Kimball R. Nill
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Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Names: Nill, Kimball R., author.
Title: Glossary of biotechnology and agrobiotechnology terms / Kimball Nill.
Other titles: Glossary of biotechnology terms
Description: Fifth edition. | Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, 2016. | Includes index. | Preceded by Glossary of biotechnology terms / Kimball Nill. 3rd ed c2002
Identifiers: LCCN 2016007230 | ISBN 9781498758208 (alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Biotechnology--Dictionaries | Agriculture--Dictionaries |
Biotechnology
Classification: LCC
LC record available at http://lccn loc gov/2016007230
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com
Preface
I began writing this book, more than a decade ago, when it became obvious to me that the various specialists working in the then-emerging field of biotechnology (e.g., geneticists chemists, molecular biologists, intellectual property attorneys, marketers) were often having difficulty simply understanding the terms utilized by their colleagues. The first three editions of my book steadily expanded and found great acceptance among those professionals.
After the third edition appeared, a number of ill-informed lay groups with interests in environmental matters and food security, especially those skeptical of genetically modified crops and large agro-business enterprises, raised objections about the use of certain nanotechnologies, including various forms of genetic modification as well as other technologies that professionals widely regard today as beneficial and easily implemented. So the fourth edition included many of the “nanotech” terms now routinely part of the biotechnology toolkit. The goal was to reduce the level of concern by providing people with clear and easy-to-understand definitions of new terms.
Therefore, the fourth edition naturally included many new terms some misunderstood and, therefore, controversial. This last edition was also well received especially by those seeking to explain novel scientific advances to a skeptical and uninformed public. Biotechnological advances continue to accelerate, and the need to provide clear definitions of terms used in a fast-expanding field generates a continuing need for references like this.
Recently, the importation and distribution of some U.S.-origin agricultural products were delayed or prohibited because these products were created using new biotechnologies. This occurred in spite of contravening World Trade Organization rules. Once again, assertions of supposed safety concerns about the now-emerging techniques this time concerning genome editing, synthetic biology, etc. require the publication of a fifth edition.
The fifth edition of this book is nearly twice the length of the fourth edition and includes at least 30% of entirely new terms. It is the only publication of its kind, containing definitions of all the new techniques utilized in agricultural biotechnology. The world’s nations are now considering whether to regulate, or perhaps overregulate, these new techniques just as they did for “GMO” crops. The results could be costly for a world struggling to feed itself. It is important that those considering any steps to limit the use of biotechnology in the creation of reliable food sources be well informed. I hope that this book will fill a vacuum and help agricultural marketers, scientists, regulators, patent attorneys, venture capitalists, and university tech transfer staff explain science and bring products created via these techniques to fruition.
I offer this work in good faith and in the hope that it will assist individuals who seek to gain some understanding of the terminology as it is currently used. However, the reader should be aware that all fields of biotechnology are rapidly expanding and evolving: New terms have entered the nomenclature
(and thus this book) at a rapid pace. In fact, the meaning(s) of some of the newest terms will undoubtedly be expanded or contracted as the technologies further develop.
Kimball R Nill Director of Market Development
Minnesota Soybean Research & Promotion Council
Mankato, Minnesota
Kimball Nill is the director of market development at the Minnesota Soybean Research & Promotion Council, where he works to expand domestic and overseas markets for Minnesota-origin soybeans and soy products.
Kimball has authored numerous papers and articles on various aspects of the marketing, technology, and sustainability of agricultural products for U.S. and European journals, plus he has authored four editions of this book designed to explain agricultural biotechnology to the public.
Kimball grew up on a farm in the U.S. state of North Dakota. He holds a bachelor of science degree in chemistry from North Dakota State University and an MBA from the Wharton Business School in Pennsylvania.
A. flavus
See Aspergillus flavus.
aAI-1
See Alpha-amylase inhibitor-1.
AARS
See Ribosomes, Aminoacyl-transfer RNA synthetases.
Ab Initio Gene Prediction
(ab initio = “from the beginning”) The prediction of a gene’s (exon) structure via algorithms (e.g., in a bioinformatics computer), based on the protein coded for by the gene.
See also Gene, Protein, Exon, Algorithm (bioinformatics), Sequence (of a DNA molecule), Sequence (of a protein molecule).
Acronym for abscisic acid. See Abscisic acid.
ABC
See ABC transporters.
ABC Transport Proteins
See ABC transporters.
