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Table of Contents
Sr. Topic
1 Cognitive Linguistics and Prepositional Meaning
Javier A. Morras Cortés
University of Córdoba, Spain 1-5
2 Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition
Abdelmalek El Morabit
Mohammed V University, Rabat, Morocco 6-10
3
4
Transforming Learning Environment through Flexible Learning: A Glimpse of Instructional Approaches in English Language Teaching
Luisito Nanquil
Bulacan State University, Philippines
Some Common Linguistic Adaptation of English Words done by the Bengali Native Speaker
Mohana Mir
University of Dhaka 16-19
5 Looking through Forensic Linguistics Studies in the Philippines Darryl Imperial University of Southeastern Philippines 20-22
The idea of Meaning: Linguistic Changes and Structures in Turkish Culture
6
Karoly Nagy
Department of English Studies, Applied Linguistics University of Pecs, Hungary 23-28
7 Similarities between Russian and Belarusian and Russian Influence on Belarusian
Dina Stanković
Дина Станковић
Institute for Slavic Languages, Department of Foreign Language Business Communication, WU - Vienna University of Economics and Business, Austria 29-33
8 Pidgin, “the Newly Born Dialect to Communicate” Ali Siddiqui Mehran University of Engineering and Technology (MUET), Jamshoro, Pakistan 34-37
9 Testing Reading Comprehension: A Review Study
Ayesha Sikandar
Department of Applied Linguistics, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. 38-41
10 Listening Comprehension Tests: A Review Study
Adeeba Kousar 42-45
Department of Applied Linguistics, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan.
A Much Needed Paradigm Shift: Discussing the Possibility of Utilizing Alternative Assessments in the ESL Classroom in Sri Lanka
Sachin Wanniarachchi
11
12
English Language Teaching Unit, Faculty of Languages and Cultural Studies, Bhiksu University of Sri Lanka
Wayanthi Egodage
Department of English Language Teaching, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka 46-49
A Review Study on Principles of Reading Comprehension Tests
Uswa Sarwar
Department of Applied Linguistics, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. 50-53
Oral Production Tests: A Review Study
Muhammad Rizwan Amanat
13
14
Department of Applied Linguistics, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. 54-57
Translating Cultural Term in Novel A Student Named Hidjo by Marco from Indonesia into English Version: Category Material Culture
Lely Rahmawati
State University of Jakarta, Indonesia 58-65
Cognitive Linguistics and Prepositional Meaning
Javier A. Morras Cortés University of Córdoba, Spain
The present essay intends to briefly outline and provide examples of the possible applications that Cognitive Linguistics (CL) may offer to areas such as Second Language Teaching and Lexicology. Of special interest, is the notion of prepositional meaning – that is, how prepositions mean. Traditionally, prepositions have been treated as grammatical elements that encode purely spatio-geometric information with little or no “lexical” meaning. They are thought of as grammatical items or functional words. However, it turns out that functional elements and/or consequences (Herskovits, 1985, 1986, 1988; Vandeloise, 1991, 1994, 2003) are as important as spatiogeometric information to properly understand the semantics of prepositions. This fuller perspective in spatial semantics allows us to achieve a clearer account of the conceptual structuring of prepositions.
Prepositional meaning might be better apprehended if we apply linguistic theories that are focused on conceptualization and cognitive processes, rather than on algorithms and formal logic that have no psychological basis. The theory that is briefly applied and exposed in this essay is Cognitive Grammar (CG), developed by American linguist Ronald Langacker (1987, 1991, 2008). CG is characterized for providing rigorous and satisfying explanations about linguistic organization that are based on symbolic and categorizing relationships. Words in CG are understood as symbolic units that consist of a phonological pole, a semantic pole, and the relationship established between them. This view implies drastic but necessary changes in how we conceive things such as lexicon and grammar. In CG there is no distinction between them, nor there is between semantics and syntax. Contrary to the strict dichotomy between these linguistic areas, CG claims that there must be a continuum between them. Hence, we refer to the whole linguistic system as being lexico-grammatical: It comprises a set of finite conventionalized symbolic units.
Prepositions in CG are conceived as atemporal relations. They profile (i.e. designate) a relation between a trajector (the primary attentional figure in a given utterance) and a landmark (the secondary attentional figure). They are atemporal because they profile a stative relation – so to speak – that is based on summary scanning (as opposed to sequential scanning [Langacker 1987, p. 144-46]). The notions of trajector (TR) and landmark (LM) are pivotal for an adequate description of the semantic function of prepositional meaning.
Consider the sentence below:
(1) The vase is on the table
The two main participants in (1) are the nominals the vase and the table. These nominals elaborate the TR and LM of the preposition on, respectively. The preposition on, on the other hand, functions as relational participant in the clause, linking the main participants by virtue of a spatial relation.
The notion of elaboration has to do with the semantic specificity that a conceptually autonomous structure (like simple nouns and nominals) provides to a conceptually dependent structure, such as verbs, adjectives, and prepositions.
According to CG, symbolic units profile either a thing or a relation; the interface between these two structures is known as Autonomous/Dependent alignment, or A/D alignment for short. In (1) we can observe that the preposition on – a dependent relational structure – functions as elaboration site (or e-site) for the more autonomous nominal structures; hence, it profiles a stative (atemporal) relation between the vase and the table by virtue of correspondence links between the TR of on and the nominal profile of the vase, and between the LM of on and the nominal profile of the table.
Another important aspect that should be highlighted when it comes to prepositional meaning are the conceptual parameters (Morras, 2018, 2020; Morras and Barcelona, 2019) that are most directly involved in a given construction. Conceptual parameters must be understood as the semantic features or attributes that characterize the conceptual basis of closed-class items such as preposition. In (1), for example, two parameters that are apparently activated are [SUPPORT] and [CONTACT]. They are necessary for (1) to be semantically adequate. There is contact between the vase and the table, and there is also support that is provided by the table to put the vase on top. These two conceptual parameters, at the very least, should structure the conceptual basis – or meaning potential (in Allwood’s 2003 parlance) – of the preposition on. Importantly, however, is that conceptual activation varies depending on the linguistic context. To illustrate, consider the following example:
(2) The fly on the ceiling
In (2) we can appreciate the presence of the parameter [CONTACT] since the fly (TR) is in direct contact with the ceiling (LM). However, the parameter of [SUPPORT] is not activated this time because the ceiling does not offer support to the fly in the sense that it does not impede the fly to fall due to gravity as in (1).
The analytical tools presented thus far seem fruitful to account for non-spatial and temporal prepositional meanings as well. Cognitive linguist Vyvyan Evans (2009: 169) has suggested that the parameter of [CONTACT] may constitute the core semantic value of the English preposition on. Things that are close and in contact to each other, like a computer on a desk, tend to be available for interaction with them, and they also become functional when a given TR comes into contact with a particular surface. There seems to be a [FUNCTIONAL ACTIONING] component (Evans 2009: 170-71) in the semantics of on that is manifested in expressions such as The television is on (i.e. it is functioning), The party was on fire, and We are on the bus
Temporal scenes might also be motivated by core semantic values of the meaning potentials of preposition that allow metaphorical extension in the first place. An example might be a sentence like The meeting is on Wednesday, where on establishes a relation, activating the [FUNCTIONAL ACTIONING] parameter, between the meeting, here the target event, and the temporal landmark, here Wednesday (for details on the structural motivations underlying non-spatial and temporal prepositional usages see Morras, 2018; Morras & Barcelona, 2019).
