Genealogies and genres of food studies
An introduction to a growing cross-disciplinary field, Literature and Food Studies examines genres and rhetorical traditions that chronicle the local conditions and global migrations of cuisines, commodities, and agricultural systems. These literary engagements with the edible world demand complex ways of thinking about food because they interlace its cultural and corporeal meanings and move across the scales at which those meanings take shape. As works of literature interact with food in its various stages—agricultural, culinary, and alimentary— they often traverse the boundaries between the intimate and the social as well as the microscopic and the planetary, a capacity that arguably defines the literary. It is this capacity that makes literature an especially vital and vibrant area of inquiry for food studies. Put differently, we view the relationship between literary practices and food practices as recursive. Literary texts do not just transmit or depict food cultures and food practices: they also help to structure them. Through this lens, Literature and Food Studies discusses works of imaginative literature, from Ovid’s Metamorphoses and Shakespeare’s The Winter’s Tale to James Joyce’s Ulysses and Toni Morrison’s Tar Baby, alongside what we define as food’s vernacular literary practices—practices that take written form as horticultural manuals, recipes, cookbooks, restaurant reviews, agricultural manifestos, dietary treatises, culinary guides, and more.
In making the case for a food studies approach to literature and a literary approach to food studies, the chapters that follow compare literary forms and practices that center on matters of food in order to explore how they illuminate and, at times, obfuscate histories of colonialism and communalism, labor and leisure, scientific research and creative production, ethical consideration and environmental degradation. Throughout the book, food entails a complex terrain of social
and biophysical systems. In the case of chocolate, for instance, these systems encompass the propagation of sugarcane and cacao; the violence of the Middle Passage and plantation slavery; ancient and contemporary trade routes that crisscross the globe; the persistence of human trafficking in the twenty-first century; and the habits, tastes, and rituals that have inspired and been inspired by prepared chocolate, from the Aztec and Spanish empires to multinational candy corporations and fair trade cacao farms.
For those new to our subject, Literature and Food Studies offers three things: it introduces core concepts that have become central to food studies since the field’s emergence decades ago within cultural anthropology, geography, and history; it compares oft-read literary texts with forms of writing and print culture that rarely are taught in literature classrooms but that resonate with the organizing questions and concerns of food studies; and it aims to inspire future research and teaching. Considering a wide range of materials, Literature and Food Studies ultimately demonstrates that desires to cultivate, procure, prepare, taste, and ingest certain foods and not others stem not only from political realities and ethical considerations that food writing depicts but also from appetites that writers have whetted.
A contemporary example helps to illustrate the approaches and arguments that Literature and Food Studies develops: namely, a selfpublished, small-format magazine (or “zine”) called Food Phreaking [sic] that a playful collective of artists and writers known as the Center for Genomic Gastronomy (CGG) began producing in 2013 (see Figure 1.1). Akin to other print works that CGG has created, Food Phreaking draws from multiple genres, including the artist book, environmental manifesto, and scientific catalog. In doing so,
Figure 1.1 Covers of Food Phreaking, issues 00 to 03, Center for Genomic Gastronomy, 2013–2016.
Reprinted with permission of Center for Genomic Gastronomy.
the zine documents what the authors of the 2016 issue call “experiments, exploits, and explorations of the human food system” and thus galvanizes new networks of “farmers, foodies, hackers, artists, and scientists” (Russell et al. 1). The inaugural issue takes the form of thirty-eight vignettes, each composed around a striking image and humorous snippet of text and then tagged in one of four conceptual categories: “A: Legal and Open,” “B: Illegal and Open,” “C: Illegal and Closed,” and “D: Legal and Closed.” At first blush, these categories embody current conflicts between, on the one hand, industrialized agriculture and agribusiness, and, on the other, the principles that organic farmers and food activists support. However, a close reading of the whimsical design and eclectic vignettes of Food Phreaking reveals a vision that does not fit neatly into either of these frameworks. Instead, the vignettes invite readers to imagine food systems of the future that mix the synthetic with the organic, the ancient with the new. Food Phreaking not only invokes patented transgenic seeds, genetically modified organisms (GMOs), and branded products like Kraft cheese, but also offers a high-tech recipe for cooking beet peels, a sketch of raw milk vending machines in Europe, and, most provocatively, an anecdote about CGG’s own use of genetically engineered “GloFish” (originally made for decorative aquariums) to prepare sushi for an event at which a dinner party melded with performance art. These examples capture what CGG means by the term “food phreaking” itself, as a practice that bridges different types of experimentation toward the goal of creating both new stories and new systems for producing, procuring, preparing, and interacting with food in the future.