ABC Transporters
Refer to a class of membrane transporter proteins that “transfer” across cell membranes
Sugar molecules (i.e., used by cells as “fuel”)
Inorganic ions (needed to catalyze certain cellular processes)
Polypeptides (i.e., protein molecules)
Certain anticancer drugs (i.e., out of tumor cells, thereby making it harder to halt certain cancer tumors via use of pharmaceuticals)
Certain antibiotics (i.e., out of some species of pathogenic bacteria, thereby conferring antibiotic resistance to those pathogenic bacteria)
Certain plant metabolites (out of plant cells, thereby conferring resistance to some fungal diseases to the plants possessing those ABC transporters)
ABC transporter molecules are embedded in the plasma membrane (i.e., surface “skin”) of cells. See also Cell, Plasma membrane, Protein, Catalyst, Ion, Polypeptide (protein), Cancer, Chemotherapy, Antibiotic resistance, Species, Bacteria, Metabolite, Fungus.
Abiogenesis
Spontaneous generation.
See also Biogenesis.
Refers to the absence of living organisms.
See also Abiotic stresses.
Abiotic Stresses
The stress caused (e.g., to crop plants) by nonliving, environmental factors such as cold, drought, flooding, salinity, ozone, toxic-to-that-organism metals (e.g., aluminum, for plants), and ultraviolet-B light. See also Citrate synthase (CSB) gene, Abscisic acid, Ethylene, PARP, Cytochrome p450, Drought tolerance.
Abrin
A potent natural toxin derived from the seed of the rosary pea or crab’s eye vine (Abrus precatorius).
See also Ricin, Phytochemicals, Toxin.
ABS
Acronym for “Africa Biofortified Sorghum,” a new type of sorghum (i.e., a crop grown in arid regions, especially in Africa) being developed that would contain more of the nutrients needed (e.g., iron, zinc, beta-carotene, vitamin A) to help reduce the prevalence of human malnutrition there. See Nutraceuticals, Vitamin, Beta-carotene, Golden rice.
Abscisic Acid
A phytohormone (plant hormone) utilized to control
The size of stomatal pores that is, the openings in leaves through which plants exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide (and water inadvertently) with the atmosphere. Abscisic acid levels increase in plants during drought stress conditions, which leads to closing of the stomatal pores to conserve water in the plant.
Fruit ripening in some plants (i.e., in grapes).
Abscission (e.g., shedding of flowers and fruits).
Dormancy (i.e., causing seeds to become properly dehydrated and their metabolism to slow down so that they can wait for proper environmental conditions to germinate).
Seed germination.
Root tissue growth.
In addition to those functions, abscisic acid also sometimes acts as a plant stress hormone (i.e., a hormone that signals the plant to respond in a defensive way to a particular environmental stress). For example, the increase in abscisic acid in plant cells under drought conditions leads to initiation of the ABA pathway (i.e., a sequential series of chemical reactions), via which specific genes are “switched on” or “switched off” to cause increased water uptake and storage by the plant and reduced water loss. See also Plant hormone, GPA1, Abscission, Signaling, Small ubiquitin-related modifier, Stress hormones, Pathway, Stress hormones, Receptor engineering.
Abscisic Acid Pathway
See Abscisic acid, Receptor engineering, Pathway.
Abscission
The act of a plant shedding its flower(s), fruit(s), etc. See also Abscisic acid, Ethylene.
Absolute Configuration
The configuration of four different substituent groups around an asymmetric carbon atom, in relation to D- and L-glyceraldehyde.
See also Dextrorotary (D) isomer, Levorotary (L) isomer.
Absorbance (A)
A measure of the amount of light absorbed by a substance suspended in a matrix. The matrix may be gaseous, liquid, or solid in nature. Most biologically active compounds (e.g., proteins) absorb light in the ultraviolet or visible light portion of the spectrum. Absorbance is used to quantitate (measure) the concentration of the substance in question (e.g., substance dissolved in a liquid).
See also Optical density (OD), Spectrophotometer.
Absorption
From the Latin ab, “away,” and sorbere, “to suck into.” The taking up of nutrients, water, etc., by assimilation (e.g., transport of the products of digestion from the intestinal tract across the cell membranes that comprise the gut and into the blood).
See also ADME tests, Digestion (within organisms).
Abzymes
Catalytic antibodies that are synthetic constructs. They either stabilize the transition state of a chemical reaction or bind to a specific substrate, thereby increasing the reaction rate of that chemical reaction. See also Catalytic antibody, Transition state, Substrate (chemical).