To summarize, the approach to language, meaning, and cognition that is fostered in the CG framework seems to offer elegant explanations on diverse topics of linguistic organization. This provides language and linguistics instructors, teachers, researchers, and learners, with a psychologically plausible theory of language that is based on cognitive processes and conceptualization. Indeed, such cognitive approach has proven itself useful (e.g., Boers & Demecheleer, 1998; see also Pütz, 2007; Holme, 2009) since it offers a “cognition-friendly” perspective that allows students to internalize linguistic knowledge in a much more comprehensible way.
References
Allwood, J. (2003). Meaning potentials and context: Some consequences for the analysis of variation in meaning. In H. Cuyckens, R. Dirven, & J. Taylor (Eds.), Cognitive approaches to lexical semantics (pp. 29-66). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Boers, F., & Demecheleer, M. (1998). A cognitive semantics approach to teaching prepositions. ELT Journal, 52, 197–203
Evans, V. (2009). How words mean: Lexical concepts, cognitive models, and meaning construction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Herskovits, A. (1985). Semantics and pragmatics of locative expressions. Cognitive Science, 9, 341–378.
Herskovits, A. (1986). Language and spatial cognition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Herskovits, A. (1988). Spatial expressions and the plasticity of meaning. In B. RudzkaOstyn (Ed.), Topics in Cognitive Linguistics (pp. 271–98). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Holme, R. (2009). Cognitive linguistics and language teaching. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Langacker, R. W. (1987). Foundations of cognitive grammar (Vol I): Theoretical prerequisites. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Langacker, R.W. (1991). Foundations of cognitive grammar. Vol. II: Descriptive applications Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Langacker, R.W. (2008). Cognitive grammar: A basic introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Morras, J. (2018). Base conceptual de la preposición entre y sus equivalentes de la lengua inglesa between, among, y amid: una perspectiva en lingüística cognitiva [Conceptual basis of entre and its English equivalents between, among and amid: A cognitive linguistics perspective]. RILEX. Revista sobre Investigaciones Léxicas, 1(2), 52–84.
Morras, J. (2020). Parametric knowledge in linguistic structure. International Journal of Business, Human and Social Sciences, 14(4), 250–253.
Morras, J., & Barcelona, A. (2019). Conceptual structuring of the English prepositions between, among, and amid, and their Spanish equivalent entre: A cognitive linguistic approach to spatial, non-spatial and temporal prepositions. Cognitive Linguistic Studies, 6(1), 103–129.
Pütz, M. (2007). Cognitive linguistics and applied linguistics. In D. Geeraerts, & C. Cuyckens (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of Cognitive Linguistics (pp. 1139-1159) New York/ Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Vandeloise, C. (1991). Spatial prepositions: A case study from French (trans. Anna R.K. Bosch). Chicago: Chicago University Press.
Vandeloise, C. (1994). Methodology and analysis of the preposition in. Cognitive Linguistics, 5(2), 157–184.
Vandeloise, C. (2003). Containment, support, and linguistic relativity. In H. Cuyckens, R. Dirven, & J.R Taylor (Eds.), Cognitive approaches to lexical semantics (pp. 393426). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition
Abdelmalek El Morabit
Mohammed V University, Rabat, Morocco
Introduction
He who reviews recent vocabulary research finds out that the field is still half-grown. Despite the fact that a bundle of questions has been raised very earlier on, the field has witnessed groundless neglect for quite a long time. Presumably, Chomsky’s revolution in linguistics has shifted attention away from lexis to an introspective examination of syntactic structures. Also, with the advent of the communicative paradigm, little attention was given to lexis inasmuch as lexical competence was injudiciously viewed as part of the grammatical competence alongside other linguistic forms (phonological forms, morphological forms, syntactic patterns, etc.) (Canale & Swain, 1980). Interest in vocabulary only increased again around the eighteens when a few foundational articles by pioneers in the fields including Paul Meara and Paul Nation emerged. Regardless of the relative recency of vocabulary research, it has gone a good way linking research from a variety of areas to produce very interesting insights into how vocabulary is acquired, processed, attrited, and how it should be handled by language teachers in formal contexts.
Vocabulary
knowledge
The question of vocabulary knowledge, or what it is that one knows when they know a word, seem and actually is essential to SLVA. Quite a few proposals have been outlined in answer to this question which can be classified into two major categories. First, a few authors suggest some descriptive models that attempt to describe what is meant by knowing a word through an exposition of manifold aspects of word knowledge. The first attempt known in this line is made by Richards in as early as 1976 and has been elaborated in many subsequent works (e.g. Gairns, & Redman, 1986; Nation, 2001; Robinson, 1989; Richards, 2015). Richards (1976) for instance sketches out seven assumptions that describe what he believes to be involved in the wordknowledge. These assumptions can be summarized in the knowledge of the word frequency, collocational knowledge, register, the syntactic behavior of a word, morphology, associational links, semantic values, and polysemy.
Other proposals suggest more global approaches to word knowledge as they try to summarize word knowledge is a small number of dimensions. Meara (1996) for example argues that “despite the manifest complexities of the lexicon, lexical
competence might be described in terms of a very small number of easily measurable dimensions” (p. 37). The dimensions he proposes are a) vocabulary size and b) organization. The former dimension refers to how many words a person knows, and it is argued that a bigger vocabulary size entails higher L2 proficiency (ibid, p. 3). The latter, on the other hand, designates how the words known relate to each other forming thus complex networks. In 2005, Meara added a third dimension to his definition of vocabulary knowledge, which is c) vocabulary accessibility. This last dimension is “concerned with how easily you can manipulate the words you know” (Meara, 2005, p. 271). That said, word knowledge has been described in two different ways, both of which seem to incorporate a minimal degree of knowledge but with a more broad perspective as well as a more detailed knowledge.
Breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge
From the last remark above stems an oft-made distinction in vocabulary research, namely that between vocabulary breadth (aka size) and depth. The former, according to Anderson and Freebody (1981), refers to the sum of words for which a person has a knowledge of at least some aspects (usually form-meaning link). According to Read, “Although the need to know learners’ vocabulary size might seem superficial, it can give a delineation of learners’ total vocabulary size than an in-depth probe of a limited number of words” (2000, p. 18). The dimension of depth refers to the quality of vocabulary knowledge. That is, it refers to the degree to which one knows a word. It is said to involve such elements as pronunciation, spelling, meaning, register, frequency, and morphological, syntactic, and collocational properties (Qian, 1999). These two dimensions are by no means in polar opposites, but they are rather two perspectives from which one can approach word knowledge.
Receptive and productive vocabulary
A similar distinction is drawn between receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge. According to Nation (2001), “receptive carries the idea that we receive language input from others through listening or reading and try to comprehend it. Productive carries the idea that we produce language forms by speaking and writing to convey messages to others” (p. 37). This receptive-productive distinction is by no means a dichotomy of clear-cut nature, however. Many view it as a continuum with receptive and productive knowledge on either side and with varying degrees of familiarity throughout the continuum (Melka, 1997; Meara, 1990).
Word lists and vocabulary assessment
Word lists derived from large language corpora allow us to be aware of word frequency. The latter refers to how often words occur in a language. These developments have allowed us to distinguish between high and low-frequency words, that is which words occur more frequently than others, and have thus had a plethora of implications for vocabulary in language teaching and learning. Also, most if not all recent vocabulary measurement research draws samples of test items from these word lists and based on that generalize to the larger population to make assumptions about the total vocabulary size. One most acknowledged test to measure the size of vocabulary in this way is the vocabulary levels test (VLT) (Nation, 1983; Schmitt, Schmitt, & Clapham, 2001). In general, very interesting findings have come out of this research. It has been found out, for instance that a five-year-old child in a native speaking context is believed to have a vocabulary size of about 4,000 to 5,000 words (Nation & Waring, 2002). A well-educated English native speaker, on the other hand, develops a vocabulary size which ranges from 17,000 to 20,000-word families, with an average acquisition rate of around two to three words per day (Goulden, Nation, & Read, 1990). These findings have had numerous implications for language teaching.
