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Prof. Marcus Nüsser, South Asia Institute, University of Heidelberg, Germany
Editorial Board
Prof. Eckart Ehlers, University of Bonn, Germany
Prof. Harjit Singh, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
Prof. Hermann Kreutzmann, Freie Universität Berlin, Germany
Prof. Ken Hewitt, Waterloo University, Canada
Prof. Urs Wiesmann, University of Bern, Switzerland
Prof. Sarah J. Halvorson, University of Montana, USA
Dr. Daanish Mustafa, King’s College London, UK
Aims and Scope
The series aims at fostering the discussion on the complex relationships between physical landscapes, natural resources, and their modification by human land use in various environments of Asia. It is widely acknowledged that human-environment interactions become increasingly important in area studies and development research, taking into account regional differences as well as bio-physical, socioeconomic and cultural particularities.
The book series seeks to explore theoretic and conceptual reflection on dynamic human-environment systems applying advanced methodology and innovative research perspectives. The main themes of the series cover urban and rural landscapes in Asia. Examples include topics such as land and forest degradation, glaciers in Asia, mountain environments, dams in Asia, medical geography, vulnerability and mitigation strategies, natural hazards and risk management concepts, environmental change, impacts studies and consequences for local communities. The relevant themes of the series are mainly focused on geographical research perspectives of area studies, however there is scope for interdisciplinary contributions.
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8560
Bandyopadhyay • Sunil Kumar De
Human Interference on River Health
A Study on the Haora River, Tripura, India
Shreya
Shreya Bandyopadhyay Department of Geography
Adamas University Kolkata, West Bengal, India
Sunil Kumar De Department of Geography North-Eastern Hill University Shillong, Meghalaya, India
ISSN 1879-7180
ISSN 1879-7199 (electronic)
Advances in Asian Human-Environmental Research
ISBN 978-3-319-41017-3 ISBN 978-3-319-41018-0 (eBook)
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made.
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The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland
Dedicated to the souls lost in different natural hazards
Foreword
River health is a new discipline in geomorphology and hydrology. There is hardly any book on the subject excepting a few research papers. As geomorphologists, we never lose sight of human life so that our subject falls within the field of applied geomorphology. This book offers a comprehensive overview of the knowledge necessary for water management in the best interest of societies. Human health is closely related to the health of rivers humans depend on for a living.
Rivers are vital for human life. They supply freshwater for domestic as well as agricultural and industrial uses, produce fertile floodplains, and are used as an important mode of inland communication. Thus, we should take necessary steps to preserve the health of rivers.
The present book entitled Human Interference on River Health: A Study on the Haora River, Tripura, India, authored by Shreya Bandyopadhyay and Sunil Kumar De, is definitely a breakthrough on the subject as well as in the area of study. The book is well designed in 11 chapters, covering almost all parameters of river health. The most significant aspect of the book is that the authors have applied the concept of river health to a river flowing through two neighboring countries, India and Bangladesh. I hope that this work will encourage geomorphologists and hydrologists to study the health condition of all the major rivers of the world.
In fine, I believe that the book will open new perspectives on the traditional studies of rivers and will be helpful to geomorphologists, hydrologists, environmentalists, and planners.
President: International Association
Prof. Eric Fouache of Geomorphologists (IAG/AIG)
Vice Chancellor: Paris Sorbonne
University Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi, UAE
Preface
Traditionally the term ‘river health’ is depended solely on the measurement of physical, chemical and some biological characteristics of the river. It is usually applied to the assessment of river condition and often found as analogous to human health. River health is exclusively a new branch both in geomorphology and hydrology as well as in environmental science. In the present book, the authors tried to define the term ‘river health’ and do an exhaustive study on the Haora River, which is flowing between two countries, India and Bangladesh.
The Haora River is treated as the lifeline of Agartala, the capital city of Tripura. Originating from the Baramura Hills, the river debouches onto the rolling plain at Chandrasadhubari near the NH 44. Thousands of people between Chandrasadhubari and the boundary of Bangladesh have been settled along the riverbank and directly dependent on the river. Since 1950, the ever-growing population of the Haora River basin is exerting tremendous pressure on the Haora River. Several anthropogenic activities which are going on along the river are increasing the sedimentation and the pollution problem of the river and leading the Haora River to its dying phase. Therefore, the present study has been undertaken to find out the problems related to the overall health of the Haora River and to bring out some possible suggestions for restoring ecological balance and geopolitical stability of this strategically important part of the country.
The present book is a complete reference on river health, which covers almost all aspects of the subject. Moreover, a low-cost and effective method has been introduced in the book on estimating BEVZ (bank erosion vulnerability zonation).
We hope and believe that the book will be beneficial for all the researchers and students of fluvial geomorphology, hydrology and environmental science and at the same it will serve the purpose of the planners and administrators to take proper necessary measures to save any river.
First and foremost we are thankful to Prof. D. K. Nayak, Dean, School of Human and Environmental Sciences, North-Eastern Hill University to encourage us to work on River Health, which is definitely a branch of Geomorphology and Hydrology. We are thankful to the Chief Minister of Tripura Sri Manik Sarkar, Former Vice
Chancellor of Tripura University Prof. Arunodoy Saha, present Vice Chancellor of Tripura University Prof. Anajan Kumar Ghosh, Faculty Members and Research Scholars of the Department of Geography and Disaster Management, Tripura University and different Government and Non-government officials for their encouragement, help and cooperation in completing the present work. We would also like to thank to the Tripura State Pollution Control Board, specially Prof. Mihir Deb, Chairman, for their co-operation in collecting and testing the water samples of different places along the Haora River and also from different time periods.
We are also thankful to Prof. Marcus Nüsser of the Department of Geography, South Asia Institute, Heidelberg University, Germany for reviewing the book thoroughly and given suggestions for upgrading the work.
Last but not the least, we are indebted to the individuals of the Springer Publishing Company for extending their help and cooperation in publishing the book.
Kolkata, India Shreya Bandyopadhyay Shillong, India Sunil Kumar De
5.2.3
5.2.7
6
5.3
6.1.1
6.1.2
6.1.5
6.2
List of Figures
Fig. 2.1
Fig. 2.2
Fig. 2.3
Fig. 2.4
division of the Haora River
elevation model (DEM) of the Haora River basin
map of the Haora River basin
Fig. 2.5 Long profile of the Haora River showing its different courses of flow ................................................................................
Fig. 2.6a Map showing major tectonic elements in and around the Bengal basin including Tripura. Hinge zone demarcates the deeper basin from the Indian platform area
Fig. 2.6b Schematic cross section of the Bengal basin including Tripura fold belt; E–W, through the northern Chittagong Hill region ....................................................................
Fig. 2.7
Fig. 2.8 Yearly rainfall distribution and monthly temperature graphs of the Haora River
Fig.
Fig.
Fig. 2.11
Fig. 2.12
Fig. 2.13
Fig. 2.14
map depicting the forest cover of the Haora River basin
Fig. 2.15 Land cover, land use map of the Haora River basin
Fig. 2.16 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-1 at 300 m downstream from the confluence of the Haora and Bardwal rivers (January–April, 2010–2012)
Fig. 2.17 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-2 at the confluence of the Haora and the Champa rivers, Champaknagar (January–April, 2010–2012)
Fig. 2.18 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-3 at 30.5 m downstream from the Haora and Champa rivers confluence (January–April, 2010–2012) ..............................
