soffri proprio tanto?... Deve essere così, perchè... perchè se così non fosse!... Ti ho conosciuto retto, sincero, incapace di simulare; già, dev’essere così. Oh! poi lo so che si soffre, terribilmente; tanto più quando si è caldi, appassionati, nervosi; quando per temperamento non si sa moderar niente. (con accento di collera) Già, vai nelle impressioni a testa bassa, coi pugni stretti; prendi la vita a passo di carica, tu. (calmandosi) Si soffre tanto, che dopo, perchè c’è un dopo, sai — dopo pare impossibile di essere usciti vivi dalla burrasca, e, non si ritorna mai quelli di prima... Eh, ma non bisogna immaginarsi che la malattia non abbia rimedio. Tanto più in questo caso. Dal modo con cui sono andate le cose, niente di estremo, fiamma viva, e... quanto più una fiamma è viva tanto meno la dura. Temporale d’estate, cielo nero, tuoni, lampi; e poi di nuovo il sole. Ma diavolo! Lo rivedrai presto, più bello di prima. Presto (con amarezza) prima di me forse, che pure..... (muove alcuni passi per la scena).
CLAUDIO
(scopre il viso e lo guarda con gli occhi smarriti)
CARLO (torna e siede vicino)
Ragioniamo. Trova un disastro paragonabile a quello che avrebbe potuto accadere se... Ti sfido a trovarlo. (rispondendo ad un atto di Claudio) Sì, sì, so quello che vuoi dire: amor puro, niente speranze... Chi può comandarsi di non sperare? È naturale: se ami, speri... Ah! per carità, lasciamo andare. Ti parrà che io abbia cento cose per la testa?... Non ho che mia moglie. Ho sofferto anch’io in questi ultimi tempi. Timori vaghi, apprensioni: tutte assurdità, dicevo; ma sentivo il mistero. Ho per Ida la massima stima, la più illimitata fiducia, ma mi pareva cambiata... Quando penso (si alza) che avrebbe potuto corrisponderti! Alla mia età, quando par d’aver trovato la pace, la felicità, non ci si rinunzia più. Se perdessi mia moglie, in un modo od in un altro, — m’intendi? — penso che ne morrei, ecco. (con forza) Santo Dio, la vita ha doveri, lavori, ambizioni, rimedi! Anche l’amore ha le sue rivincite per voi giovani. Tu lo sei tanto; alla tua età si cade
e si risorge, come niente, e poi... e poi si scorda. Ah Claudio! in questo caso il dovere deve passare innanzi all’amore..... Diavolo, no!... Non ti voglio parlare così. C’è rimedio, ma bisogna volerlo... Essere traditi da chi si ama, è un affar serio... è il maggior dolore umano... E poi, e poi, così no, così non si avrebbe più un’ora di pace!
CLAUDIO (con energia, alzandosi)
Partirò, Carlo, ti giuro che partirò!
CARLO
Aah! Ci salvi, sai. Va bene così, lo sapevo. Senti, la colpa non è tutta tua, dovevo badare, pensarci anch’io. Sei giovane, l’acqua va per il suo verso. Ma come è bene che ci siamo spiegati! — Ora viaggerai, tornerai contento, ci rivedremo. Sono convinto che non è necessario che tu vada in capo al mondo e per lungo tempo. Cambiar ambiente, veder paesi nuovi, cose nuove, facce nuove — ti raccomando le facce nuove — E al tuo ritorno: acqua passata non macina più!... Non ho ancor parlato a mia moglie, ma te lo dico in confidenza, è probabile che io mi stabilisca in campagna, non questo ma un altr’anno. La presenza del padrone è frutto del campo, come dice un agricoltore di cinquecent’anni fa; e con ragione. Dunque anche questo sarà per il meglio. Tu in città, noi due qui... No, vado tropp’oltre, tornerai guarito e di questo non ne parleremo mai più. Ecco, restiamo intesi, quando ti vedrò ricomparire, colla mano stesa, così... sarà come se tu lo giurassi. — Va bene così? M’hai inteso? (venendo a lui) E anche ora subito, me la darai la mano, senza esitazione, a fronte alta, così da uomo a uomo?
(Claudio gliela stringe con slancio affettuoso).
SCENA
IX.
CHIARA, IDA, TROTA, IGNAZIO dalla sala del biliardo. D
CHIARA
Ah! confidenze, tenerezze, congratulazioni?