Abbreviation/acronym for the compound 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid, which is produced from S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) in the fruit of certain plants. When the “sam-k” gene is inserted into the genome of those plants, the level of SAM is greatly reduced in their fruit, which inhibits (slows) ripening/softening of that fruit via a reduction/slowdown in the production of ethylene (hormone that causes fruit to ripen/soften). See also ACC synthase, Ethylene, SAM-K gene, Genetic engineering, Genome, Plant hormone.
ACC Synthase
Aminocyclopropane carboxylic acid (ACC) synthase/deaminase is one of the most critical enzymes in the metabolic pathway that creates the hormone ethylene inside fruits. Because ethylene causes certain fruit (e.g., tomatoes) to ripen (soften), it is possible to significantly delay the softening (i.e., spoilage) process by controlling creation of ACC synthase via manipulation of the ACC synthase gene. See also ACC, Metabolism, Enzyme, Metabolite, Intermediary metabolism, Pathway, Plant hormone, Polygalacturonase (PG), Ethylene, SAM-K gene.
ACCase
See Acetyl-CoA carboxylase.
Acceptor Control
The regulation of the rate of respiration by the availability of ADP as phosphate acceptor. See also Respiration, Adenosine diphosphate (ADP).
Acceptor Junction Site
The junction between the right 3’ end of an intron and the left 5’ end of an exon. See also Intron, Exon, Donor junction site.
Accession (Germplasm)
The addition of germplasm deposits to existing germplasm storage banks. See also American type culture collection (ATCC), Germplasm.
Accession (Sequence Data)
The addition (e.g., to major public database) of the sequence data for a newly determined gene or protein molecule. See also Gene, Protein, Sequence (of a DNA molecule), Sequence (of a protein molecule), Algorithm (bioinformatics).
Acclimatization
The biological process whereby an organism adapts to a new environment. For example, the body of a mountain climber who has spent significant time high up on Mount Everest (e.g., 20,000 ft. above sea level) produces twice as many red blood cells (to transport oxygen) as it does at sea level. Often, this adaptation actually occurs on a molecular level. One example is when natural microorganisms adapt so that they feed on and degrade toxic chemical wastes or change from using one sugar as a fuel source to another. Another type of acclimatization is cold hardening (e.g., when the approach of winter causes certain plants to produce specific proteins that protect those plants from freezing temperatures). For example, prior to cold hardening, the crop plant known as rye (Secale cereale) usually dies after several hours of exposure to a temperature of 5°C (23°F). If the rye plants are first exposed to gradually decreasing daily temperatures (e.g., typical autumn season weather in North America), such acclimated rye plants
can survive temperatures as low as 30°C ( 22°F).
In microgravity (e.g., plants growing on the international space station or in the U.S. space shuttle), some gene expression and some cell structure/function are also altered. See also Sugar molecules, Catabolism, Red blood cells, Cold hardening, Pharmacoenvirogenetics, Cell, Gene, Gene expression.
Ac-CoA
Abbreviation for acetyl-coenzyme A. Ac-CoA is a chemical that is synthesized in cell mitochondria by combining the thiol (molecular group) of coenzyme A with an acetyl group (i.e., from breakdown/digestion of fats, carbohydrates, or proteins), utilizing the pyruvate dehydrogenase enzyme.
Plants subsequently use Ac-CoA as the starting material to manufacture fatty acids. See also Coenzyme, Fats, Acetylcholine, Gluconeogenesis, Acetyl-CoA carboxylase, Cholinesterase, Cell, Mitochondria, Fatty acid, Protein.
ACE
Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) is an enzyme that is crucial (within the human vascular system) for catalyzing the formation of angiotensin II, a hormone that causes narrowing/restriction of blood vessels, which increases the body’s blood pressure as the blood is “squeezed” through those narrowed blood vessels.
Overactivity of ACE can contribute to coronary heart disease (CHD). The action of ACE can be inhibited by the pharmaceuticals known as ACE inhibitors. Research indicates that consumption of egg proteins or whey protein can also result in inhibition of ACE. See also Enzyme, Hormone, ACE inhibitors, CHD.
ACE Inhibitors
Refer to “family” of naturally occurring proteins or to a group of chemically similar pharmaceuticals utilized to lower blood pressure in humans, by blocking the formation of a hormone (angiotensin II) that narrows/restricts blood vessels. In 2009, research by Jianping Wu and Kaustav Majumder showed that certain proteins in boiled or fried eggs can be converted via enzymes in the human stomach and small intestine into peptides with angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)-inhibitory activity. See also ACE, Protein, Enzyme, Hormone.