Fig. 2.19 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-4 at 60 m upstream from the Champaknagar Bazar (January–April, 2010–2012)...........................................................
Fig. 2.20 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-5 at 60 m downstream from the Champaknagar Bazar (January–April, 2010–2012)...........................................................
Fig. 2.21 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-6 at Purba Debendra Nagar (very close to NH44) (January–April, 2010–2012)...........................................................
Fig. 2.22 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-7 near Dilona Petrol Pump (very close to NH44) (January–April, 2010–2012)...........................................................
Fig. 2.23 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-8 near the confluence of the Donaigang and the Haora rivers (January–April, 2010–2012)...........................................................
Fig. 2.24 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-9 at 600 m downstream from the Haora River and Donaigang confluence (January–April, 2010–2012) ........................................
Fig. 2.25 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-10 near the confluence of Sishima River with the Haora River (January–April, 2010–2012)...........................................................
Fig. 2.26 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-11 at 350 m downstream from the Haora and Sishima River confluence (January–April, 2010–2012)...............................
Fig. 2.27 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-12 at 600 m downstream from the Haora and Sishima River confluence (January–April, 2010–2012)...............................
Fig. 2.28 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-13 at 1 km north to Mohanpur Bazar (behind the grocery shop of Biplab Debnath) (January–April, 2010–2012) ..................
Fig. 2.29 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-14 at 30 m downstream from the cross section of the Mohanpur Bazar (January–April, 2010–2012) ................................................
Fig. 2.30 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-15 near the Bridhhanagar Bazar ..........................................................
Fig. 2.31 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-16 at the confluence of the Ghoramara Chara and the Haora River (January–April, 2010–2012) .................................................
30
31
32
33
33
34
35
35
36
36
37
38
38
39
Fig. 2.32 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-17 at 120 upstream from the Khairpur Bridge (January–April, 2010–2012)........................................................... 40
Fig. 2.33 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-18 at the confluence of the Deota Chara and the Haora River (January–April, 2010–2012) .................................................
Fig. 2.34 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-19 near Reshambagan ..........................................................................
Fig. 2.35 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-20 at 5 m downstream from Jogendranagar Bridge (College Tilla) (January–April, 2010–2012) ..................................
Fig. 2.36 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-21 at 300 m upstream from Pratapgarh wooden bridge (January–April, 2010–2012)...........................................................
Fig. 2.37 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-22 at 5 m downstream from the Haora River and Bongeswar River confluence (January–April, 2010–2012)...............................
Fig. 2.38 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-23 near the Rajnagar water intake point ......................................................
Fig. 2.39 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-24 at few km upstream from the Indo-Bangladesh border in Rajnagar (January–April, 2010–2012) .......................................
Fig. 3.1 DEM of the Haora River basin .......................................................
Fig. 3.2 (a) Slope length and (b) slope steepness map of the Haora River basin .................................................................
Fig. 3.3 (a) NDVI map and (b) land cover–land use map of the Haora River basin .................................................................
Fig. 4.1 Growth of population in Sadar Subdivision during 1961–2011 ...........................................................................
Fig. 4.2 Total population growth within the Haora River basin during 1981–2011 .................................................................
Fig. 4.3 Decadal growth of population within the basin during 1981–2011 ...........................................................................
Fig. 4.4 Population density within Haora River basin during 1981–2011 ...........................................................................
Fig. 4.5 Decadal growth of population density within the basin during 1981–2011 ...........................................................
Fig. 4.6 Growth of SC populations to total populations within Haora River basin during 1981–2011.................................. 66
Fig. 4.7 Decadal growth of SC population within the basin during 1981–2011 ........................................................................... 66
Fig. 4.8 Growth of ST populations to total populations within the basin during 1981–2011 ........................................................... 67
Fig. 4.9 Decadal growth of ST population within the basin during 1981–2011 ........................................................................... 67
Fig. 4.10 Growth of household within the Haora River basin during 1981–2011 ........................................................................... 68
Fig. 4.11 “Decadal growth of household” within the basin during 1981–2011 ...........................................................................
Fig. 4.12 Growth of main workers within the basin during 1981–2011 ......................................................................................
Fig. 4.13 Growth of workers in different economic sectors within the basin...............................................................................
Fig. 4.14 Growth of marginal workers within the basin during 1981–2011 ........................................................................... 71
Fig. 4.15 Growth of non-workers within the Haora River basin during 1981–2011 ................................................................. 71
Fig. 4.16 Growth of agricultural workers within the Haora River basin during 1981–2001........................................................ 72
Fig. 4.17 Growth of industrial workers within the basin during 1981–2011 ........................................................................... 72
Fig. 5.1 Course changes of the Haora River during the period of 1932–2005 ................................................................. 76
Fig. 5.2 Location of Katakhal and the then Haora River basin .................... 77
Fig. 5.3 Trend of shifting the Haora River course near the confluence between 1932 and 2005. Numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 indicate the cut-offs formed in different periods .................. 78
Fig. 5.4 Changing condition of the Katakhal between 1932 and 2005. Major fault lines in the study area are shown in the 1932 map .............................................................................. 80
Fig. 5.5 Temporal changes of the confluences of the Haora and Katakhal rivers. Numbers 1, 2 and 3 (in the excerpts of Google Images) indicate the remnants of earlier course as well as earlier confluence of both of the rivers ...............
Fig. 5.6 (a) The Katakhal course. (b) Present status of the Katakhal–Deota Chara link near Chandrapur Bus stand (flag symbol represents the GPS points taken along the link canal during field survey). The upper photograph indicates that the Haora–Katakhal link has been converted into agricultural field, and the lower photograph shows the present condition of the remaining part of the Haora–Katakhal link .......................................................................
80
81
Fig. 5.7 Change in basin area of the Haora River due to detachment of the Katakhal ............................................................................... 82
Fig. 5.8 Long profiles of the Haora and the Katakhal rivers (2005) ............
Fig. 5.9 Interfluvial zone with the stretch of elevated relief between the Haora, the Katakhal and the Titas rivers near the confluence. AB, CD, EF and GH are the cross section drawn on Google Images between the Titas, Haora and Katakhal rivers to show the microrelief altitudinal variations .......................................................................
83
84
Fig. 5.10 Proposed model of tectonic changes that lead to the changes in courses of the Haora and the Katakhal rivers ............................. 86
Fig. 5.11 Changing course of the Haora River from College Tilla up to Bangladesh border......................................................... 87
Fig. 5.12 Evidences of the left of course of the Haora River near Bangladesh border .................................................................. 87
Fig. 5.13 Changing course of Haora River in between the Donaigang and Ghoramara Chara confluences .................................................
Fig. 6.1 Location of different types of industries/manufacturing units within the Haora River basin .................................................
Fig. 6.2 Location of brickfields within the Haora River basin .....................
Fig. 6.3 Increasing number of brickfields in Haora River basin (1971–2010) ...................................................................................