Our analysis of Food Phreaking highlights another key premise of Literature and Food Studies. We contend that food studies invites a redefinition of the objects of literary study to include not only poetry, drama, and narrative—the three major forms of literature with a capital “L”—but also what we term vernacular literary practices. By this term we mean quotidian modes of writing that develop within specific historical contexts and that intermix rhetorical and aesthetic craft with the dissemination of applied knowledge that is variously empirical, sensory, instructive, interactive, and intergenerational. Genre—a core concept for literary studies—provides a crucial analytical framework for the study of these vernacular literary practices, which take textual form as, most notably, recipes, cookbooks, gardening primers, culinary memoirs, dietary advice essays, agricultural handbooks, protest writings about hunger, and, finally, what Bruce Robbins terms “commodity histories” of storied foods like chocolate, sugar, and saffron.
These vernacular genres are at once creative and practical, and they have often intermingled with so-called “high” literature. This intermingling is evident, for instance, in the influence of horticultural handbooks (known as herbals) on Shakespeare’s tragicomedy The Winter’s Tale; in satirical depictions of war rationing and famine on the part of modernist writers such as English essayist and novelist George Orwell and American poet Lorine Niedecker; and in the colonial and postcolonial histories of the food system that contemporary novels by Toni Morrison, Monique Truong, and others trace. These examples speak to our wider aims. We model an approach to literature and food that integrates the methods of cultural history, close reading, and archival research with concepts drawn from both literary studies—such as narrative, rhetoric, form, audience, authorship, and taste—and food studies—such as foodways, food justice, gastronomy, and agrarianism. The book further aims to tease out relationships between cultures of food and major literary forms: tragedy, utopianism, satire, modernist fiction, and so on. Following Kyla Tompkins, David Goodman, E. Melanie DuPuis, and others, we see these aims as part of critical food studies a rubric that scholars in the humanities and qualitative social sciences have adopted to signal at once cultural approaches to and critical distance from the food habits, systems, and discourses they study (DuPuis; Goodman et al.; Tompkins, “Consider”; Tompkins, Racial Indigestion).
Literature and Food Studies is not, however, a comprehensive literary and historical survey. Rather, the book orients readers to the field of critical food studies through five illustrative cases, which investigate in turn (1) myths of seasonality and the Edenic garden in ancient and early modern literature, (2) utopian, polemical, and satirical discourses of dietary and agricultural reform running from the sixteenth century through the Industrial Revolution, (3) Aztec chocolate recipes and their colonial migrations and markets, (4) meals, memory, and the formal operations of eating in modernist fiction, and (5) the roles of authorship and print culture in the transnational history of gastronomy and culinary writing. The first of these chapters, “Food routes: seasonality, abundance, and the mythic garden,” addresses imperial tropes of seasonality and abundance, especially as they surface in the household manuals, horticultural writings, and Shakespearean drama of early modern England. The next chapter, “Virtuous eating: Utopian farms and dietary treatises,” traces a rhetoric of dietary virtue within transatlantic literary culture—from Sir Thomas More’s sixteenth-century prose work Utopia to modern manifestos on vegetarianism—comparing these texts to Louisa May
Alcott’s satire of the failed Fruitlands communal farm and Benjamin Franklin’s wry narrative of lapsed vegetarianism in his Autobiography. We focus again on the early modern period in “Recipes as vernacular literature,” which considers the Aztec, Spanish, and North American sources of chocolate recipes. Here, we put the gendered facets of recipe writing—a pathway for aristocratic and eventually middle-class women to become authors—into conversation with histories of agricultural labor in both colonial and postcolonial contexts. Turning to the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, we analyze forms of narrative that scenes of eating engender in modernist and contemporary novels in “Gustatory narrative: meals, memory, and modernist fiction.” Our final chapter, “Authoring gastronomy: professional eaters and culinary print culture,” elaborates on prior considerations of cookery, recipes, and culinary writing via a literary history of gastronomy, a largely elite and male-dominated profession that we trace from ancient Greece and China to post-Revolutionary France and contemporary urban centers. The chapter concludes by shifting from the authors who fashioned gastronomy as “the art and science of eating well” to what we term the counter-gastronomical writing of Italian futurist F.T. Marinetti, English essayist and novelist George Orwell, and French novelist Muriel Barbery.