Acentric Chromosome
Refers to a chromosome fragment that lacks a centromere. See also Chromosomes, Centromere.
Acetobacter aceti
A bacterium that can “spoil” alcohol-containing beverages by turning the ethanol into vinegar (acetic acid). Discovered by Louis Pasteur in the 1800s. See also Bacteria.
Acetolactate Synthase
See ALS.
Acetyl Carnitine
One of the metabolites of mitochondria; it is a substrate (i.e., substance that is acted upon) for acylcarnitine transferase (which converts the acetyl carnitine to carnitine).
Research indicates that consumption of acetyl carnitine helps to increase the levels of acetylcholine and nerve growth factor in the brain. See also Metabolite, Mitochondria, Acylcarnitine transfer-ase, Substrate (chemical), Carnitine, Acetylcholine, Nerve growth factor (NGF).
Acetyl Coenzyme A
See Ac-CoA.
Acetylation
Refers to addition of an acetyl molecular group to a protein molecule.
See Histones, Posttranslational modification of protein.
Acetylcholine
A neurotransmitter (i.e., one of several relatively small, diffusible molecules utilized by the human body to “transmit” nerve impulses) that is synthesized (i.e., manufactured) near the ends of axons (i.e., one type of neuron). That synthesis is accomplished by the “transfer” of an acetyl group (portion of molecule) from Ac-CoA to a cho-line molecule (i.e., available in the body via consumption of soybean lecithin or certain other foods), in a chemical reaction catalyzed by cholinesterase.
Research indicates that consumption of a chemical compound known as “huperzine A,” which is extracted from the Chinese club moss (Huperzia serrata), inhibits the enzyme within the human body that breaks down acetylcholine molecules.
Increased amount of acetylcholine in the (human) brain has been shown to reduce the symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease. See also Neurotransmitter, Neuron, Choline, Ac-CoA, Lecithin, Alzheimer’s disease, Thymus, Enzyme, Cholinesterase, Endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS).
Acetylcholinesterase
An enzyme that hydrolyzes (i.e., cuts into smaller pieces) molecules of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, after the acetylcholine molecules have accomplished “transmission” of a nerve impulse. That hydrolysis (cutting into pieces) of acetylcholine molecules serves to thus prepare the neurons (cells of the body’s nervous system) to be able to transmit other, later nerve impulses. See also Enzyme, Hydrolysis, Neurotransmitter, Acetylcholine, Neuron.
Acetyl-CoA
Acetyl-coenzyme A. See Ac-CoA.
Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase
An enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction (i.e., conversion of Ac-CoA to malonyl-CoA via carboxylation), which is the first step in the series of chemical reactions via which some plants “manufacture” oils (e.g., soybean oil, canola oil). See also Enzyme, Fats, Soybean oil, Canola.
Acronym for “array comparative genomic hybridization.” See Array comparative genomic hybridization.
A substance that contains hydrogen atom(s) in its molecular structure, with a pH in the range from 0 to 6, which will react with a base to form a salt. Acids normally taste sour and feel slippery. For example, food product manufacturers often add citric acid, malic acid, fumaric acid, and itaconic acid in order to impart a “sharp” taste to food products. See also Base (General), Citric acid, Fumaric acid (C4H4O4), Gallic acid.
Acidosis
A metabolic condition in which the capacity of the body to buffer changes in pH is diminished. Hence, acidosis is accompanied by decreased blood pH (i.e., the blood becomes more acidic than is normal). See also Acid, Metabolism.
Ac-P
Abbreviation for acetylphosphate.
ACP (Acyl Carrier Protein)
A protein that binds acyl intermediates during the formation of long-chain fatty acids. ACP is important in that it is involved in every step of fatty acid synthesis. See also Fatty acid, Acyl-CoA, Fats.
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
A disease in which a specific virus attacks and kills macrophages and helper T cells (thus causing collapse of the entire immune system). Once the immune system has been inactivated, other diseases, which under normal circumstances can be fought off, become fatal. See also Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1), Human immunodeficiency virus type 2 (HIV-2), Helper T cells (T4 cells), Macrophage, Tumor necrosis factor (TNF).
A genetic change (i.e., mutation in DNA) that occurred within a somatic cell (i.e., cell not involved in the organism’s reproduction), so the mutation is not passed down to subsequent generations. See also Somatic cells, Mutation, Somatic variants, Cell, Organism, Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
Acrylamide Gel
See Polyacrylamide gel.
ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic Hormone [Corticotropin])
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (corticotropin) is a polypeptide secreted by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. This is an example of a protein hormone. See also Polypeptide (protein), Endocrine glands, Endocrine hormones.
Actin
First identified by Albert Szent-Gyorgyi, it is a contractile (i.e., periodically contracting) protein that is present within or as part of the exterior of eucaryotic cells. In mammalian cells, actin exists in two forms: G-actin (monomeric form) and F-actin (polymerized chain molecule form). The cell’s actin is frequently polymerized (i.e., forms the molecular chains of F-actin) and depolymerized (i.e., the molecular chains break apart again into the individual “chain links” known as G-actin), as needed by the cell.
Via its contractions, F-actin is involved in eucaryote cells’
Movement (e.g., when it “pulls” the cell to a new position) within an organism’s body, much like a towrope. The “towrope” utilized is a long narrow structure extending from the exterior of cell, called a “filopodium,” which is composed of actin surrounded by a layer of the cell’s plasma membrane.
Note: A protein known as N-WASP in breast cancer cells works in concert with actin to form branches bearing sharp external points on the cell surface by rearranging the cell’s internal actin “skeleton.” Those branches with sharp points are known as “pseudopodia,” and the pseudopodia can grab onto and poke holes into the extracellular matrix (i.e., the supportive tissue located in between individual cells). Breast cancer cells attach enzymes to the pseudopodia and “dig into” the extracellular matrix, creating larger spaces for breast cancer to move into (i.e., beginning of metastasis process).
Changes in the shape/morphology of the cell (e.g., in response to chemical signals such as a growth factor molecule encountering the exterior membrane of the cell).
Separation of nuclear DNA during meiosis (dividing into two/reproductive step, in life of a cell).
In addition to being the raw material used by the cell for rapid formation of F-actin (filaments), Gactin also interacts with the cell’s nucleus (thereby activating expression of certain genes involved in cell differentiation, cell growth, cell proliferation, and the F-actin filaments, which control cell shape/movement).
During an animal’s development, some actin-rich protrusions form and extend from one individual muscle cell to an adjacent individual muscle cell. As part of the animal’s maturation process, that leads those two muscle cells (and many other individual muscle cells) to fuse into long myotubes (muscle fibers) that contain multiple cell nuclei. Actin molecular analogues present in bacterial cells include ParM, which separates DNA plasmids during meiosis, and MreB, which are located just beneath the outer membrane and determine cell shape in rod-shaped bacteria. See also Cell, Protein, Eucaryote, Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), Gene, Nucleus, Nuclear DNA, Meiosis, Extracellular matrix (ECM), Cytoskeleton, Analogue, Bacteria, Plasma membrane, Motor proteins, Cell motility, Listeria monocytogenes, Chemotaxis, MreB, ParM, Polymer, Morphology, Growth factor, Express, Differentiation, Metastasis.
Activated Carbon
An adsorbent form of very finely divided carbon, which is produced by a high-temperature treatment of raw material (e.g., bone, coconut hulls) along with steam, air, or carbon monoxide.
One gram of the resultant activated carbon has an internal surface area (onto which many chemicals can tightly adsorb) of approximately 1200 m², so it is often utilized for purifying water, air, and other gases. It is sometimes utilized to remove hydrocarbon compounds from potable (e.g., drinkable) water or to remove polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from vegetable oils. See also Meter.
Activation Energy
The amount of energy (calories) required to bring all the molecules in one mole of a reacting substance to the transition state. More simply, it may also be viewed as the energy required to bring reacting molecules to a certain energy state from which point the reaction proceeds spontaneously. See also Transition state (in a chemical reaction), Mole, Free energy.
Activator (of Enzyme)
allosteric site. See also Enzyme, Effector, Allosteric site, Catalyst.
Activator (of Gene)
A protein molecule that increases the expression of a given gene, by binding to transcription control sites (e.g., within that gene or in adjacent intron). See also Protein, Gene, Expressivity, Transcription activators, Signal transducers and activators of transcription (STATs), Transcription factors, Intron, Bursting.
Active Site
The region of an enzyme surface that binds the substrate molecule and transforms the substrate molecule into the new (chemical) product (entity). This site is usually located not on a protruding portion of the enzyme but rather in a cleft or depression. This establishes a controlled environment in which the chemical reaction may occur. See also Catalytic site, Agonists, Pharmacophore, Substrate (chemical), Enzyme, Antagonists, Meganuclease.