CARLO (freddo)
Un po’ d’ogni cosa.
TROTA
Abbiamo aspettato...
CARLO
Avevamo un mondo di cose da dirci, con Claudio.
CHIARA
Questa è amicizia! Dir che sono insieme dall’alba.
CLAUDIO
Non lo saremo più per un pezzo.
CHIARA
Oh! che novità?
IGNAZIO
Perchè mai?
Si parte...
Ah! E dove vai?
CLAUDIO
TROTA
CARLO (pronto)
È ancor un segreto.
CLAUDIO
È un progetto che maturavo da tempo, aspettavo occasione e mezzi, ora c’è tutto. Parto domani. Non mi fermerò che un giorno in città, per salutare un amico e veder di deciderlo a venir con me, e poi... via.
TROTA
E l’amico, sarebbe?
Anche questo è un segreto!
No. È Laneri.
CHIARA
CLAUDIO
CHIARA
Eh!... Piero Laneri?.... difficile.
CLAUDIO
Perchè? — È libero, ricco, solo...
CHIARA
Non mi par uomo da viaggi, ecco tutto,
TROTA (avrà dato a Chiara lo scialle, riacceso il lampioncino d’Ignazio)
E allora, buon viaggio!
IGNAZIO
Scriverà eh?... Le daremo un banchetto al ritorno!
TROTA
A quando?
CARLO
Oh presto, speriamo! (Chiara, Trota, Ignazio stringono la mano a Claudio che li accompagna all’uscita).
SCENA X.
CARLO, IDA, CLAUDIO
Un breve silenzio. Carlo ed Ida da una parte, Claudio dall’altra.
CARLO (va a lui)
Ti rivedrò ancora, domani?
CLAUDIO
Partirò prestissimo, sai.
CARLO
Oh, ti saluterò ad ogni modo!
CLAUDIO (fa un passo avanti e s’inchina)
Baronessa, con tutta l’anima auguro che sia tanto felice! (entra nella sua camera, cala la tela).
ATTO II.
La scena rappresenta una sala molto elegante. Nel fondo un uscio con portiera mette al buffet. Porte laterali, illuminazione da serata.
SCENA I.
CHIARA, IGNAZIO
Chiara, coi guanti ed il ventaglio nella sinistra, va osservando intorno se tutto è ben disposto. Entra Ignazio.
CHIARA
Dove vai?
IGNAZIO
Esco.
CHIARA
Sì, ma...
IGNAZIO
Esco un momento, per fumare un sigaro, prendere aria.
CHIARA
Fumalo a casa... Eh qui no, veh: in camera tua!
E l’aria?
Che aria?
L’aria libera.
IGNAZIO
CHIARA
IGNAZIO
CHIARA
Sul terrazzino.
IGNAZIO
Misericordia! Freddo, sai, freddo umido. Stavo dietro i cristalli poc’anzi, vedevo passar bronchiti, polmoniti, pleuriti, tutte le brutte malattie in ite.
CHIARA
E nella strada?...
IGNAZIO
Passano alte...
CHIARA
Meno parole...
IGNAZIO
Ma perchè non devo uscire?... Sicuro, perchè non devo?
CHIARA
Perchè stasera avrò probabilmente pochi uomini e molte signore. Ci sarà sproporzione e quindi freddezza.
IGNAZIO
Maaa... ma devo far da uomo?
CHIARA
Uno di più.
IGNAZIO (brontolando)
Ma non sono un uomo io, sono tuo marito. E poi, chi sa, non sei nemmeno sicura di quello che dici. Vedrai, verranno di quelli sui quali non avrai contato. Vi saranno presentazioni. Trota non mancherà di presentarti qualcheduno, è affar suo. L’ho incontrato stamane e mi ha salutato così..... col bastone come con una sciabola. Vuol dire che era di buon umore. Vuol anche dire che non v’è broncio fra di voi. Quand’è corrucciato con te non mi saluta più.
CHIARA (seduta si abbottona i guanti).
IGNAZIO
Dunque proprio...
CHIARA
Quante volte ti ho a dir le cose.
IGNAZIO
Santa pazienza! (brontolando) Dal quarantotto che si combatte per l’indipendenza; l’hanno ottenuta tutti, meno io.
CHIARA
Eh?... Animo, va e fa presto. Fra un momento avremo qui i Galliari.
IGNAZIO
Oh! Il barone e la baronessa?
CHIARA