Fig. 6.4 Area of brick kiln in different brickfields .......................................
Fig. 6.5 Number of local and migrated workers in different brickfields
Fig. 6.6 Production (number in lakh) of bricks in different brickfields .......................................................................................
Fig. 6.7 Raw materials used by different brickfields
Fig. 6.8 Location of brickfields and cut-off lands
Fig. 6.9 Location of brickfields and agricultural land within the Haora River basin .....................................................................
Fig. 6.10 Rate of scouring and filling of the riverbed along the cross sections during 2010–2012 ..............................................
Fig. 6.11 Sequential changes within the riverbed caused by unscientific quarrying of sand ...................................................
Fig. 6.12 Location of RBI brickfield and the places of sediment
Fig. 6.13 (a) Superimposed map showing the places of sequential changes noticed in Haora River course, (b) changes of Haora River course near brickfield areas ................................... 104
Fig. 6.14 Location of automobile–chemical industries within Haora River basin ...........................................................................
Fig. 6.15 Location of hotel–restaurant–refrigerator industries within Haora River basin ................................................................
Fig. 6.16 Increase of agricultural land within the Haora River basin ............
Fig. 6.17 Area under shifting cultivation within the Haora River basin
Fig. 7.1 Location of the slums–rural clusters along the Haora River within Indian territory ...........................................................
Fig. 7.2 Decadal growth of two major slums within Haora River basin ...... 113
Fig. 7.3 Distribution of four types of latrines along the Haora River .......... 114
Fig. 7.4 Distribution of latrine density and the solid waste density along the Haora River ........................................................ 115
Fig. 7.5 Distribution of major drains connecting with the Haora River ...............................................................................
Fig. 7.6 Distribution of domestic outlets (blockwise)..................................
Fig. 7.7 Major garbage disposal sites along the Haora River ......................
Fig. 7.8 Temporal changes in the Haora River course due to garbage disposal in Bridhhanagar ..............................................
Fig. 7.9 Distribution maps of different types of use of river water by the dwellers ......................................................................
Fig. 8.1 (a) Average annual rainfall distribution map. (b) Rainfall erosivity map of the Haora River basin ..........................................
Fig. 8.2 (a) Soil taxonomy map. (b) Soil erodibility map of the Haora River basin .................................................................
Fig. 8.3 Topographical factor of the Haora River basin ...............................
Fig. 8.4 C factor map of the Haora River basin ...........................................
Fig. 8.5 Potential soil loss map of the Haora River basin
Fig. 8.6 Actual soil loss map of the Haora River basin
Fig. 8.7 A coefficient map of the Haora River basin ...................................
Fig. 8.8 V coefficient map of the Haora River basin ...................................
Fig. 8.9 Overland flow (L coefficient) map of the Haora River basin ......................................................................................
Fig. 8.10 Travel time (t) coefficient map of the Haora River basin ...............
Fig. 8.11 Sediment delivery ratio (Dr coefficient) map of the Haora River basin .................................................................
Fig. 8.12 Sediment yield map of the Haora River basin ................................
Fig. 8.13 (a) Discharge graph. (b) Correlation graph of discharge and sediment load of the Haora River ............................................
Fig. 8.14
Fig. 8.15 Graph showing deviation between observed and estimated sediment yield rates .................................................
Fig. 9.1 Location map of the study area. Blue lines are showing the cross sections along the Haora River for the measurement of erosion in BEHI–NBS method and in field data ........................
Fig. 9.2 Bar graphs of four different parameters of BEHI model ................
Fig. 9.3 Graphs showing numbers of spots are under different BEHI and NBS classes ...................................................................
Fig. 9.4 Scattered diagrams for calculating bank erosion for both banks (BEHI model) .........................................................
Fig. 9.5 Graphs of erosion and deposition of the river banks and bed within 3 years time period.................................................
Fig. 9.6 Superimposed profiles for 3 consecutive years of three sections ..............................................................................
Fig. 9.7
Fig. 9.8
Classified bank slope map of the Haora River with the graph showing the total lengths of banks under different categories. (a) and (b) the procedure of measuring the bank slope. [1], [2] and [3] some parts of the river in large scale ...................................................................................
Classified meander index map of the Haora River with the graph, showing the bank length in different categories. (a) and (b) the technique of measuring the meander value from the Google Images. [1], [2] and [3] some parts of the river in large scale ..............................................
Fig. 9.9 Longitudinal river gradient map of the Haora River basin with the graph, showing the lengths under different categories. (a) and (b) the basic formula of measuring the gradient value from the DEM or Google Images. [1], [2] and [3] some parts of the river in large scale......................
Fig. 9.10 A soil taxonomy map of the Haora River basin. In this map 1 laterite, 2 fine loamy typic dystrochrepts/paleudults, 3 fine loamy umbric/oxic dystrochrepts, 4 fine loamy umbric/typic dystrochrepts, 5 fine loamy umbric dystrochrepts, 6 fine loamy typic kandiudults, 7 fine loamy typic dystrochrepts, 8 fine loamy typic epiaquepts, 9 coarse loamy typic dystrochrepts, 10 fine loamy typic/over-sandy typic epiaquepts, 11 fine loamy typic haplumbrepts, 12 fine typic dystrochrepts. (b) soil erodibility map of the Haora River along with the graph indicating the total bank length in different categories. [1], [2] and [3] some parts of the river bank in large scale ..................................................................
Fig. 9.11 Vegetation cover map of the Haora River basin with the graph, showing bank length under different categories. (a) and (b) are the pictorial evidences of different types of vegetation cover noticed along the river. [1], [2] and [3] some parts of the river in large scale ..................................
Fig. 9.12 (a) Multi-buffer zonation map of six individual anthropogenic activities, going on along the Haora River. (b) Anthropogenic impact map of the Haora River bank along with the graph showing total lengths in individual parameters. (a), (b), (c), (d) and (e) the major human activities, i.e. sand quarrying, road or causeway, brickfields, bridges and tilla cutting, noticed along the river .........................................
Fig. 9.13 (a) Final bank erosion vulnerability zonation (BEVZ) mapping along with the graph showing bank length in individual categories. (b) Zone-wise distribution of BEVZ map .................................................................................