Conclusion
In conclusion, SLVA is a recent area of research with very promising potential. It has offered and is still offering very useful implications for language teaching and learning. This paper aimed to offer a rather shallow description of the development of the field and the nature of research done in it. Many areas of research in the field such as vocabulary learning strategies and vocabulary knowledge and other language skills remained undiscussed in this short essay, yet a more extensive discussion of these, among others, can be found elsewhere.
References
Anderson, R. C., & Freebody, P. (1981). Vocabulary knowledge. In J. T. Guthrie (Ed.), Comprehension and teaching: Research reviews (pp. 77-117). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Canale, m., & Swain, m. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics, 1(1), 1–47. doi:10.1093/applin/i.1.1
Gairns, R., & Redman, S. (1986). Working with words: A guide to teaching and learning vocabulary. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Goulden, R., Nation, I. S. P., & Read, J. (1990). How large can a receptive vocabulary be? Applied Linguistics, 11(4), 341-363. doi:10.1093/applin/11.4.341
Meara, P. (1990). A note on passive vocabulary. Second Language Research, 6, 150-154. doi:10.1017/s0261444800008879
Meara, P. (1996). The dimensions of lexical competence. In Brown, G., Malmkjaer, K., and Williams, J. (eds.), Performance and Competence in Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 35–53.
Meara, P. (2005). Designing vocabulary tests for English, Spanish and other languages. In C. Butler, M. Gómez-González, & S. Doval Suárez (Eds.), The dynamics of language use (pp. 271-286). Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Melka, F. (1997). Receptive vs. productive aspects of vocabulary. In N. Schmitt, & M. McCarthy (Eds.), Vocabulary: Description, acquisition and pedagogy (pp. 84-102). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Nation, I. S. P. (1983). Testing and teaching vocabulary. Guidelines, 5, 12-25.
Nation, I. S. P. (2001). Learning vocabulary in another language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Nation, I. S. P., & Waring, R. (2002). Vocabulary size, text coverage and word lists. In N. Schmitt & M. McCarthy (Eds.), Vocabulary: Description, Acquisition and Pedagogy (pp. 6-19). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Qian, D. D. (1999). Assessing the roles of depth and breadth of vocabulary knowledge in reading comprehension. Canadian Modern Language Review, 56, 282-307. doi:10.3138/cmlr.56.2.282
Read, J. (2000). Assessing vocabulary. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Richards, J. C. (1976). The role of vocabulary teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 10, 77-89
Richards, J. C. (2015). Key issues in language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Robinson, P. J. (1989). A rich view of lexical competence. ELT Journal, 43, 274-282.
Schmitt, N., Schmitt, D., & Clapham, C. (2001). Developing and exploring the behaviour of two new versions of the Vocabulary Levels Test. Language Testing, 18, 55–89. doi:10.1177/026553220101800103
Transforming Learning Environment through Flexible Learning: A Glimpse of Instructional Approaches in English Language Teaching
Luisito Nanquil Bulacan State University, Philippines
Abstract
In the current learning atmosphere, language teachers are facing different forms of academic constraints and challenges due to the spread of health crisis where humans are at risk. Learning does not stop despite barriers in the classroom sessions. This reflective essay has illustrated and narrated the various ways and techniques on how the language teacher can facilitate effectively the lessons and topics in English in the flexible mode of teaching/instruction especially with distance education/learning as an alternative mode of instruction. The wide-range of activities and approaches detailed in the essay were based on the extensive experiences of the author supported by findings and perspectives by language specialists, curriculum designers, and linguists around the world. On the last part, the author advises the readers and language teaching practitioners to be flexible and reflective in the choice of materials, lessons, and strategies on how they will handle online teaching as a part of their professional responsibilities.
In the present situation of the world, a large number of learners are struggling on how they could study at home and get ideas from school. From the scenarios we see both on social media and personal or actual observations, life is entirely different now. It is in another side of the fence, or others call it new normal. Language teachers have tried reaching out to their students by using flexible learning with various modes of delivery. But the efforts are not enough. There seems to be predicaments to both learners and the teachers. For affluent countries, online mode or distance learning may be comfortable and affordable but for those who belong to developing nations, it may be difficult for stakeholders to maintain and sustain such mode of delivery. The biggest question from the thoughts of the author is, how could language teacher effectively transfer ideas and facilitate learning using distance learning now-a-days? What are the options available that could be employed by teacher himself so that no children, no
learners would be left behind? In the next months, we shall call the scenario “new normal” a shade of the past remains the same but in a different context. People want to be secure and safe, so in varied ways, they will stay to a place where they know protection and security are ensured. On the other hand, students are compelled to choose between health and education. Many would cry out a resounding “health”. Of course we cannot blame them, after all, on top of everything is health.
Kaplan and Haenlein (2010) defined social media as a group of Internet-based applications that were formed on the foundations of web 2.0. Social media include online technological tools that allow people to communicate with one another. Bradley (2010) blogged that social media is a set of channels and technologies aiming to establish a community of participants for productive collaboration.
Constructivism
Constructivism is based on the principle that individuals cannot simply be given knowledge. Rather, individuals must create knowledge as they interact with the world around them. Their constructions of knowledge are rooted in their prior knowledge. The theory holds that the mind is constantly searching with what they already know. Constructivism has several important implications. One is that the conditions that best facilitate learning are what might be described as learner-centered and problemcentered. This means that a teacher needs to provide learners with complex, complete, and authentic problems. Once this is done, guidance is provided to class members to help them gain the knowledge needed to solve problems.
Another assumption of constructivism is that members of the class need to be actively engaged in the learning process. They must actively seek solutions to problems and share ideas because the social and cultural context is important, and because it is not likely that any one individual can find the solution working alone, often learners will work in pairs or in teams (Armtrong, Henson, & Savage, 2009).
Perennialism
The term perennial refers to something that is recurring or everlasting. The educational perspective of perennialism views truth and human nature as unchanging or constant. So it is that perennialists view education as the discovery and teaching of those underlying and unchanging truths. Perennialists also emphasize cultivating reason and the intellect. Although perennialists grant that changing times bring surface-level alterations to the problems people face, they believe that human nature and the underlying principles of truth remain unaltered over time. Furthermore, they contend that the experiences of human beings through centuries have established those truths worth knowing.
The primary goal of education as viewed by the perennialists is that of developing the intellect and the learning of enduring truths or principles that have passed the test of time. They believe that such wisdom is important regardless of the career or vocation a person ultimately chooses to follow. Preparing individuals to be participating members of society who can cope with change is viewed as best accomplished by developing the intellect and learning enduring truths that can be applied to any problem (Armtrong, Henson, & Savage, 2009).
Progressivism
Progressivism has been an important educational philosophy for a considerable part of the 20th century. One of the main figures identified with progressivism is John Dewey, in (Armtrong, Henson, & Savage, 2009). Until the beginning of 20th century, education was designed primarily for those few who were going on to higher education. The general practice of education was that of extensive routine, authoritarian teachers whose word was law, memorization of facts, and no student rights. Progressivism identifies change as constant in the world. Rather than opposing change, progressive educators believe that individuals need to embrace the change and learn how to direct it for the betterment of society. Thus, progressives see a major purpose of education as that of helping individuals learn to solve problems. In this context, students need to learn the scientific method for defining and solving problems. This means that the active involvement of students is critical (Armtrong, Henson, & Savage, 2009).