As this chapter outline suggests, the book moves between frameworks central to food studies and those important to literary studies, while often showing that the two overlap in their intellectual concerns and curiosities. More pointedly, the pages that follow engage with theories of gender and sexuality; empire, colonialism, and diaspora; sustainability, ecology, and food justice; and the vexed relationships between humans and other beings—animal, plant, and microbial. As such, the book highlights a cross-disciplinary network of scholars who have helped to establish food studies and its particular purchase for students and scholars of literature. So too does it show the power of both imaginative literature and vernacular food writing to affect not only how communities think about but also how they go about the work of farming, cooking, and eating, and under what conditions they seek to redress the impacts of agriculture as well as hunger, famine, and social injustice.
If these are the book’s scope and aims, its occasion is the traction that food studies has gained in literary studies and in the humanities more generally over the past decade. This interest can be seen as part of two broader cultural shifts: a growing market for food-centered writing, film, and media and the rise in social movements organized around
the environmental, social, and health consequences of industrialized agriculture. Long before food became a cultural flashpoint, however, scholars began studying food cultures and food systems in a robust cross-disciplinary field, one that reaches from farm to table and that speaks to explorations of (in)justice, (in)equity, and (un)sustainability that are at the heart of many disciplines today. Among these scholars, and of especial note for this book, are Ken Albala, Warren Belasco, Amy Bentley, E. Melanie DuPuis, Julie Guthman, Harvey Levenstein, Massimo Montanari, Sydney Mintz, Kyla Tompkins, Arturo Warman, and Doris Witt. Their scholarship exemplifies critical food studies in that they each plumb the messy social and material histories of food via artifacts and archives as well as fieldwork and ethnography. They also build on theoretical accounts of cuisine that Roland Barthes, Mary Douglas, Claude Lévi-Strauss, and others associated with structuralism formulated in the 1960s. This cohort of thinkers focused on eating over agriculture in defining food as worthy of serious study and in theorizing the procedures and practices that transform edible matter into the stuff of symbolic communication, story, ritual, power, and so on—a semiotic system, in structuralist terms, that creates meaning beyond its “material reality” (Montanari 147). Their alimentary analyses helped to pave the way for what anthropologists term foodways—that is, the food habits and culinary traditions of a culture—to become a major subject of research, first within the social sciences and then within the humanities.
As Jennifer Fleissner suggests, humanities scholars, in turning to food studies, have tended to focus on relationships between “aesthetic and gustatory taste,” a resonant topic for literary studies, art history, and philosophy—thanks in part to the seminal yet incomplete conceptions of aesthetic taste as cognitive, rather than corporeal, that Immanuel Kant’s eighteenth-century philosophy advanced (28; See also Carruth; Counihan and Van Esterik; Curtin and Heldke; Gigante; Goldstein; Korsmeyer; McLean; Philippon). In literary work along these lines, three kinds of scholarship are noteworthy: studies of taste and feasting in England between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries, such as those by Robert Applebaum, Denise Gigante, David Goldstein, Timothy Morton, and others; surveys of women’s culinary writing and authorship by, for example, Alice McLean and Sarah Sceats; and investigations of colonialism and disapora in the literary record of what Tompkins terms “eating cultures” and Parama Roy terms “alimentary tracts” (Tompkins, Racial Indigestion). Literature and Food Studies takes inspiration from this trailblazing scholarship, which has established our subject as a vibrant and varied field.