Active Transport
Cell-mediated, energy-requiring translocation of a molecule across a membrane in the direction of increasing concentration (i.e., opposite of natural tendency). This is done via special membrane-bound proteins (i.e., protein molecules embedded in the cell’s plasma membrane). See also Osmotic pressure, Cell, Protein, Plasma membrane, Ion channels, G-proteins, Membrane transport.
Activity Coefficient
The factor by which the concentration of a solute must be multiplied to give its true thermodynamic activity.
Activity-Based Screening
See High-throughput screening (HTS).
Acuron™ Gene
A gene, trademarked by Syngenta AG, that can be inserted into plants via genetic engineering techniques. When that gene is inserted into the genome (DNA) of a plant, it confers tolerance to herbicide(s) whose active ingredient is protoporphyrinogen oxidase (PPO) inhibitor (thus, such herbicides are known as PPO inhibitors). See also Herbicide-tolerant crop, Gene, Genetic engineering, Genome, Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML)
One form of leukemia (cancer of the blood) that can be caused by fusion proteins. See also Cancer, Fusion protein.
Acute Transfection
Short-term infection of cells with DNA. See also Transfection.
Acyl Carrier Protein
See ACP (acyl carrier protein).
Acylcarnitine Transferase
An enzyme that converts the mitochondrial metabolite acetyl carnitine into carnitine. See also Enzyme, Acetyl carnitine, Carnitine.
Acyl-CoA
Acyl derivatives of coenzyme A (acyl-S-CoA). See also Carnitine, Coenzyme A, Trypsin inhibitors.
Refer to a class of enzymes that attach an acyl molecule (e.g., fatty acid) to the carbon-atom “skeleton” of a large organic molecule (e.g., a triacylglycerol). See also Enzyme, Fatty acid, Triacylglycerols.
AD
An acronym utilized to refer to the group of diseases known collectively as autoimmune disorders. These include diseases such as multiple sclerosis, lupus, and rheumatoid arthritis. See also Autoimmune disease, Multiple sclerosis, Lupus.
Adalimumab
A monoclonal antibody against tumor necrosis factor-alpha that was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2003 for use as the pharmaceutical Humira™ to inhibit the structural damage (to body joints) of the autoimmune disease rheumatoid arthritis. FDA subsequently approved adalimumab as a pharmaceutical treatment for
Reducing signs and symptoms of moderately to severely active polyarticular juvenile idiopathic arthritis in patients 2 years of age and older
Reducing signs and symptoms of active arthritis, inhibiting the progression of structural damage, and improving physical function
Reducing signs and symptoms in patients with active ankylosing spondylitis disease
Adult patients with moderate to severe chronic plaque psoriasis who are candidates for systemic therapy or phototherapy
In 2014, FDA approved adalimumab as a treatment for pediatric Crohn’s disease in patients aged 6 years and older when other treatments have not worked well.
See also Rheumatoid arthritis, Autoimmune disease, Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Monoclonal antibodies (MAb), Tumor necrosis factor (TNF), Phage display, Crohn’s disease.
Adaptation
Refers to the “adjustment” of a population of organisms to a changed environment. For example, when the Industrial Revolution caused large amounts of black soot to be deposited onto the white bark of certain trees in England in the nineteenth century, it resulted in adaptation (e.g., via selective breeding) of the population of a particular indigenous moth (Biston betularia), which had previously consisted of a mixture of all-white and all-black members. Because the soot blackened the
formerly white bark of the trees it rested on, predatory birds were able to easily catch and eat the allwhite members of that moth population. Thus, there were fewer of the all-white moths present in the breeding population and a greater preponderance of all-black members.
In the twentieth century, antipollution efforts in England resulted in a cessation of the airborne soot, so that forest’s tree bark returned to its original white color. Because the predatory birds were now able to more easily catch and eat the all-black members of that moth population, there were fewer of the all-black moths present in the breeding population and a greater preponderance of all-white members. See also Organism.
Adaptive Enzymes
See Inducible enzymes.
Adaptive Immune Response
See CD8+ T cells, Immune response.
ADBF
See Azurophil-derived bactericidal factor (ADBF).
Acronym for “antibody-drug conjugates.” See Immunoconjugate.
See Antibody-dependent cellular toxicity.
Additive Genes
Genes that interact but do not show dominance (in the case of alleles) or epistasis (if they are not alleles).