Now, how could language teachers make “work from home” inclusive and accessible? There are many ways, they could do. First, if they have gadgets such as computer or laptop they could use Google classroom to communicate with their students. From here, they could upload lessons, modules, which could be studied by their students. Assessment could also be performed by the teacher using varied types of test such as multiple choice, true or false, fill in the blanks and so on. Another method is by giving meaningful tasks and activities they can accomplish while they are at home. Before giving the assignments and the like, the teacher has to post the scoring rubrics where students could base their actions and steps. The directions matter too. Clear directions lead to clear thinking.
Another option is the use of mobile phone, messenger, and phone calls. As we all know, communication take place in many forms. Video conference in messenger is fruitful as long as the signal is stable and reliable. If not all students have messenger the other option is to call them and start interview or questioning method. If there is a chance of meeting the students in the safest way, the language teacher can bring a well-prepared module (self-paced) in which directions, lessons, rubrics, assignments, and tasks are already included. On the first week of the class or say first meeting, the teacher can
explain at great length the course outline, guidelines, and expectations for the subject. The rules for the submissions would also be explained clearly. As soon as students come home, they could start reading, reviewing, and reflecting on the topics and lessons covered by the course modules.
The author so far has mentioned a lot of options or ways on how language teachers could facilitate lessons in the present situation worldwide. Would it be possible that classroom strategies and approaches be used in distance learning? The answer is a loud Yes!
For differentiated instruction, the teacher could divide the class into groups then assign varied activities such as video making, poster-slogan making, one-minute teaser/movie trailer, a minute advertisement, poetry making, dialogue construction, video resume and so forth. In the production of these tasks, stick to the learning objectives and make sure all activities are related to the lessons.
Communicative language teaching or CLT could also effective. This is closely associated to task-based language teaching. The target language and form are emphasized in the activities. It is essential for the language teacher to allow the learners communicate regardless of going beyond the rules of traditional grammar because the more important aspect is they are (the learners) developing language skills. For the skills, we include reading, reading, listening, and speaking. Cooperative learning is also advisable in this aspect because when students know how to cooperate and socialize with their classmates, it is pleasant to discover their potentials through meaningful and collective activities.
Our next approach is contextualized language teaching where the teacher uses the specific context and situation of students for online instruction. In this approach, authentic materials are very helpful for the teacher. Everything in the classroom which can be used as example for reflection and discovery could be utilized by the teacher.
In this narration of thoughts, it is wise and imperative that there is no one method or approach that is most effective in the actual scenario. If the point we are raising here is flexible learning then the teacher himself has to be flexible, reflective, and resourceful. Further, the actual needs of the learners matter so much in the success of the online lessons and activities. The language teacher has to identify and determine the needs and diversities of the learners and use these as instrument to design course objectives and assessments. The learning outcomes must be evidenced in the flexible instruction. As earlier said, the different techniques employed by the teacher can save him from any forms of risk as long as there are clear and feasible objectives designed by the teacher as the facilitator of instruction. In justifying the reflections and thoughts of the author,
some materials are briefly discussed in this article. The purpose of citing such information and literature is to navigate and explore possible links and connections of existing ideas that may influence and impact the current tasks and pedagogies administered by the language teacher.
The kind of instruction we are witnessing now is a bit different from what we have been practicing for a number of years. As such, it is advisable that language teachers must be more considerate and friendly to their students because not all could afford to connect using technology. There are plenty of methods, practices, and models that could be tested by the teacher in the virtual classroom, however, in all endeavors and plans, the needs and differences of the learners should be looked into for preparation and construction of learning objectives.
Conclusion
The freedom to develop and create instructional materials online gives the opportunity to better shape the learning online environment for target EFL and ESL learners. Taking a picture of the rapid rise of technology where Internet plays significant role, the language teachers have to adjust and conform to all the transitions and tensions that are happening. Training on how to plan and use online platforms should be key concerns of schools, college, and universities who intend to engage in the emerging style of education which is both accessible and inclusive. As shown by different studies, there are numerous resources around the community and classroom that could be used by the language teacher to maximize classroom interactions. On the other hand, the teacher should only use materials that are relevant and suitable to the needs of the learners.
References
Armstrong, D.G., Henson, K. T., and Savage, T. V., (2009). Teaching today: An introduction to education. (Eight edition). United States: PEARSON.
Bradley, A. J. (2010). A new definition of social media. Gartner (Web log). Retrieved from http://blogs.gartner.com/anthony_bradley/2010/01/07/a-new-definition-ofsocial-media/
Kaplan, A. M., & Haenlein, M. (2010). Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of Social Media. Business Horizons, 53(1), 59-68.
Some Common Linguistic Adaptation of English Words done by the Bengali
Native Speaker
Mohana Mir University of Dhaka, Bangladesh
Introduction
There are many language in the world and all human being acquire their 1st language naturally. But later, for different reasons and purposes, we learn second and also third language. We can’t talk like the native speaker of certain language as second and third language speaker for several linguistic reasons. We adapt them differently in our own language. This adaptation can be done in every branch of linguistics like, phonological adaptation, morphological adaptation etc. Differences in sound items and writing system between the languages, cultures and other sociolinguistic factors also work behind this. In this essay some common types of adaptation of English words which are made by the native Bengali speakers are being discussed.
Language situation of Bangladesh
Bangladesh is a small country of South Asia. The national language and official language of Bangladesh is Bengali according to the third article of the Constitution of Bangladesh [1] .It is a monolingual country. There are many dialects which are used in different areas. There are also 35-45 ethnic languages here which are used by only those community. In spite of being a monolingual country, English is used in many sectors of communication in this country. Code switching and code mixing between English and Bengali is very common in daily conversation. There are many borrowed English words are used in this country. In some cases, English words are adapted into Bengali vocabulary by way of applying different phonological process like pro-thesis, epenthesis etc. [2] Some adaptation are also done morphologically. Many words have changed their semantic meaning according to context here.
Types of adaptation of English words by Bengali native speaker
Some similarities and dissimilarities both are present between Bengali and English phonology. Bengali native speakers try to simplify the English words for making them easily pronounced. As the study of phonology has progressed within the frame work of generative grammar, certain principles have emerged governing the form and organization of phonological rules and the manner in which these rules are to be interpreted [3].
LThe most common phonological rule applied by the native speaker of Bengali is Epenthesis. Epenthesis is a situation in which phonological rule inserts a sound. According to some linguists, vowel epenthesis is often motivated by the need to make consonant contrasts more distinct [4]. It is the addition of one or more sounds to a word, especially to the interior of a word. As a grammatical rule, epenthesis generally breaks up a consonant cluster or vowel sequence. The Bengali native speakers add an extra vowel in front of a consonant cluster like ‘sc’, ‘sk’ and ‘st’etc.
Example
English words Pronounced as Added vowel School Ischool i Standard Istandard i Scope Iscope i Smile ismail i Skin iskin i Stroke Istroke i Spoon Ispoon i
In the cluster of /s/ and other consonants the epenthesis tendency are shown. In the chart 8 different kinds of cluster have been mentioned. In every case, a general native Bengali speaker (not always the standard Bengali speaker) adds an extra ‘I’ vowel in front of SC, SCH, SM, SK, STR and SP cluster.
Epithetic adaptation
Sometimes they add extra sound after the word keeping the meaning same. For example:
English words
What they use Added sound aunt aunty y list listy y inch Inchi i
In these words, an extra sound has been added to make them easily pronounced.