On a parallel track to studies of taste, consumption, and eating is scholarship focused on the literature of agrarianism and agriculture— scholarship exemplified by William Conlogue, Michelle Niemann, Jennifer Wenzel, and Louise Westling. Such work often draws on accounts of the pastoral by scholars such as Raymond Williams and Leo Marx, who define it as a rhetorical tradition that runs from idyllic poetry in ancient and early modern Europe to modern stories of rural landscapes and farming communities. These accounts connect the pastoral to literary genres beyond the idyll or shepherd’s song, including agrarian novels and memoirs. Focusing on England and the U.S. respectively, Williams and Marx each understand the pastoral tradition through the lens of economic markets, class hierarchy, and the social as well as environmental impacts of industrialization. William Empson’s 1935 book Some Versions of Pastoral offers another theory of the pastoral that is fruitful for food studies. In particular, he suggests that while the pastoral, as a literary mode, originates in ancient poetry about shepherds, it morphs over time into a flexible set of tropes that writers employ to reduce intricate histories of rural places into simplified and symbolic counterpoints to aristocratic, urban, and modernizing forces. In our chapters on the transatlantic literatures of agricultural bounty and virtuous eating, Literature and Food Studies draws on these understandings of the pastoral by suggesting that idealized depictions of rural landscapes and agricultural work often function as rhetorical cover for the historical realities of food systems. More broadly, the book as a whole contributes to critical food studies a capacious framework that brings together histories and theories of eating cultures with those of agriculture and rural life.
Even as this book provides a wide-ranging field primer, the topics and texts covered also reflect our shared expertise and, hence, do not address a number of genealogies and genres that also merit a central place within critical food studies. We do not discuss, for instance, the practical agricultural advice found in ancient poetry and its similarities with both farmers’ almanacs and popular nonfiction works advocating for organic and local food—or what Carruth has identified as the “locavore memoirs” of Wendell Berry, Michael Pollan, Barbara Kingsolver, Gary Paul Nabhan, and others (Global Appetites; “Slow Food”). One can trace the literary roots of this contemporary genre to the classical georgic tradition and to contemporary vegetarian manifestos, along the lines of Frances Moore Lappé’s 1971 Diet for a Small Planet. Although today’s literary locavores do not typically advocate for strict vegetarianism, they do focus on the unsustainability
of modern food systems that Lappé and an earlier generation of writers converged on—as evident in Pollan’s 2006 book The Omnivore’s Dilemma and his subsequent diet advice guides (Pollan, Food Rules; Pollan, In Defense). Perhaps because the ethical diet that they envision is an omnivorous one, authors like Pollan have helped to make twentyfirst-century writing about agriculture, agribusiness, and the politics of how and what we eat at once a major publishing market and a subject for academic research. The popularity of polemical books by Pollan in the United States, Slow Food International founder Carlo Petrini in Italy, and anti-GMO leader Vandana Shiva in India indicate that there is a global readership for writing about industrialized agriculture and its oppositional alternatives. And such writing seems to have had a material impact on how some communities produce and procure food (Cleveland et al., 2014). Although we do not delve into this body of contemporary nonfiction or its georgic roots, Chapter Two, on seasonality and “seasonless eating,” and Chapter Three, on virtuous eating and agricultural reform, consider related primary materials that dovetail with this literary discourse on how to cultivate and procure food.
As for our subsequent three chapters on chocolate recipes, modernist fiction, and professional gastronomy, respectively, the illustrative texts we discuss represent only the tip of the iceberg. A culinary lens on the modern and contemporary novel alone opens out onto an enormous archive of food-centered fiction that encompasses a broad spectrum of canonical, bestselling, and cult texts. These include, to name a few, Jorge Amado’s Dona Flor e Seus Dois Maridos (Dona Flor and Her Two Husbands, 1966), Calixthe Beyala’s Comment cuisiner son mari à l’africaine (How to Cook Your Husband the African Way, 2000), Nora Ephron’s Heartburn (1983), Günter Grass’s Der Butt (The Flounder, 1977), Marsha Mehran’s Pomegranate Soup (2006), and, perhaps most famously, Laura Esquivel’s magical realist work Como agua para chocolate (Like Water for Chocolate, 1989). Moving from page to screen opens onto a potentially even larger cultural field. Adaptations of novels like those above and original screenplays have explored the role of recipes in constructing communities and transferring knowledge, the relationships between amateur and professional cuisines, and, finally, matters of power as they inflect acts of cooking for others. For examples, one could turn to independent films such as Tampopo (1985); Babette’s Feast (1987); Eat Drink Man Woman (1994); Big Night (1996); Tortilla Soup (2001); and Mostly Martha (2001), or alternatively, to popular hits like Chocolat (2000), Spanglish (2004), Julie & Julia (2009), Chef (2014), and the blockbuster adaptation of Como agua para chocolate (1992). There is also an entire sub-genre
of films that entwine stories of cooking with scenes of violence: most notably, La grande bouffe (The big feast, 1973); Eating Raoul (1982); The Cook, the Thief, His Wife & Her Lover (1989), Delicatessen (1991), and, last, not one but two adaptations of Shakespeare’s Macbeth set in restaurants, Scotland, Pa. (2001) and ShakespeaRe-Told’s Macbeth (2005).