154
155
156
157
158
159
161
Fig. 9.14 Cross section number ten where proposed method (BEVZ) is matching with field data for the right bank of the river .............................................................................. 163
Fig. 9.15 Cross section number 26, where for the left bank BEHI–NBS model is matching with the field data and the proposed method is revealed as incorrect .......................... 163
Fig. 10.1 Location of sampling sites along the Haora River for water quality testing .................................................................. 170
Fig. 10.2 Status of physical components of the water quality of the Haora River .......................................................................... 174
Fig. 10.3 Chemical components of water quality of the Haora River ........... 176
Fig. 10.4 Biological components of water quality of the Haora River .......... 178
Fig. 11.1 Intense flood-prone areas within the Haora River basin ................. 184
Fig. 11.2 Perception about frequency of fever along the Haora River........... 187
Fig. 11.3 Perception about frequency of stomach problem along the Haora River ..................................................................... 188
Fig. 11.4 Perception about frequency of skin problem along the Haora River ..................................................................... 189
Fig. 11.5 Risk of infected diseases along the banks of the Haora River ........ 190
List of Plates
Plate 6.1 Evidences of step-by-step sequential degradations of tilla lands ................................................................................... 99
Plate 6.2 Field photographs showing the use of riverbed as transporting road ....................................................................... 100
Plate 6.3 Field photographs showing different methods of sand collection from the Haora River ....................................... 101
Plate 6.4 Evidence of river course change near Debendra Nagar (2010, 2011 & 2012) .......................................................... 103
Plate 6.5 Photographs of sediment sample collected from the field of Haora River ................................................................. 104
Plate 6.6 Evidences of pollutant waste coming out from the brickfields ................................................................................ 105
Plate 6.7 Major types of crops: (a) paddy, (b) vegetables, (c) flowers, practised along the river ............................................. 108
Plate 8.1 Evidences of sedimentation in different spots along the Haora River.............................................................................. 136
Plate 9.1 Evidence of erosion in section 1 along the right bank of the Haora River ......................................................................... 149
Plate 9.2 High risk of erosion along the right bank in section 7 as it possesses cliff slope ............................................................... 150
Plate 9.3 Photos of extreme bank erosion along the Haora River marked by the BEVZ method ........................................................ 164
Plate 10.1 Major source of TSS and TDS concentration in the Haora River water. (a) Rapid soil erosion. (b) Residue of plant and animal dead bodies within the river ........................................ 173
Plate 10.2 Sources of major pollutants along the Haora River. (a) Brickfield wastes, (b) industrial dumping, (c) market garbage, (d) drain outlets, (e) organic residues, (f) causeway, (g) idle emersion, (h) flow of excreta from Kachha latrine, (i) wastages from cremation ground .................... 179
Plate 11.1 Temporary damage of wooden bridge in Joynagar during the 2013 monsoon .............................................................. 185
Plate 11.2 Temporary degradation of causeway, located across the Haora River in Champaknagar ................................................ 185
Plate 11.3 Loss of life and properties due to bank failures, (a) attempt for bank protection, (b) uprooting of trees, (c) damage to National Highway, (d) loss of land, (e) damage to tea garden and (f) damage of roads ........................ 186
Plate 11.4 (1a, b) bank stabilising by rounding up the bend and by seeding herbaceous vegetation and shrubs; (2a, b) removal of sediment and deepening the channel; (3a, b) evidence of widening erosion in the downstream of culvert and the condition after taking necessary protection ........................................................... 191
List of Tables
Table
Table 6.1 Water quality analysis of three places along the Haora River
Table 7.1 Water quality analysis of the Haora River along the slum and rural clusters.............................................................
Table 8.1
Table
Table 9.1
Table 9.2 Assigned index value for all the individual parameters to calculate BEHI ..........................................................................
Table 9.3
Table 9.4 Comparison between BEHI model and field generated
Table 9.5 Index value of six parameters for estimating BEVZ method
Table 9.6
Table 9.7 Comparison of erosional values between the BEHI–NBS and proposed methods ...................................................................
Chapter 1 Introduction
Abstract River health is a new branch of geomorphology and hydrology. This chapter mainly deals with the definition of the term, past works as well as the problem related to the present work. River health may be defined as the condition of the anatomy and physiology of any river. Anatomy of any river mainly includes the physical condition of the river, whereas the physiology of any river includes the chemical and biological condition of the river. Physical condition of the river further includes the changing hydrological behaviour of the river, channel shifting and migration, river course change, flood and river bank erosion and related phenomena. On the other hand, physiological condition of the river includes the chemical and biological properties of the river water.
Keywords River health • Anatomy and physiology of river • Physical • Chemical and biological properties of river
1.1 River Health
Traditionally the term ‘river health’ (Richard et al. 1999) depends solely on the measurement of physical, chemical and some biological characteristics of the river (Gore 1985; Boon et al. 1992; Brookes and Shields 1996). It is usually applied to the assessment of river condition and often found as analogous to human health. Physical characteristics of river include the fluvial geomorphology and surface hydrology of a river basin, which control the structure and dynamics of river channel. Changes in flow and sediment regimes following catchment modification can markedly alter the physical nature of the channel. River channel can function in unnatural ways (Schumm 1988; Gurnell and Petts 1995). Moreover the chemical indicators (mostly of water quality) are the most commonly used for detecting the ‘river health’ (Hart et al. 1999; Maher et al. 1999).
Hynes (1975) argued that ‘in every respect the valley rules the stream’, where catchment character influences a river by large-scale controls on hydrology, sediment delivery and chemistry (Allan and Johnson 1997). Rivers are among the most intensively human-influenced ecosystems on the earth. They serve for transportation, water supply, power generation and also as a source of food as well as sinks for
waste products. As a result, in highly industrialised countries and in some developing countries, many rivers are now severely unhealthy. Most common impacts are channel and bank modifications (i.e. canalisation for agricultural purposes, bank protection, development of slums), flow regulation and fragmentation (i.e. reservoirs for water supply, diversion for irrigation and industrial purposes), unscientific collection of soil and sediments (e.g. sand quarrying from the riverbed and bank for industrial as well as domestic purpose) and chemical pollution (e.g. heavy metals, pesticides, fertilisers) and organic pollution (e.g. domestic and cattle-raising waste water). All these alterations have led to an extensive ecological degradation of these rivers, making them no longer sustainable in providing goods and services (e.g. decline in water quality and availability, intense flooding) (Poff et al. 1997). Norris and Thoms (1999) defined the term river from biological point of view. According to them the term ‘river health’, applied to the assessment of river condition, is often seen as being analogous with human health, giving many a sense of understanding. Unfortunately, the meaning of ‘river health’ remains obscure. It is not clear what aspects of river health sets of ecosystem-level indicators actually identify, nor how physical, chemical and biological characteristics may be integrated into measures rather than just observations of cause and effect.
Certainly it is argued that if the river side habitat was in poor condition, the health of the stream would be affected adversely (Plafkin et al. 1989; Brookes and Shields 1996). It shows that if we have an unhealthy catchment or valley, we would have an unhealthy stream. Similarly, this assessment can also do in reverse: a stream may be assessed as being unhealthy and then it is concluded that the catchment is unhealthy (Sweeney 1992; Osborne and Kovacic 1993).
In a nutshell, river health may be defined as the condition of the anatomy and physiology of any river. Anatomy of any river mainly includes the physical condition of the river, whereas the physiology of any river includes the chemical and biological condition of the river. Physical condition of the river further includes the changing hydrological behaviour of the river, channel shifting and migration, river course change, flood and river bank erosion and related phenomena. On the other hand, physiological condition of the river includes the chemical and biological properties of the river water. Thus, river health is a subject, which combines fluvial geomorphology, river hydrology and environmental pollution. It is worth mentioning that all of the aforesaid conditions of the river health may be changed due to human intervention.
1.2 The Problem
The river is treated as the lifeline of Agartala, the Capital City of Tripura. Originating from the Baramura Hill, the river debouches onto the rolling plain at Chandrasadhubari near the NH 44. Thousands of people between Chandrasadhubari and the boundary of Bangladesh have been settled along the river bank and directly dependent on the
river. Moreover, about 60 % of population of Agartala City is directly or indirectly dependent on the river for drinking water and other domestic purposes.