• Sometimes they use extra vowel or consonant in anywhere of a word and make almost new words keeping the meaning same. Such as –
English words Adopted version Change Privacy privancy
Adds an extra /n/ in the middle of a word. stylish stylist Adds /t/ instead of /h/ Shock absorver Soccet jumper Totally changed
• In Bengali language, there are 2 types of /s/ sound. They are: /s/ and /ʃ/. The native Bengali speakers mix both in many English words. For example,
Stop - ʃtop
Student-ʃtudent
Session - ʃession
They utter ‘sh’ instead of /s/.
But English words in which /s/ is actually pronounced as ‘sh’, the native Bengali speakers use ‘s’. For example:
ʃuger as sugar
• Sometimes, they extend the meaning of some English words. They mix two words (one from English and one from Bengali) which have the same meaning. For example, in Bengali, the word dʰɔra means ‘catch’ But when a native speaker uses the word ‘catch’ they say ‘catch dʰɔra’ (catch catch). But everyone understands this. They don’t consider it wrong.
Catch - catch dʰɔra (catch catch in English)
Suppose - supppose mone kɔra (suppose suppose in English) Again - abar again (Again again in English)
• Some borrowed words of English are adapted in this way :
office - ɔfiʃ
box - bakʃo
bottle - botol
• Some English words have taken pragmatic meaning considering the context. It is used as metaphor. They create a secondary meaning of this things. Such asTube light – In English, it is a kind of electric light. But Bengali native speakers use it to indicate a man who understands everything late.
Autistic – In English, it means a person who has the neurodevelopmental disorderautism. But among the Bengali native speaker, it is used as to indicate a person who is very disgusting by his behaviour.
• Sometimes Bengali native speaker mix codes in using plural number. Such as-
From brothers to ‘bhaias’ [in Bengali, bhaia means bother]
Form sisters to ‘apus’ [in Bengali, apu means sister]
Conclusion
All these things I have added is an observation of my own, as I am also a Bengali native speaker. Now a days English has become a technical instrument to keep pace with the modern world. So, linguistic adaptation is very common thing. It is also a good point that without being a bilingual country English is adapting in Bangladesh this way. This is the actual beauty of language!
Reference
Article 3. The state language. The Constitution of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh.
Chomsky, N. (1967). Some General Properties of Phonological Rules, MIT.
Dash, N. S. (2015). A Descriptive Study of Bengali words. Cambridge University Press.
Looking through Forensic Linguistics Studies in the Philippines
Darryl Imperial University of Southeastern Philippines
Though forensic linguistics has not had its total development in the Philippines, it continues to flourish. Several studies including Marilu Madrunio’ s The Interrogator and the Interrogated: The Questioning Process in Philippine Courtroom Discourse in 2013 and Power and Control in Philippine Courtroom Discourse in 2014, Villanueva and Marilu Madrunio's Language and Power in the Courtroom: Examining the Discourse in Philippine Rape Trials, and Andrade's and Rachelle Lintao Imposing Control Through Yes/No Questions in a Philippine Drug Trial tried to scrutinize the influence of the lawyers’ questions on the interviewees’ testimonies and answers and the respondents’ answer to the questions formulated by lawyers which may indicate power relations among courtroom interactants.
The language is not powerful on its own (Weiss & Wodak, 2003 cited in Madrunio, n.d.). However, in the courtroom, there has been a hierarchical reenactment of power because of language usage. It is best elicited when “the attorney has the mandate to take charge of the witness and tease out the truth through rigorous questions” (Bresnahan, 1989) which would prevent a non-lawyer from understanding it, putting the “powerless” at a disadvantage (Madrunio, 2014). In that very sense, power-play arises between a lawyer and a non-lawyer because of the cross-examination discoursewhere courtroom players observe rules executed by the court’s jury, or in the case of the Philippines, by the court’s judge(s) and/or lawyer to strengthen or weaken a witness’ testimony (Madrunio, 2014).
Given questioning, Shuy (1997), cited in Maite (2013), “stressed the coercive nature of questions to suspects further classifying these techniques as yes/no questions, tag questions, questions that presuppose a fact not yet established, and promises and threats.” Villanueva and Madrunio (2016) found out in their study that “a single question can be structured using two to three types of questions.” They also conceded “that planned coercive and forceful questions are techniques to test the evidence and testimonies.” This is further supported by the findings of Andrade and Lintao (2018) when they found out that “prosodic yes/no questions were the most controlling.” Thus, Madrunio (2013) emphasizes that “it is important for courtroom lay players to know the strategies employed by legal professionals in terms of the questioning process so they do not fall prey to the latter’s questioning style and become defenseless in the
interrogation process.” In a nutshell, these findings on the types of questions asked by the lawyer during the interrogation process might determine how the testimony of the witness will be formulated.
According to Kaufman (2017), “testimony involves a double consciousness on the part of the actors who participate.” This would mean that the lawyers play a crucial role in eliciting testimony from the client and formulate questions out of it. It is for the fact that “attorneys and advocates would have the advantage to elicit stories and narratives from defendants and witnesses (Klerk, n.d.).” Hingstman (1983) cited in Bresnahan (1989) sees the attorneys working with the clients and witnesses to co-produce testimony.
In light to this, Villanueva and Madrunio (2016) found out that with "the highest number of occurrences is Compliance, with a frequency of 811 (45%), Giving Clarification, 319 (18%), Providing Information, 223 (12%), Resistance, 132 (7%) and Resistance-Giving Clarification, 121 (7%).” Concerning compliance, they added that the witness agreed to tell anything to the lawyer, who tries to allude that the relationship between the witness and accused has great bearing on the truth of the testimony and to weaken the testimony of the witness is an example of “a reply that simply serves as an affirmation or a compliance that might, therefore, discredit one’ s testimony.” They concluded that “the language in cross-examination discourse is very powerful for it can strengthen or weaken a witness’ testimony.” It is to be noted that one of the purposes of eliciting testimonies – making claims and counterclaims is to make sure that pieces of evidence are enough to acquit or convict someone. Hence, making them have a dynamic role in co-creating events and discourse.
Gibbons (2018) as cited in Andrade and Lintao (2018) stated that “the lawyers make use of the opportunity to create their version of events in mind in an attempt to attest with their witness.” Therefore, this allows them to continually ask questions. Under that guise, based on Villanueva and Madrunio’s findings, And-Yes/No question is the type of question used to “facilitate the narration of events and draw confirmation from the witness of their previous narration.” Thus, for the lawyers to make questions for the clients or witnesses to answer, to counterattack an argument from another lawyer, and to present evaluation to the judge, these participants must make the court less subjected to power. It is only achieved, according to de Klerk (n.d.), when “lawyers try to learn how to avoid the language features that complicate legal language and obscure its meaning, to avoid courtroom upper hand.”
Courtroom Discourse encompasses the utilization of legal language in an interrogation process to elicit a testimony – relating to facts, opinions, or event narrations. It revolves around ascertaining the reliability of truth of the evidence placed before the
Lparticipants (de Klerk, n.d.). However, the coercive questioning discredits or overturns witnesses’ stand. Henceforth, the verbal cues that influence a witness’ testimony which the lawyers provide – to present credible explanation, it would be better for the lower courts to adapt to a bilingual legal setting to avoid misconception in the nonlawyers’ point-of-view.
References
Andrade, S. and Lintao, R. (2018). Imposing Control Through Yes/No Questions in a Philippine Drug Trial. International Journal for the Rule of Law, Courtroom Procedures, Judicial Linguistics & Legal English, 2(1), 190-230.