Nor do we address at length parallel traditions of writing about feasting versus hunger—traditions important to considerations of race, class, gender, and power within food studies. The literature of aristocratic banqueting throws into relief intricate social distinctions and political alliances that operated in the medieval and early modern periods. Consider English poet Ben Jonson’s 1616 poem, “Inviting a Friend to Supper,” addressed to the Earl of Pembroke. After a performance of modesty, whereby the speaker of the lyric poem apologizes for his “poor house,” relative to his patron’s estate, the poem describes in vivid detail a “feast” on offer (Bevington et al.):
Yet shall you have, to rectify your palate, An olive, capers, or some better salad Ushering the mutton; with a short-legged hen, If we can get her, full of eggs, and then Lemons, and wine for sauce; to these a cony [rabbit] Is not to be despaired of, for our money.
(9–14)
According to archival evidence, Jonson wrote the poem as a wry reflection on a public “interrogation” he faced after allegations that he dined, in 1605, with participants in the infamous Gunpowder Plot, an assassination attempt on King James I. On this view, the poem encodes the inescapable politics of eating with others, particularly when there are power differences (Hadfield 64–65). On another view, though, the poem highlights Jonson’s well-documented appetites for the expensive and decadent foods of the English aristocracy. As in banqueting literature more broadly, the poem paints a scene of opulent dining in which food both signifies and literally embodies class power, even if it also symbolizes aesthetic appreciation. Jonson’s canonical poem “To Penshurst,” as Tigner elsewhere writes, dwells similarly on forms of “comestible abundance” that require critical excavation to peel back the layers of edible bounty depicted and to track the “labor and land modification necessary to provide” that bounty to the wealthy eater (109, 111). We can understand literary portrayals of feasting like Jonson’s in relationship to Albala’s argument that banqueting enacted
secular rituals for aristocrats in Renaissance Europe, rituals by which courtiers could “choose from an enormous variety of dishes prepared from a wide array of creatures and plants both rare and expensive and perfectly ordinary” (The Banquet 11). Thus Renaissance feasts functioned partly to maintain the social stratification of classes in Europe and slave labor on plantations in the New World, rather than to facilitate what Goldstein defines as commensality—that is, ideas and habits of eating with others that do not depend on exclusion, hierarchy, or the scarcity of others for their cultural meaning and praxis (22).
A countervailing tradition of writing about hunger and social inequality suggests that the circumstances required for commensality can be profoundly at odds with class hierarchies and colonial conditions. If Renaissance courtly literature celebrates feasting, the oral stories of enslaved African communities chronicle how Middle Passage crews and European colonists made malnutrition and starvation instruments of intimidation, abuse, and punishment. In this context, Judith Carney’s In the Shadow of Slavery uncovers stories of slaves who surreptitiously brought seeds for yam, sorghum, millet, rice, and other staples from Africa and used them to cultivate gardens that provided vital food sources for enslaved communities and that, over time, shaped the agriculture and food cultures of the Americas. To address such complicated relationships between hunger and subsistence in the Black Atlantic invites comparison of the historical accounts that Carney cites with invocations of famine and forced feeding in slave narratives such as Olaudah Equiano’s eighteenth-century Interesting Narrative and with literary texts that depict hunger strikes as tools of slave rebellions, such as Aphra Behn’s seventeenth-century text Oroonoko; or, The Royal Slave.