A single additive gene does not “show up” in the phenotype, but a collective group of additive genes can result in a trait that is evident in the phenotype. See also Gene, Allele, Dominant allele, Epistasis, Phenotype, Trait, Additive variance.
Additive Variance
Refers to the amount/percentage of an organism’s genetic variance that results from a single given additive gene. See also Gene, Genetics, Additive genes.
Adenylate Cyclase
The enzyme (within cells) that catalyzes the synthesis (i.e., “manufacture”) of cyclic AMP. See Cyclic AMP.
Adenine
A purine base, 6-aminopurine, occurring in ribonucleic acid (RNA) as well as in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and a component of adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Adenine pairs with thymine in DNA and uracil in RNA. See also Base (nucleotide), Base pair (bp), Ribonucleic acid (RNA), Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
Adenosine
Refers to the nucleoside (i.e., hybrid with ribose or deoxyribose) form of adenine. See also Adenine, Nucleoside.
Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP)
A ribonucleoside 5′-diphosphate serving as a phosphate group acceptor in the cell energy cycle. See also Catabolism, Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), Adenosine monophosphate (AMP).
Adenosine Monophosphate (AMP)
A ribonucleoside 5′-monophosphate that is formed by hydrolysis of ATP or ADP. See also Hydrolysis, Adenosine diphosphate (ADP), Adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Adenosine Monophosphate–Activated Protein Kinase
See AMPK.
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
The major carrier of chemical energy in the cells of all living things on this planet. A ribonucleoside 5′-triphosphate functioning as a phosphate group donor in the energy cycle of the cell. ATP contains three phosphate/oxygen molecules linked together. When a phosphate–phosphate bond in ATP is broken (hydrolyzed), energy that the cell can use to carry out its functions is produced. Thus, ATP serves as the universal medium of biological energy storage and exchange, in living cells. See also ATPase, ATP synthetase, Hydrolysis, Cyclic phosphorylation, Bioluminescence, ATP synthase, Adenosine monophosphate (AMP), Ubiquinone.
Adenovirus
A category of virus that can infect humans, monkeys, rodents, cattle, and fowl. Like all viruses, adenoviruses can reproduce only inside living cells (of other host organisms). Adenovirus causes a protein (metabolite) to be made that disables the p53 gene. Because the p53 gene then cannot perform its usual function (i.e., prevention of uncontrolled cell growth caused by virus/DNA damage), the adeno-virus thus “takes over” and causes the cell to make numerous copies of the virus until the cell dies (thus releasing the virus copies into the body of the host organism to cause further infection). See also Virus, Retroviruses, Gene delivery, Gene therapy, Cell, Protein, p53 gene, Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
Adequate Intake (AI)
See Choline.
Adhesion Molecule
From the Latin adhaerere = “to stick to.” The term “adhesion molecule” refers to a glycoprotein molecular “chain” that protrudes from the surface membrane of certain cells and causes cells (possessing “matching” adhesion molecules) to adhere to each other. For example, in 1952 Aaron Moscona observed that (harvesting enzyme–separated) chicken embryo cells did not remain separated but instead coalesced again into an (embryo) aggregate. In 1955, Philip Townes and Johannes Holtfreter showed that “like” amphibian (e.g., frog) neuron cells will rejoin together after being physically separated (e.g., with a knife blade), but “unlike” cells remain segregated (apart). Adhesion molecules per se were formally discovered by Gerald M. Edelman in the 1970s. Adhesion molecules also play a crucial role in guiding mono cytes to sources of infection (e.g., pathogens) because adhesion molecules in the walls of blood vessels (after activation caused by pathogen invasion of adjacent tissue) adhere to like adhesion molecules in the membranes of monocytes in the blood. The monocytes pass through the blood vessel walls, become macrophages, and fight the pathogen infection (e.g., triggering tissue inflammation). See also Monocytes, Macrophage, Polypeptide (protein), Cell, Pathogen, CD4 protein, CD44 protein, GP120 protein, Vaginosis, Harvesting enzymes, Harvesting, Signal transduction, Selectins, Lectins, Glycoprotein, Sugar molecules, Leukocytes, Lymphocyte, Neutrophils, Endothelium, Endothelial cells, P-selectin, ELAM-1, Integrins, Cytokines.
Adhesion Protein
See Adhesion molecule, Endothelial cells.
Adipocytes
Specialized cells within an organism’s lymphatic system, which store the triacylglycerols (i.e., also sometimes called “triglycerides”), after digestion of fats, and then later release fatty acids and glycerol into the bloodstream (e.g., when needed by the organism). See also Cell, Triglycerides, Fatty acid, Digestion (within organisms), Fats.