Bresnahan, M. (1989). Attorneys as Equalizers: Eliciting Testimony from Refugee Defendants. The Howard Journal of Communications.
de Klerk, V. (n.d.). Language & the law: who has the upper hand? A corpus analysis of the Transition and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) hearings. Retrieved from ProQuest.com last February 24, 2020.
Kaufman, S. (2017) Mourners in the Court: Victims in Death Penalty Trials through the lens of performance. Journal of the American Bar Foundation, Vol. II, 1155-1178.
Maite, C. (2013). Forensic Linguistics: An Overview of the Interaction and Intersection of Language and Law. Studies about Language, 5-13.
Rañosa-Madrunio, M. (2014). Power and Control in Philippine Courtroom Discourse. International Journal of Legal English, 2(1), 4-30.
Rañosa-Madrunio, M. (2013). The Interrogator and the Interrogated: The Questioning Process in Philippine Courtroom Discourse. Philippine Journal of Linguistics, 43-60.
Villanueva, V., & Rañosa-Madrunio, M. (2016). Language and Power in the Courtroom: Examining the Discourse in the Philippine Rape Trials. International Conference on Language, Literature, Culture, and Education, 89-103.
The idea of Meaning: Linguistic Changes and Structures in Turkish Culture
Karoly Nagy
Department of English Studies, Applied Linguistics, University of Pecs, Hungary
Introduction
“What are the rules of right that power implements to produce discourses of truth? Or: What type of power is it that is capable of producing discourses of power that have, in a society like ours, such powerful effects?” (Foucault, 1976, p. 24). Discourse is power and power is discourse. It is a written, spoken, verbal or non-verbal form of communication, where we use language as our common mediator. What we intend to say and by what means we achieve it are crucially important in the context of meaning creation. Even though language is a system, it is also dynamic, changes though the course of time. Not only the structures of grammar but the denotations and definition, in other words, the meanings are also under constant change. The ruling power has a high influence on how we see, view or understand things not only because of the discourse but the new meanings and words they adopt. Turkey has experienced various changes in terms of language and ideologies in the past decades.
Language
All creatures possess unique features, yet sharing some common ones. Due to these qualities they belong to certain species that separate them from other beings. One of the most special aspects that serves as the base for the unity, in a particular class, would be communication itself. Humans also have a distinctive way of connecting, namely through a channel called language which not only provides the chance for transmitting information but “reflects both the individual characteristics of a person, as well as the beliefs and practices of his or her community” (Amberg & Vause, 2009, p. 1). For this reason, “language itself does not exist apart from culture, that is, from the socially inherited assemblage of practices and beliefs that determines the texture of our lives” (Dawson & Phelan, 2016, p 99).
Language and Identity
Identity is the way we see not only ourselves as well as people but the environment around us, and “the language we speak is responsible for how people perceive the world we inhabit. (Cumming, 2006, p. 47) Besides language “is not passive but actually helps
shape society itself. This is one reason why language, identity and cultural difference are important [...] they shape our world and [...] how we interact with others, and how we conform to social rules and norms.” (Zou, 2012, p. 466) The country we are born in, the customs, habits and the way we communicate also affect the perceptions, we might as well say, conceptualizations or views we have regarding other languages than our mother tongue.
Nation & Nationalism
The sense of identity is highly influenced by the place and the society where someone is raised. Emotions regarding unity and belonging might arouse connecting the person to a particular group, land or language. This idea of relation of people to each other based of their place of birth constitutes to the concept of nation. According to Anderson (1991), nation is an imagined community “because the members of even the smallest nation will never know most of their fellow-members, meet them, or even hear of them, yet in the minds of each lives the image of their communion” (p. 6). However, this illusion is essential since conceptualizations are formed thanks to it, because imagination is a process of expanding oneself by transcending our time and space and creating new images of the world and ourselves” (Wenger, 1998, p. 176). The sense of identity of belonging to a particular group constitutes to the ideology of nationalism where there is an ‘us vs. them’ mentality, a clash between the superior and inferior according to customs, culture and language. It crucial in the construction of national identity to represent a “‘uniqueness’ or a certain biological, cultural or religious ‘purity’, as a necessary cement for the preservation of national unity and harmony, and its protection against internal or external enemies” (Gökay & Aybak, 2016, p 107).
Linguistic Purism & Linguistic Nationalism
Linguistic Purism – a desire to eliminate certain undesirable features from a language, including grammatical errors, jargon, neologisms, colloquialisms and words of foreign origins (Nordquist, 2019)-, is the necessity of protection against foreign influence which was also present in terms of language. This ideology of linguistic purism first appeared in Italy, in 1583, which “was highly characterized by [...] efforts to maintain the purest form of the Italian language possible” (Jensen, 2017, p. 2). The entering of a foreign word to a language was seen as if “the foreign language has achieved a certain level of influence, if not dominance, in the recipient language” (Jensen, 2017, p. 3). For empires, which were encompassing various lands, minorities, religious groups and languages, linguistic as well as ethnic nationalism was not completely achievable. Later on, as empires started to collapse, nations needed a tool for uniting their people, yet separate them from other nations by glorifying their own uniqueness. These ideas later became the cornerstones of linguistic nationalism, where a certain language was seen
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of American Indian Weekly Vol. 1, No. 2
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.
Title: American Indian Weekly Vol. 1, No. 2
Author: Spencer Dair
Release date: January 29, 2024 [eBook #72803]
Language: English
Original publication: Cleveland: Arthur Westbrook Company, 1910
Credits: Carla Foust, David Edwards and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICAN INDIAN WEEKLY VOL. 1, NO. 2 ***
AMERICAN INDIAN WEEKLY
BY COLONEL SPENCER DAIR
VOL. I THE ARTHUR WESTBROOK COMPANY, CLEVELAND, OHIO, U. S. A. NO. 2
Copyright, 1910, by the Arthur Westbrook Company, Cleveland, Ohio.
TRACKED TO HIS LAIR OR
The Pursuit of the Midnight Raider
By COL. SPENCER DAIR
PRINCIPAL CHARACTERS.
T M R —A daredevil Indian chief, known as Scalping Louie, who breaks from the Indian reservation and proceeds to steal cattle and burn houses, being finally brought to his well-deserved end by a cowboy who has the assistance of an aged scout.
S B —Owner of the Double Cross ranch, in Arizona, who is roused from bed by an eerie cry, finds a spectre hovering over his cattle corral and while he is quieting his cowboys, sees his cattle stampeded by the apparition. Starting in pursuit, he trails one bunch of cattle to a dangerous swamp in which he comes near losing his life by being sucked into a mud hole, then is nearly burned to death in a fire set to drive out the Midnight Raider and finally has the satisfaction of seeing one of his cowpunchers send the miscreant to his doom.
S B —His wife.
H H —Owner of the Star and Moon ranch, whose buildings are burned by the renegade Indian chieftain. He joins with Bowser in the trailing of the raider to his lair.
A H —His wife.
D P —Cowboy on Double Cross ranch, who fires the bullet that ends the raider’s life.
S —Foreman on Double Cross ranch.
P —Cowboy in the Double Cross outfit.
K Y —Foreman on Star and Moon ranch, who helps Deadshot.
D —Cowboy on Star and Moon ranch.
G —Cowboy on Star and Moon ranch.
S N —Half-breed scout, with a grievance against Scalping Louie, and is called by Deadshot to run him down.
CHAPTER I. A MIDNIGHT ALARM.
“O-u-e-e!”
Piercing and shrill, from the tense stillness of the night sounded this eerie wail.
In terrified alarm, Sam Bowser rose in his bed to his elbow.