Moving to the twentieth century, we can identify a transnational community of writers who depict experiences of famine, hunger, and scarcity as they adversely impact food laborers, from John Steinbeck’s 1939 novel Grapes of Wrath about white migrant farm workers in California to Madhusree Mukerjee’s 2010 narrative Churchill’s Secret War about the 1943 “great famine” in Bengal, India. A contemporaneous literature of farmworker rights dovetails with these fictional narratives of rural hunger: for example, the United Farm Worker’s periodical El Malcriado / The Voice of the Farmworker (which ran from the 1960s through the 1980s), Cherríe Moraga’s 1992 drama Heroes and Saints about pesticide exposure in the Central Valley of California, and various manifestos on food and justice published by the international peasant coalition La Via Campesina. Considered
together, these works adapt a mix of genres and narrative forms to the project of articulating the racialized injustices of modern food systems. Before moving on, it seems apt to linger on hunger and injustice as obverse categories to food, and as a spectral presence for literature and food studies that merits its own book-length primer. What text would such a study take as its conceptual point of departure? One possibility is Irish playwright Samuel Beckett’s darkly comedic play En attendant Godot (Waiting for Godot, 1952), which he translated into English for a 1955 London debut. At the end of an early and, for some viewers and readers, seemingly interminable dialogue about the never on stage, yet omnipresent Godot, Beckett’s homeless characters Estragon and Vladimir come around to the pressing fact of their hunger pangs. For the play’s first audiences in Paris and London, the dialogue may have called up the severe food shortages in Europe from the late 1930s through the early 1950s and how unequally felt they were depending on one’s social and economic circumstances. The same dialogue may also have reminded Beckett’s Irish readers, in particular, of the notorious potato famine of 1845–1852.
About what do the tramps, Vladimir and Estragon, converse exactly? In response to Estragon’s urgent proclamation of needing to eat, Vladimir can offer his companion only a single carrot and a handful of turnips:
VLADIMIR : Do you want a carrot?
ESTRAGON : Is that all there is?
VLADIMIR : I might have some turnips.
ESTRAGON : Give me a carrot. (Vladimir rummages in his pockets, takes out a turnip and gives it to Estragon who takes a bite out of it. Angrily.) It’s a turnip.
VLADIMIR : Oh pardon! I could have sworn it was a carrot. (He rummages again in his pockets, finds nothing but turnips.) All that’s turnips. (He rummages.)
You must have eaten the last. (He rummages.) Wait, I have it. (He brings out a carrot and gives it to Estragon.) There dear fellow. (Estragon wipes the carrot on his sleeve and begins to eat it.) Make it last, that’s the end of them.
(26)
In this exchange, which is excessive in verbiage and yet meager in material sustenance, the belated appearance of real food interrupts
Vladimir’s abstract meditations on life and death. The keyword in the stage directions here is “rummage,” an action that occurs often in Beckett’s plays as impoverished characters search for scraps of food and other material objects, all the while struggling to make meaning––much less a decent meal––out of the refuse of others. As characters like Vladimir rummage, Beckett invokes the realities of rationing during and after the Second World War. Confined to one of the cheapest and most plentiful foods at the time—root vegetables—Estragon must subsist, the audience infers, on a barebones diet of “free” (that is, unrationed) produce, which would be perceived as a kind of trash by the affluent. Indeed, later in Act One, the play’s wealthy and powerful character, Pozzo, gobbles up a delicious meal of chicken and wine as his slave Lucky and the tramps must watch. Of course, Pozzo gets his theatrical comeuppance in Act Two, when he returns to the stage as a blind man of little means, reliant on Estragon and Valdimir for help. Through a critical food studies lens, such paired scenes of eating voraciously and going hungry become central to—rather than an afterthought in—the strange dramatic worlds that Beckett crafts as part of the avant-garde movement known as absurdist theater. In tuning into the embodied experiences and social conditions of food, we see what we might otherwise not: a drama that is not just an existential meditation on the human condition but also a dramatization of the famine conditions that have defined modernity for those who, like Vladimir and Estragon, are poor and disenfranchised. It is the ideas, questions, and methods of critical food studies, then, that generate this vision of a text like Waiting for Godot, one that takes seriously its literary engagements with the materiality and matter of food. Although Literature and Food Studies does not put texts about hunger at its center, it nonetheless attends to questions of ethics, politics, and power alongside those of aesthetics, pleasure, and community. For from farm to table, food is fundamentally a matter of production and consumption, labor and leisure, power and community. While agribusiness today threatens to constrain individual and collective endeavors to reform food systems, our thinking about such social conditions and social movements takes place in no small measure through the production and consumption of literary texts.
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