Previous records show that the river bank was almost uninhabited and the population of the whole basin was also less. During that period, most part of the upper catchment of the river was densely covered with vegetation without any human intervention. Since the partition of India and East Pakistan (presently Bangladesh), and particularly from 1950, huge number of people immigrated to the state from East Pakistan (Bangladesh) as refugee. Most of those immigrants were spread over the whole basin, and the weaker section (below poverty line) of such population settled along the river and thereby increased the pressure on the river enormously. Moreover, with the increasing population, medium- and small-scale industries have also emerged within the Haora River basin. The workers of such industries started to commit nuisances and throw all types of solid wastes along the river bank. All of these activities affected the quality of river water and the pollution level of water also started to increase.
Vulnerable geological structure, unconsolidated soil layers and heavy and concentrated rainfall along with deforestation, cutting of uplands (locally called tilla) and unscientific and unplanned usage of land have led to the establishment of a vicious cycle of denudation. All these eroded materials are carried down the lower reach of the Haora River during monsoon period and created a fluctuating nature of river physiology through the enhancement of scouring and filling. In addition to that, artificial deposit of solid waste along the river bank supplies some extra amount of sediment load to the river. The river sometimes fails to carry these excess sediment loads and deposits them in different sections of its lower reach. As a result, the depth as well as the cross-sectional area of the river valley decreases that fails to carry excess amount of unusual monsoonal discharge and allows water to spill causing floods ruining the lives and properties of the local inhabitants.
Moreover, in some places, people hinder the natural flow of the river by constructing causeways, putting cement bags across the river for water storage and also cultivating the dry riverbed during lean season, through which the natural dynamics of the river is being changed. If immediate necessary measures are not taken, the whole area will suffer from the scarcity of drinking water and flood hazard during monsoon period. Therefore, the present study has been undertaken to find out the problems related to the overall health of the Haora River and to bring out some possible suggestions for restoring ecological balance and geopolitical stability of this strategically important part of the country.
For an in-depth study of the river health, the Haora River from the state of Tripura (NE India) has been taken into consideration under the following points:
• To identify the nature and extent of population change within the basin along the river up to the floodplain boundaries
• To detect the nature of changing course of the Haora River and probable causes behind it
• To assess anthropogenic impact on the river in terms of agricultural growth, industrialisation and expansion of slums
• To analyse the pollution status of river water
• To estimate the amount of soil loss contributing to augmented sediment load within the channel with the help of RUSLE method
• To analyse the nature and extent of bank erosion along the Haora River
1.3 Past Works
1.3.1
Earlier Published Works on Different Issues Related to the Haora River
Many research works have been carried out on several topics like population and urban growth, sedimentation and pollution on the Haora River both nationally and internationally.
Different government and non-government agencies have prepared reports on the inventory about the present status of the water quality of Haora River near Agartala town by analysing the impact of slum dwellers and urban growth on the river near Agartala; urban infrastructure and service improvement including the rehabilitation, improvement and expansion of (i) water supplies, (ii) sewerage and sanitation and (iii) solid waste management for the Agartala city. Most of the reports are kept for departmental use only and not available for public use. Tripura State Pollution Control Board (2004) prepared a detailed study on pollution status of the Haora River.
Datta et al. (2008) used distributed hydrological modelling to quantify the future water availability as well as the importance of Haora River basin and to formulate the water quality management. The Tripura State Pollution Control Board has published the detailed monograph of De (2012) on the ‘Geoenvironmental status of Haora River’. The monograph was prepared on the basis of an intensive study on the Haora River in order to save the river from its deterioration and was the premier report of its kind on the river. Bhattacharyya et al. (2007) prepared a model for estimating the soil loss and its impact on crop productivity for the entire Tripura.
1.3.2 Human Population Growth and Its Impact on the River Basin
Anthropogenic activity plays an important role in the modification of environment. With the rapid development of technology, man is reforming landforms for fulfilling their need and greed. This reformation of topography has both positive and negative impacts on the environment. Several anthropogenic activities are responsible for changing the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of any river, but most
of the earlier works are mainly concentrated on the human impacts on the chemical and biological properties of the river. Very few works have been done on the physical health of the river.
Keith et al. (2013) prepared a survey on the demand of water resource of the growing population within the Nile Valley. Some other works of Swain (1997, 2002) and Tadesse (2004) have also emphasised on the demand of population on the same area. On the same issue, but on other rivers have been conducted by Pitchammal et al. (2009). Yeasmin and Khan (2012) published a detailed report on the impact brick industries within a river basin.
Impact of anthropogenic activity on river is an important issue, but there is hardly any generalised work on it. Most of the works have been carried out on the basis of one or two individual parameters, e.g. Nawa and Frissell (1993), Langer (2003) and Salahuddin (2009) have published papers on the impact of sand mining in the river and also recommend best possible alternative ways for scientific sand quarrying. Michael and Layher (1998) and Kori and Mathada (2012) have worked on the impact of sand mining in altering land use and habitat degradation of the riparian environment.
Similarly very few works have been published internationally on the impact of causeways on river (e.g. Percy 2008). The effect on bridges on the river system is an important issue worldwide (Hencock 2002). Heidarnejad et al. (2010) accounted for a detailed engineering report on the flow pattern and mechanisms of unnatural riverbed scouring around the bridge piers. Coleman and Melville (2001) also provide a detailed work on the mechanism of scouring and bridge failure. The works on related field, such as the nature of gravel scouring around the bridge on different rivers, and the works of Laursen (1960), Ettema (1980), Klaassen and Vermeer (1988a) and Watson (1990) are notable.
Impact of bridge piers in the river system is an emerging issue in the current research. The works of Breusers et al. (1977), Heidarnejad et al. (2010) and Shen and Schneider (1969) are mainly based on the mechanism of scouring of river around the bridge piers and the impact of this on the river. Biswas (2010) and Seiyaboh et al. (2013) have given more emphasis on the environmental impact of bridge piers on the river.
Saviour (2012) has prepared a detailed report on the impact of sand mining on the environment. A field analysis on the impact of sand mining on the natural dynamics of the Padma River has been done by Singh et al. (2007). Suvendu (2013) has prepared a report on the impact of four causeways on the temporal change in the cross section, course and depositional pattern of the Kunur River, West Bengal. Impact of bridge piers has also been an important issue in India (Dey 1999; Kumar et al. 1999).
Large river systems throughout the planet have been dramatically transformed due to river control projects such as large dams and embankments. Unlike other major human impacts like anthropogenic climate change, the alteration of river systems has been deliberate and planned by a small, powerful set of experts (Baghel 2014). The concept of large-scale transformation of fluvial environments into technological hydroscapes originated in the West, widespread construction of large
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Title: Suorin tie paras Yksinäytöksinen ilveily
Author: August von Kotzebue
Release date: April 17, 2024 [eBook #73412]
Language: Finnish
Original publication: Kuopio: U. W. Telén & Co, 1910
Credits: Tapio Riikonen *** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SUORIN TIE PARAS ***
Yksinäytöksinen ilveily
Kirj.