As he remained thus, trying to decide whether the awesome shriek was a cry of distress from some human being or was an imagining of his mind, his wife awoke.
“What was that?” she gasped, excitedly.
“You heard it, too?”
“I—I thought I heard something. It sounded like the very soul being drawn from some woman. U-ugh! It makes me shiver to think of it.”
“Well, there aren’t any women nearer than thirty miles, except you, so it couldn’t be that.”
“But some one might be carrying a woman off or murdering her. Just because Amy Hawks is the nearest one we know of, doesn’t make it so there mightn’t be some poor creature being killed.”
To this, the man made no response, and together they listened intently for a repetition of the awful wail.
“Guess it must have been some coyote got kicked while he was smelling round the cattle. This is the fi——”
But the words literally stuck in Bowser’s mouth.
Again the shriek, bloodcurdling in its gruesomeness, rang out ere he could finish what he purposed to say.
This time there was no mistaking the cry
It seemed to come from a woman in awful distress and to be close at hand.
“There’s some mischief afoot!” exclaimed the man, as, heedless of his wife’s protests, he leaped from his bed, seized his rifle and rushed to the door.
Yet, when he threw it open, there was nothing to be seen!
The silence and the darkness of the night were overwhelming—as only the silence and darkness of the plains of Arizona can be.
Sam Bowser was the owner of the Double Cross ranch. With no neighbors nearer than thirty miles, he and his wife, Sarah, lived in the home ranch house. This building faced the South. To the right, and some sixty feet distant, was the bunkhouse, where the cowpunchers lived when not on the range. To the North and between the two houses was a horse corral. Directly back of this was a second corral for the cattle, so large that it seemed more like a big pasture enclosed by barbed wire than a yard.
Only the day before had Bowser’s men driven the pick of his herds back to the home ranch in order that they might be shipped away to the great cattle markets of the Middle West.
Scarcely had the ranch owner opened the door than lights blazed in the bunkhouse, followed an instant later by the rush of the cowpunchers, as, guns in their hands, they crept cautiously from their shanty to learn the cause of the alarm.
“Steady, boys! Don’t go to shooting up the country!” warned Bowser, running across the yard to join his men.
“What did you make of it, Sam?” demanded a tall, leathery cowpuncher, who served as foreman.
“You’ve got me, Sandy. The missus ’lows it’s some woman being murdered.”
“But there ain’t any women round here,” protested another of the men, who had been christened “Pinky” by his fellows because of his
fondness for decorating his saddle and bridle with anything of the color.
“That’s just what I told her,” declared the ranchman, evidently glad to learn his opinion found support. “But she ’lowed that didn’t make any difference, that one or a dozen could be brought here. I sort of had an idea, it might have been a coyote.”
“Wal, it warn’t no coyote,” drawled the third of the boys attached to the Double Cross outfit, who revelled in the title of Deadshot Pete. “I been on these plains too long not to know every tone and variation of the songs them sneaks sing.”
“Then what was it?” demanded Sandy. “Seems to me, if it was some man or woman being done to death, they’d keep up more of a continuous yelling.”
“Unless it’s too late,” commented Deadshot, significantly
This suggestion that perhaps the gruesome wails which had roused them all from their sleep might have been the dying protests or appeals for help of some human being caused the men to become silent.
“Don’t see how we can do any good so long as we don’t hear the thing again to give us a definite idea of its direction,” remarked the ranchman, after a period of several minutes peering into the darkness and listening had been productive of neither sight nor sound. “Guess we’d better get back to our bunks and wait till daylight.”
“Reckon you’re right, Sam,” returned his foreman. “It’s either too late, as Deadshot says, or we must hear it again so’s we can get our bearings.”
But neither the owner nor the outfit of the Double Cross was destined to get any more sleep that night!
While talking, the men had been looking toward the South.
Chancing to turn so that he was facing the cattle corral, Pinky suddenly uttered an exclamation of wild fear, then clutched Sandy by
the arm, wheeling him about, as he pointed Northward with trembling hand.
Amazed at such action on the part of their bunkmate, the others followed his gaze.
Apparently floating through the air, directly above the cattle corral, was a white spectre!
CHAPTER II. THE RAID.
“Ghosties!” gasped Sandy, in a voice scarcely above a whisper.
“No wonder we couldn’t place it—but I knew it warn’t no coyote,” asserted Deadshot.
For several minutes the men gazed at the awesome thing as it flitted hither and thither.
“By the blood of my mother! But I’m glad the crittur never took it into its head to visit us on the range,” breathed Pinky.
“Same here,” chorused Sandy and Deadshot.
“It means trouble—you see if it doesn’t,” continued the latter. “The only other time I ever see anything like it was the night before the Piutes dashed down on old man Turner’s ranch and killed all but me and a low-down gambler called Crooked Joe.”
This assertion that the eerie spectre floating before their eyes was not the first one he had seen instantly claimed the ears of his companions, though they kept their gaze riveted on the apparition.
“What was that one like?” breathed Pinky.
“It was all lit up, like fire. The Piutes said it was a curse put out by their Medicine Man.”
“But how’d you manage to get away from the Injuns and escape the massacre?” inquired Sandy, in whom Deadshot’s tales of his experiences always aroused suspicion of their truthfulness.
“Me and Crooked Joe sloped as soon as the light in the sky was discovered. Mark my word, man dear, every time you sees anything in the air like ghosties, it means trouble!”
“Well, you aren’t going to get out of it this time by digging out,” broke in the ranch owner, who had been listening with increasing alarm to his cowpuncher’s story, and feared the effect it might have upon the rest of his men. “I need you all to-morrow to get the bunch to the loading station. So don’t think you can sneak off.”
“We can’t eh?” demanded Deadshot. “Who’s a going to stop me if I want to go?”
“I am, with this rifle I’ve got in my hands,” returned the owner of the ranch, calmly. “I don’t want any trouble. But I won’t stand for any of this nonsense about spirits, trouble and running away If any one of you tries to get a pony from that corral to-night, I’ll put a shell into him. Just keep that in your heads.”
The unexpected turn of affairs had amazed the other cowboys, and, forgetting all about the spectre, they watched the ranchman and his helper.
“You kinder got the drop on me, Sam,” growled the cowpuncher, “so I ’low I’ll do just as you say. Besides, I didn’t mean nothing anyhow.”
“All right, Deadshot. No hard feelings. Let’s go over to the cattle corral and see what this white thing is.”
“What, go chasing a ghostie?” gasped Sandy, the very thought of any man daring to investigate an apparition seeming akin to sacrilege to his superstitious mind.
“Sure. Why not? It won’t eat you.”
“Well, you can go if you like. But I ain’t particular,” returned the foreman. “That ain’t any part of my job.”
The necessity for any one to go, however, was suddenly obviated.
With an abruptness that was in keeping with its coming, the spectre vanished.
“Skulls and crossbones! Did you see that? It just floated away and we looking straight at it!” moaned Sandy.
The uncanniness of the apparition’s disappearance impressed even the ranch owner, and he was wondering as to the course he should
pursue to reassure his men, when Pinky whispered:
“Let’s go into the house before the blamed thing lights on us here!”
The thought that the mysterious spectre might appear face to face with them unnerved these men of the plains—men to whom danger in any tangible form was a delight—and they were on the point of dashing into their bunkhouse in utter panic when they were recalled to their normal selves.
Simultaneously with the disappearance of the spectre came a pitching and swaying among the cattle, followed instantly by terrified bellowing and the wildest confusion.
“The ghosties cast a spell on the cattle!” whimpered Sandy.
“Didn’t I say it meant trouble?” demanded Deadshot, exulting at the very evident fulfilment of his prophecy.