Adipocytokines
See Adipokines.
Adipokines
Refer to more than 50 protein hormones that are secreted by adipose cells and that act to help the body regulate its metabolism, immunity, homeostasis, etc.
Many adipokines promote inflammation and make cells resistant to the effects of insulin. Production of adipokines can be decreased by consumption of conjugated linoleic acid. See also Protein, Hormone, Cell, Adipose, Metabolism, Homeostasis, Visfatin, Leptin, Tumor necrosis factorα, Resistin, Adiponectin, Interleukin-6, Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), Insulin.
Adiponectin
An adipokine that activates AMP-activated protein kinase and modulates signaling pathways controlled by NFκB. See also Adipokines, AMP, Protein, Kinases, Signaling, Pathway, NFκB.
Adipose
Utilized to refer to “energy storage” tissues within some animals, consisting of fat molecules. Adipose tissue tends to increase in animals’ bodies if they consume more energy-dense food than needed for their level of energy expenditure (e.g., via exercise).
In humans older than 40, an increase in the body’s amount of adi-pose tissue is correlated with an increased risk of premature death (e.g., from coronary heart disease).
Adipose tissue cells secrete a large number of compounds that impact the human body in a number of ways. For example,
Leptin a protein hormone signal to the brain that the body has “enough” energy stores, which also stimulates the body to consume calories faster.
Visfatin a protein that has some of the same effects as insulin (e.g., stimulates glucose uptake by the body, which lowers blood sugar levels).
Tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) a cytokine protein that initiates changes (inflammation) in vascular tissues that result in monocytes adhering to internal walls of blood vessels, thereby becoming a macrophage and resulting in formation of a plaque deposit. Additionally and separately, TNF-α can also cause some tissues to become insulin resistant.
Angiotensin a precursor molecule that can become angiotensin II in the body. The hormone angiotensin II causes arteries to constrict (which can result in high blood pressure), promotes macrophage accumulation into plaque deposits on blood vessel walls, and enhances the metabolism of nitric oxide into free radical molecules.
Adiponectin a molecule that acts to inhibit the development of insulin resistance in tissues and acts to inhibit inflammation.
See also Fats, Coronary heart disease (CHD), Leptin, Lecithin, Choline, Visfatin, Insulin, Cytokines, Monocytes, Adhesion molecule, Macrophage, Plaque, Metabolism, Nitric oxide, Free radical.
Adipose Triglyceride Lipase
See Lipase.
Adjuvant (to a Herbicide)
From the Latin word for “aid,” it refers to any compound that enhances the effectiveness (i.e., weedkilling ability) of a given herbicide. For example, adjuvants such as surfactants can be mixed (prior to application to weeds) with herbicide (in water), in order to hasten transport of the herbicide’s active ingredient into the weed plant. That is because the herbicide must move from an aqueous (water) environment into one (i.e., the weed plant’s cuticle or “skin”) comprised of lipids/lipophilic molecules, before it can accomplish its task. See also Surfactant, Lipids, Lipophilic.
Adjuvant (to a Pharmaceutical)
From the Latin word for “aid,” it refers to any compound that enhances the desired response by the body to that pharmaceutical. For example, adjuvants such as certain polysaccharides or surfacemodified nanoparticles (e.g., pan-DR-binding epitope derivatized dendrimer nanoparticle acts as an adjuvant to amphotericin B, for treatment of leishmaniasis disease) can be injected along with (vaccine) antigen in order to increase the immune response (e.g., production of antibodies) to a given antigen.
Another example is that consumption of grapefruit juice by humans will increase the impact of certain pharmaceuticals. Those pharmaceuticals include some sedatives, antihypertensives, the antihistamine terfenadine, and the immunosuppressant cyclosporine. The adjuvant effect of grapefruit juice is thought to be caused via inhibition of the enzyme cytochrome P4503A4, which catalyzes reactions involved in the metabolism (breakdown) of those pharmaceuticals.
Another example is that consumption of the pharmaceutical known as clopidogrel (U.S. commercial name Plavix™) by people immediately following a mild heart attack (severe chest pain) along with aspirin greatly reduces the risk of death, strokes, and (new, additional) heart attacks versus taking aspirin alone after a mild heart attack.
See also Cellular immune response, Humoral immunity, Polysaccharides, Nanotechnology, Antigen, Antibody, Enzyme, Metabolism, Histamine, Cyclosporine, Cytochrome P4503A4.
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