A. von Kotzebue
Suomennos
Kuopiossa, U. W. Telén & Co, 1910.
HENKILÖT:
Majuri von Murten. Amalia, nuori papin leski. Fredrik Wahl | pappeja. Elias Krumm | Rouva Äyriäinen, emännöitsijä. Jaakko, vahtimestari. Koulumestari.
Näytelmä tapahtuu Majurin maatilalla.
Näyttämö: huone majurin talossa.
ENSIMMÄINEN KOHTAUS.
Majuri (yksinänsä pitäen avattua kirjettä kädessään). Tänään siis tulee tänne kaksi pappia, jotka molemmat hakevat tuota avonaista kirkkoherran paikkaa — ja minä olen kirkon patruuna tässä pitäjässä — minun tulee ratkaista asia — mutta, Jumala nähköön, jospa sitä vähänkään ymmärtäisin! Saatan hyvin arvostella, onko kuski kunnon tavalla ruokkinut hevoset ja jahtimies koirat, mutta yli ymmärryksen käy kysymys, onko pappi osannut talonpojilleni hankkia voimallista sielunruokaa. Mutta maltappas; minä heitänkin sen seikan Amalian ratkaistavaksi; tutkikoon hän ja valitkoon; hänellä on siinä suhteessa terävämpi äly.
TOINEN KOHTAUS.
Majuri. Amalia.
Amalia. Hyvää huomenta, herra majuri!
Majuri. Herra majuri? Kuinka usein pitää minun teille muistuttaa, etten minä voi kuulla tuota majurin nimitystä teidän suustanne. Kutsukaa minua isäksi; isäksihän te mies-vainajatannekin kutsuitte.
Amalia. Hän olikin paljon vanhempi minua.
Majuri. Yli neljänkymmenen vuoden. No, mutta paljonkos minulta sitten siihen puuttuu? Että kunnon vanhuksen piti kuolla, se, tyttäreni, yhä vielä sydäntäni surettaa.
Amalia. Tosiaan; hän onkin ansainnut säilyä ystäviensä muistissa.
Majuri. Mutta seurakunta tarvitsee uuden papin.
Amalia. Sehän on ihan luonnollista.
Majuri. Ja leski uuden miehen.
Amalia. Se ei ole tarpeen.
Majuri. Teidän iässänne —
Amalia. Pyydän, isäkulta, jättäkää se siksensä!
Majuri Niin, Amalia, näiden viiden vuoden kuluessa olette käynyt minulle yhä rakkaammaksi, ja kun ajattelen, että joskus taasen voitte jättää minut, pistää se sydämeeni, Jumala nähköön.
Amalia. Pysyn mielelläni luonanne, jos vaan tahdotte minut pitää.
Majuri. Pitää? Varsin mielelläni.' Mutta mitähän siitäkin viimein tulee? Kuinka kauan luulette enää kestävän, ennenkuin minäkin lähden täältä isieni luo, ja niin olisitte uhrannut elämänne ihanimman ajan vanhanpojan hyväksi. Sitä en voi ottaa tunnolleni. Siis — ellette tahdo minua jättää, on teidän meneminen uudelle kirkkoherralle.
Amalia. Ei suinkaan, herra majuri —
Majuri. Kyllä vaan, rouva pastorska. Kaksi kunnon miestä on ilmoittautunut hakijoiksi; valitsemisen jätän teille.
Majuri. En ensinkään, sillä olen täydellisesti vakuutettu siitä, että ymmärrätte paremmin semmoiset asiat kuin vanha husaari.
Amalia. Mitä miesten hengenlahjoista arvelen, sen kyllä voin teille sanoa, mutta mennä heille —
Majuri. Ei ole takaamista! Mitäpäs, jos teidän sydämenne siihen sekaantuisi? Ette ole vielä koskaan rakastanut.
Amalia. Kukapa tietää!
Majuri. Todellakin' Olisitte siis rakastanut?
Amalia. Niin luulen.
Majuri. Häkissäkö tätinne luona?
Amalia Tahdon ilmoittaa teille sydämmeni salaisuuden, vaikka kenties nauratte sille. Meitä vastapäätä asui —
Majuri. No, kuka sitte?
Amalia. Eräs ylioppilas. En ole milloinkaan vaihtanut hänen kanssansa sanaakaan, mutta istuin toisinaan ikkunan ääressä ja samaten hänkin. Tuntikausia katseli hän minua niin ystävällisesti heleän kirkkailla silmillään — kuitenkin salavihkaan — ja minusta tuntui, ikäänkuin ymmärtäisin häntä — ja minun on tunnustaminen, että kävin usein ikkunan luona syöttämässä kanarialintusiani, vaikka niillä oli ruokaa yltäkyllin.
Majuri. Niinpä niin.
Amalia. Sitä kesti puolen vuoden ajan ja vähän enemmänkin — luulen, että rakastimme toisiamme.
Majuri. Niin minäkin luulen.
Amalia. Sitten käski täti minun joko mennä naimisiin vanhan pastorin kanssa tai lähteä talostansa. Minun, raukan, oli totteleminen, sillä eihän minulla olisi ollut muuta suojaa kuin Jumalan sinitaivas pääni päällä.
Majuri. Ylioppilas parka! Mikä oli hänen nimensä?
Amalia. En tiedä.
Majuri. Mitä! Ettekö ole edes hänen nimeänsä tiedustellut?
Amalia. Hyvin satakin kertaa pyöri se kysymys huulillani, kun naapurin vaimo, jonka luona hän asui, kävi meillä; mutta pelkäsin aina, että punastuvat poskeni olisivat ilmaisseet minut; ja paitsi sitä, mitäpä minua olisi hänen nimensä hyödyttänyt?
Majuri. Mitä hän opiskeli?
Amalia. En tiedä sitäkään.
Majuri. Mimmoiset olivat hänen silmänsä.
Amalia. Siniset.
Majuri. Kas vaan! Sen hän kyllä tietää, mutta mitä olisi tarvis tietää, siitä ei tiedä rahtuakaan. Ja muistelette häntä sentään yhä vielä?
Amalia. Niinkuin kuollutta ystävää.
Majuri. Olkoon kuinka tahansa, vaan naimisiin on teidän kuitenkin meneminen uudestaan. Miesvainajanne ei ole voinut teille paljon jättää perintöä, hänen pitkällinen tautivuoteensa kyllä säästöt vei. Minäkään, tyttäreni, en voi teille muuta jälkeeni jättää, kun mitä vuotuisesti sitä varten panen talteen, ja rouva Äyriäinen pitää huolen, ettei sitä paljon kartu.
Amalia. Minä osaan tehdä työtä.
Majuri. Sitä teidän pitääkin tehdä, mutta omien lastenne hyväksi. Suoraan puhuen, Amalia, saatattehan meidän vaalipappejamme kumminkin nähdä! Teidän tähtenne minä parantaisin pappilaa melkoisesti.