“Don’t stand there talking! Get your ponies and come on! We’ve got our work cut out for us! What it means I don’t know. But I do know, if we don’t steady those cattle down lively, they’ll stampede—and then we’ll have a merry time!” declared the ranchman, leading the way to the horse corral.
A moment, fearing that the animals had, indeed, been cursed, held the cowpunchers inactive. Then, their lifelong training on the plains coming to the fore, they followed their employer and were soon racing to the terror-stricken cattle.
Their fear increasing with every moment, the animals were plunging and lowing, the crashing of their horns sounding like the barking of pistols above the dull roar of the pounding of their hoofs.
“There must be wolves in amongst ’em!” yelled Sandy, riding up close to Bowser. “It’s breaking out all over the corral, not in just one place.”
“Well, whatever it is, we’ve got to quiet the cattle, or I won’t have one fit to ship away. Get busy, boys!”
But just as the ranchman finished speaking, Pinky let out a yell.
“Look, right in the middle of the corral! The ghostie again!” he cried.
Turning their eyes in the direction indicated, the horsemen beheld the same white form seemingly floating over the heads of the cattle.
“It must be the Old Nick himself!” moaned Sandy “There’ll be no quieting them critturs, Sam, with that thing hovering over them.”
Too well did the ranch owner realize this fact—and he also realized that unless he did something to remove the suggestion of the supernatural from the mysterious apparition, he would be unable to control either men or cattle.
Just what the thing was, he did not know. Yet, being a man of an unimaginative mind, he decided to find out.
Without saying a word of his intentions to his assistants, the owner of the Double Cross threw his rifle to his shoulder, took a hurried sight at the spectral form and pulled the trigger.
As the report rang out, the cowpunchers leaned forward in their saddles, watching the form intently.
To shoot at a ghost required more courage—in view of the traditions relating to ill-luck and curses such an act brought down upon the head of one so rash—than they possessed, and the cowboys fully expected some dire punishment to be instantly meted out to their boss.
For an intense moment, there was no apparent result from the bullet sent at the floating form.
Then a mocking laugh rent the air, and the white spectre vanished as completely as before!
“There’s more human than spook to that voice!” exclaimed Bowser. “Skulls and crossbones! I have it! It’s a raid!” cried Sandy.
CHAPTER III.
THE RANCHMAN’S VOW.
The ranchman’s assertion that the spectre was of human invention and their foreman’s declaration that it was but a ruse to cover the raiding of the cattle, produced an instantaneous reaction upon the cowpunchers.
“By my saddle, you’re right!” assented Deadshot. “That’s what the trouble is. Somebody’s trying to lift the cattle. I’ve seen ’em started on a stampede too many times not to recognize the symptoms. And here we’ve been afraid of a spook, giving the thieving cusses just the chance they planned. Say, Sam, I wouldn’t blame you for sacking the whole kit and boodle of us!” he added, his shame and contrition evident in his voice.
“Don’t waste time being sorry, get busy and help calm the cattle!” returned his employer. “You boys ride round ’em, and get ’em to milling, if you can. I want to keep my eyes open for another sight of Mr. Spook.”
Deeply chagrined to think they had allowed such a trick to be played on them, for they realized that when the story got out, the Double Cross outfit would be the laughing stock of all the other cowmen in the region, the cowboys set about their work with a will.
But the job was too big for them!
Even before they had ridden fifty yards along the barbed wire fence, they learned that their efforts would prove fruitless.
With crashing of horns, snorting and bellowing, a bunch of the cattle dashed out onto the plains, the outlines of their bodies just visible as they plunged along.
As though this breaking away from the herd had been prearranged, other bunches raced away into the darkness.
“The fence has been cut! The fence has been cut!” roared Sandy, at the top of his lungs.
“There’s no use trying to hold the critturs. Come on back to Sam and we’ll find out what he wants us to do,” returned Deadshot.
Aware that with the cattle dashing away in all points of the compass, it was an impossible task for them to hope to round them up or even to try to hold the ones that had not already gone, Pinky and Deadshot rode back with their foreman until they came to the ranch owner.
“What’s to do?” asked Pinky, after the fact that the barbed wire fence had been cut in several places had been reported to Bowser.
“Lay for Mr. Spook!” snapped the owner of the Double Cross. “I’ll give any one of you a thousand dollars for his dead body! We’ll each of us take one side of the corral and patrol it.”
“But we haven’t got out rifles, only our six shooters,” interrupted Deadshot.
“Then ride for all your worth to the bunkhouse and get them! While you’re there, just tell the missus what’s up. Then hurry back. And say, bring some torches,” he shouted, as the thought that lights might prove useful came to him, for his man was already racing for the guns.
“That’s some trick,” muttered Sandy, while they waited. “Wonder was there more than one of ’em?”
“Sure,” asserted Pinky. “There was probably three or four of ’em working on the fence, cutting the wires, while the other played ghostie!”
This opinion of the numerical strength of the Midnight Raiders, which found ready acceptance from Bowser and Sandy, was later to be proved false, however!
They were destined to learn that the daredevil cattle thief was a lone man!
“That being the case, aren’t we wasting time trying for a shot at them?” demanded the foreman. “They probably made their getaway along with that first bunch of cattle.”
“Maybe you’re right, Sandy,” assented the ranchman. “But I’ve got a sort of hunch that spook will show himself once more.”
And the owner of the Double Cross was right—though the method chosen by the spectral raider to disclose his whereabouts was different from that which Bowser expected!
Lingering at the houses only long enough to make a hurried report to the ranchman’s wife and then to get the rifles and torches, Deadshot was soon back with his companions.
“Here, everybody take a torch and hurry to your posts,” ordered Bowser, as his man rode up. “Sandy, you go to the West side; Pinky to the North; Deadshot to the East, and I’ll take the South. Keep, your eyes peeled—and remember the thousand dollars!”
Even as he spoke, the ranchman touched a match to his torch and when the flame flared up, it threw the four men into bold relief.
“How long shall we patrol?” asked Deadshot.
“Till I wave my torch in the air. Then ride to the house. We’ll get some grub and pick up the trail as soon as it gets daylight.”
Before any of the quartet could take up the task of patrolling the cut fence, however, the cattle thief made himself known. Bang! boomed a gun from the North.
In amazement, the cowboys wheeled.
And even as they did, a bullet whistled through the air, carrying the sombrero from Bowser’s head.
“Douse the torches! It gives ’em a line on us!” cried Deadshot in alarm, lest a second shell might find its man.
No urging did the ranch owner or any of his men need to make them obey. The shot had been too well aimed and had come too close to its mark for them to care to make targets of themselves for gunmen who could show such skill at night.
But, as they hurled the torches to the ground, the ranchman rose in his stirrups.
“You may have the drop on me now!” he roared, shaking his fist in wrathful impotence in the direction whence the shot had come. “But just wait! Nobody can steal Sam Bowser’s cattle, scare his men, shoot at him and get away with it!
“So long as there is a breath of life in my body, I’ll trail you—and I’ll run you to your lair, mark my word!”
The tone in which the owner of the Double Cross spoke, the dim outline of his tall figure as he swayed in his saddle, his arm beating the air in his fury, as he vowed revenge against the miscreants who had stampeded his cattle and tried to murder him, afforded an effect dramatic in the extreme.
Yet, scarcely had the last words left his lips than again a gun barked and a bullet “pinged” viciously as it sailed over his head!
“Man, dear, but this is too much!” hissed the ranchman. “After them, boys!
“We’ll hit their trail and stay on it till the last skulking coyote of ’em is furnishing food for the vultures!”