Amalia. Nuoruudestani asti olen tottunut muiden johdatusta seuraamaan ja lupaan siis nytkin totella, jos vaan —
Majuri. Jos vaan mies on teidän mieleisenne? Jaa, jaa! Onhan meillä tässä valitsemisen varaa. Toinen heistä — tuolla on hänen kirjeensä hänen nimensä on Fredrik Wahl — on kirjoittanut anomuksensa lyhyesti. Hän ilmoittaa muutamilla riveillä vaan, että hän tänään tulee tänne esittäytymään minulle. Toinen nimeltään
Elias Krumm — on kynäillyt neljä sivua täyteen minun sotaretkistäni, joista hän ei tiedä mitään, ja minun jalosta sydämmestäni, jota hän ei tunne. Viisi professorien ja konsistorin neuvoksien antamaa todistusta on liitetty lisäksi. Hän on siis kelpo mies, oppinut ja kieli hyvässä varressa. No, jos hän vielä on kaunis ja ennen kaikkea hyvä ihminen, niin annatte kai hänelle kirkkoherran paikan, eikös niin?
Amalia. Minä?
Majuri. Paljon parempiakin virkoja on saatu vaimon avulla. Se ei juuri ole mitään uutta.
Amalia. Mutta ei juuri mitään hyvääkään.
KOLMAS KOHTAUS.
Koulumestari. Edelliset.
Koulumestari. Kelvoton koulupalvelija on rohjennut —
Majuri. Herra! Jos te olette kelvoton, niin annan teille eron virastanne.
Koulumestari. Pyydän anteeksi, se on vaan nöyrä puheenparsi, joka sopii köyhälle koulumestarille, kun hän lähestyy ylhäistä hyväntekijäänsä.
Majuri. Minä vihaan puheenparsia. Ken velvollisuutensa tuntee ja täyttää, olkoon säädyllinen, se sopii hänelle, vaan ei matelevainen, se halventaa häntä.
Koulumestari. Oi, minä osaan kyllä opettaa vallattomia koulupoikiani pitämään minua tarpeenmukaisessa arvossa. Minun ei ole muuta tarvis kuin rypistää vähän kulmakarvojani, niin että ne nousevat pystyyn, niin he värisevät kaikki kuin lankavyyhti.
Majuri. Mitä teillä on asiaa? Sanokaa lyhyesti, herra koulumestari!
Koulumestari. Minä tulen tällä kertaa herra vaalipappi Elias Krummin lähettiläänä.
Majuri. Vai niin? Joko hän on tullut?
Koulumestari. Hän on tullut ja on poikennut minun kurjaan majaani.
Majuri. Kurjaan majaanne? Herra, minä viime vuonna rakennutin teille uudet huoneet.
Koulumestari. Se kurjamaisuus koskee ainoastaan minun halpaa olentoani.
Majuri. Miksi ei vaalipappi ole heti tullut minun luokseni?
Koulumestari. Oi, hän on erinomaisen hieno herra, varsin miellyttävä herra, joka ei tahdo tulla ylvästellen valtatietä myöten päästäksensä toiveittensa perille, vaan joka hiljaisuudessa kiertelee karittelee sivupolkuja pitkin. Hän oli tuskin viisi minuuttia ollut minun luonani, kun hän jo — ja se tahtoo sanoa — oli voittanut Dorotheani suosion; hän näette lahjoitti lapsille sokeriruutin ja silitteli ja suuteli heitä, vaikka he tänään aamulla eivät vielä olleet pestytkään.
Samassa huusi Dorotheani kimakalla äänellänsä: tämä on Jumalan mies, hänen pitää tulla meidän pastoriksemme.
Majuri. Saadaanpa nähdä.
Koulumestari. Sitte tiedusteli herra vaalipappi meiltä, kuka teidän armonne suosiossa likimmästi on. Minä ilmoitin hänelle että vanha vahtimestari Jaakko ja minä itse olemme teidän armonne ylhäisten silmäin edessä armon löytäneet. Sitte lähetti hän minut teidän armoanne valmistamaan hänen tuloonsa.
Majuri. Ha, ha, ha! Sen hän teki viisaasti, ja menkää nyt ja ilmoittakaa vaalipapille minun häntä odottavan.
Koulumestari. Minä juoksen kuin Bileamin hurskas aasi ja ilmoitan herrani sanan. (Lähtee.)
NELJÄS KOHTAUS.
Amalia. Majuri.
Amalia. Nuo herra vaalipapin mutkaiset retket eivät minusta ensinkään ole hänelle eduksi.
Majuri. No, no, emme saa liian varhain tuomita. Hän tulee pääkaupungista; siellä hän on kai tullut havainneeksi, ettei suorinta tietä voi päästä perille, ja nyt hän kai arvelee, että täällä maakylässä on laita samoin.
Amalia. Sallitte kai, että poistun vähän syrjään.
Majuri Oikein, lapseni, ensimmäisessä keskustelussamme ei teidän pidä olla läsnä. Annan teille sentään luvan vähiin tirkistää avaimen lävestä.
VIIDES KOHTAUS.
Jaakko. Majuri.
Jaakko. Herra majuri, tuolla ulkona on vaalipappi, joka pyytää saada kunnian päästä teidän puheillenne.
Majuri. Pyytää saada kunnian! Tiedäthän, etten voi semmoista puhetta kärsiä.
Jaakko. En minäkään, mutta niin kuuluivat hänen sanansa.
Majuri. Miltä hän sinusta näytti?
Jaakko. Hän mahtaa kyllä olla hyvä pastori, mutta husaariksi ei hän kelpaa.
Majuri. Miksi ei?
Jaakko. Hän vetää selkänsä niin moneen köyryyn, eikä astu rohkeasti ihmisten silmäin eteen.
Majuri. Ei hänestä ole aikomus husaaria tehdäkään.
Jaakko. Hän on sanonut minua sen seitsemän kertaa hyväntekijäksensä ja vakuuttaa, ettei hän ole eläissään nähnyt toisia niin kauneita viiksiä kuin minulla on.
Majuri. Se mahtaa kyllä olla totta.
Jaakko. Mitä minun viikseni häntä liikuttavat? Sitte tahtoi hän pistää kouraani kovan taalerin aivan kuin saapasten kiillotuksesta.
Majuri. Sitä et kai ottanut vastaan?
Jaakko. Hitto vieköön! Minä loin häneen vihaisen silmäyksen ja jätin hänet seisomaan.
Majuri. Et saa lukea hänelle sitä viaksi. Maailma ei ole mikään tasainen suorasarkainen pelto, vaan monisoppinen puisto, täynnä monimutkaisia käytäviä.
Jaakko. No, periköön sitte piru koko maailman, luvalla sanoen!
Majuri. Mene ja päästä hänet sisään.
Jaakko (aukaisee oven). Astukaa sisään, herra pastori! (Lähtee.)
KUUDES KOHTAUS.
Vaalipappi Krumm. Majuri.
Krumm Saanko vihdoinkin kunnian nähdä sen mainion miehen, jota maa saa kiittää vapaudestaan?
Majuri. Mitä hittoja, herra, mitä te sillä tarkoitatte?
Krumm. Herra majurin urotöiden maine viime sodassa —
Majuri. Tulimainen! Minä olin vaan husaarimajuri enkä muuta mitään. —
Krumm. Kainous on laakeriseppeleen paras kaunistus.
Majuri. Olkaa ahdistamatta minua seppeleillänne. Jos kaikki ne seppelöitäisiin, jotka viime sodassa urhokkaasti taistelivat, niin ei ole Jumala kylliksi laakeripuita kasvattanut.
Krumm. Mikä vaatimattomuus. Mutta mitäs suotta kummastelen! Onhan luoja painanut jaloimman leimansa noihin kasvoihin!
Majuri. Teidän palvelijanne?
Krumm. Niin nuoreksi en olisi voinut teitä kumminkaan ajatella.
Majuri. Niin nuoreksi? Minä olen kuudenkymmenen vuoden vanha.
Krumm. Ja vielä niin rivakka. Se on seuraus kohtuullisesta elämästä nuoruudessa.
Majuri. Huonosti arvattu! Minä olin nuoruudessani hurja veitikka.
Krumm. Minä panen vetoa, että herra majuri on ripeä metsämies.
Majuri. Niin, niin, metsästys on minun mielihuvitukseni.
Majuri. Vai niin? Se on hyvä, metsästysretkellä kaipaan seuraa.
Krumm. Ja iltasin pienen Whistin pistää.
Majuri. Niin, sitä pelaan minäkin.
Krumm. Kehumatta itseäni en ole hullumpia Whistimiehiä.
Majuri. Ilahuttaa minua. Mutta, herra pastori, ettehän ole tänne tullut vaan minun kanssani metsässä käymään ja Whistiä pelaamaan? Haluattehan tulla minun pastorikseni.
Krumm. Se olisi minulle suuri armo. —
Majuri. Hyi! Kunnon pappi ei ota armoja, vaan jakelee armoja taivaasta alas. Teidän todistuksenne ovat hyvät, enkä suinkaan ole vastahakoinen — yksi ehto vaan. Pastorivainaja on jättänyt lesken jälkeensä.
Krumm. Ymmärrän.
Majuri. Oivallisen naisen. Hän on nyt talossani.
Krumm. Ymmärrän.
Majuri. Toivoisin hänen taas saavan oman kodin ja hänen tähtensä tahdon vielä melkoisesti parantaa pappilaa.
Krumm. Ymmärrän.
Majuri. Miksi näytte tästä puhuessani niin kummalliselta?
Krumm. Herra majuri on minussa löytänyt oikean miehensä; minä nain hänet heti paikalla.
Majuri. Vaikkette ole häntä edes nähnytkään.
Krumm. Minkä kunnioitettava kirkonpatruunani katsoo hyväksi, otan näkemättäkin kiitollisuudella vastaan.
Majuri. Mutta leski ei varmaankaan teitä näkemättä ota; sentähden tutustukaa paikalla häneen ja ilmoittakaa sitten minulle hänen päätöksensä. Tässä on hänen kamarinsa. Jääkää siihen asti Jumalan haltuun! {Lähtee.}
SEITSEMÄS KOHTAUS.
Krumm. (Sittemmin) Koulumestari.
Krumm. Sepä on kirottu ehto sine qua non. Arvatakseni seuraa luutakin lihan ostossa mukana. Mutta sittenkin, mitä on minun tehtävä? Olen nälistynyt ja pappila on rasvainen pala.
Koulumestari. Saan kunnian! Kuinka on laita? Olen etehisessä tepastellut sinne ja tänne, olen akkunan ruutuja tärisyttänyt, helluntaivirttä hyräillyt itsekseni, mutta nyt en enää voinut levottomuuttani hillitä.
Koulumestari. No sitten ravistakoon taivas siunaustansa meidän kunnianarvoisan kirkkoherramme ylitse!
Krumm. Kiitoksia, hyvä koulumestari. Herra kirkon patruunalla on kumminkin yksi ehto vielä; minun pitää naida leski.
Koulumestari. Vai niin? Sepä jotakin —
Krumm. Miten hänen laitansa on sitten?
Koulumestari. Varsin hyvin, ehkä on ylen viisas.
Krumm. Olkoonpa niinkin; otan hänet sentään. Herra majurin tahto on, että kosin heti paikalla.
Koulumestari. Tehkää hyvin ja kolkuttakaa vaan tuolle ovelle.
Krumm. Niinkö suorastaan? Ei, se ei käy laatuun. Pitää ensin mennäänpä kotianne, herra koulumestari, minä kirjoitan kirjeen, te viette sen leskelle ja levittelette hänelle edeltäpäin vähän minun etujani ja avujani.
Koulumestari. Niinkuin käskette.
Krumm. Arvelen tosin, ettei leski suinkaan mitään esteitä tee, mutta pitää kuitenkin tehdä mikä säädyllistä on. En milloinkaan päitä pitäen puutu mihinkään. (Molemmat lähtevät.)
KAHDEKSAS KOHTAUS.
Amalia (yksinänsä. Sittemmin) Majuri.
Amalia. Hän on poissa. — Minun on tunnustaminen että olen vähän tirkistellyt avaimen lävestä. Kukapa sitä minulle viaksi lukee. Jos minun uudestaan on naimisiin meneminen, lieneehän luvallista että ennakolta saan nähdä sen miehen, jolle sydämmeni uhraan jokapäiväisen leipäkullan tähden. Hänen vartalonsa ei ole hullumpi, mutta hänen kasvonsa eivät minua miellytä.
Majuri. No, Amalia, oletko hänen kanssansa puhunut?
Amalia. En vielä.
Majuri. Eikö hän ole ollut teidän luonanne?
Amalia. Ei.
Majuri. Eikö hän kolkuttanut teidän ovellenne?
Amalia. Ei.
Majuri. Sepä kummaa! Hän kuitenkin lupasi —
Amalia. Hän tahtoo ensin kirjoittaa minulle kirjeen.
Majuri. Mistä sen tiedätte?
Amalia. Olihan minulla teiltä lupa vähän kuunnella.
Majuri. Aivan niin.
Amalia. Se onkin minulle sitä mieluisampi, sillä minulle, näettekin, juohtui juoni mieleen, jonka teidän luvallanne tahdon panna toimeen.
Majuri. Antakaas kuulla.
Amalia. Eikös niin, isä kulta, mies naisi minut vaan pappilan tähden; sitä ette kumminkaan toivone?
Majuri. Loruja, hänen ei tarvitse kuin nähdä teidät — —
Amalia. Hän ei saa minua nähdä; aion ensi kohtauksessa pistää rouva Äyriäisen minun sijaani.
Majuri. Emännöitsijäni? Ette kai arvele että mies hänet ottaisi?
Amalia. Mutta jos hän kuitenkin sen tekisi? Jos tuo tulokas kirkkoherran paikka niin sokaisisi hänen silmänsä, että naisi vaikka lemmonkin.
Majuri. Silloin hän on hulttio.
Amalia. Ja jos hän on hulttio, en minä häntä ota.
Majuri. Tietysti ette.
Amalia. Nyt minä olen tyytyväinen.
Majuri. Ha, ha, ha! Lystillinen kohtaus koituu siitä ainakin. (Huutaa ovesta.) Rouva Äyriäinen! Sananen vain!
