DrugTransporters
Volume2:RecentAdvancesandEmerging Technologies
Editedby
GlynisNicholls
IndependentConsultant,Wem,Shropshire,UK
Email:glynis.nicholls@gmail.com
KureshYoudim
F.Hoffman-LaRocheAG,Basel,Switzerland
Email:kuresh.youdim@roche.com
RSCDrugDiscoverySeriesNo.55
PrintISBN:978-1-78262-866-8
TwovolumesetprintISBN:978-1-78262-867-5
PDFeISBN:978-1-78262-870-5
EPUBeISBN:978-1-78262-871-2
ISSN:2041-3203
AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary
r TheRoyalSocietyofChemistry2016
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Preface
Inthissecondvolumeof DrugTransporters,thefocusisontheemerging sciencesandtechnologiesthatarecurrentlybeinginvestigatedwithin thisarea.Thefundamentalconceptsoftransportersciences,andthecurrent methodsandtoolsemployedwithinthepharmaceuticalindustryto determinetheimpactofmembranetransportersondrugsafetyandefficacy, arecoveredextensivelyin DrugTransporters:Volume1:RoleandImportancein ADMEandDrugDevelopment andhencearenotincludedtoanygreatextent inthisvolume.Readersarereferredtothepreviousvolumeforinformation onthosetopics.Theemphasishereisonareaswhereresearchisongoing butisnotnecessarilypartofroutineinvestigations,areasthatareoften changingrapidlyasknowledgeexpands.Thiscurrent(2016)overviewthus givesanindicationofwhereopportunitiesmayexistforsubstantialadvances withinthedrugtransporterfieldinthefuture.Wherepossible,referenceis alsomadetoanyavailablerecentreviewsfortheinterestedreader.Topicsin thisvolumerangefromfactorsthatmayimpacttransporterformand function(regulationofexpression,enzyme–transporterinterplayandpharmacogenomics)throughtomorepracticalapproachestoimproveour understandingoftransporter-mediatedinteractions(usingmicrofluidics, proteomics, invivo imagingandbioinformatics/cheminformatics).Transportersinotherorgansandtissuesofthebody,notcoveredinVolume1of thebook,arealsobrieflydiscussed.Wehopethatthisvolumeservesto illustratenotonlyhowthetransporterfieldisprogressinginmanydifferent areas,butalsohowourknowledgeisstillincomplete,withmuchstillto bedone.
Aswiththefirstvolume,thispartofthebookcouldonlybeachieved throughcollaborationwithexpertswhohavechosentospecializeinspecific areasofscienceandweremaindeeplyindebtedtothem,forbothsharing theirinsightsintheirchosenfieldsandfortheircontinuedcommitmentto
RSCDrugDiscoverySeriesNo.55
DrugTransporters:Volume2:RecentAdvancesandEmergingTechnologies
EditedbyGlynisNichollsandKureshYoudim
r TheRoyalSocietyofChemistry2016
PublishedbytheRoyalSocietyofChemistry,www.rsc.org
ourbook,despitetheirongoingworkloads.Itssuccessrequiredtheinputof anextensiveandwidelyseparatedgroupofscientistsandwesincerelyhope thattheireffortswilltranslateintoavolumethatisreferredtobymany peopleinthecomingyears,inconjunctionwiththefirstvolumeof DrugTransporters.
GlynisNicholls KureshYoudim
Published on 10 August 2016 on
Acknowledgements
Theeditorswouldliketothankthefollowingpeoplefortheirinputinto reviewingthechaptersof DrugTransporters:Volume2:RecentAdvancesand EmergingTechnologies:
Prof.PerArturssonandDrFabienneGaugaz(UppsalaUniversity)fortheir reviewofChapter3.
DrParNordellandDrConstanzeHilgendorf(AstraZeneca)fortheirreview ofChapter4.
DrJoseUlloa(BioxydynLtd)forhisreviewofChapter6.
DrMarcoBerrera(Roche)forhisreviewofChapter7.
RSCDrugDiscoverySeriesNo.55 DrugTransporters:Volume2:RecentAdvancesandEmergingTechnologies
EditedbyGlynisNichollsandKureshYoudim r TheRoyalSocietyofChemistry2016 PublishedbytheRoyalSocietyofChemistry,www.rsc.org
Abbreviations
ABCAdenosinetriphosphate(ATP)-bindingcassettetransporter (genesuperfamily)
ABCB ATP-bindingcassettegenesubfamilyB
ABCB1 GeneencodingMDR1orP-gp
ABCB11 GeneencodingBSEP
ABCC ATP-bindingcassettegenesubfamilyC
ABCC2 GeneencodingMRP2
ABCG ATP-bindingcassettegenesubfamilyG
ABCG2 GeneencodingBCRP
ADEAbsorption,distributionandelimination
ADMEAbsorption,distribution,metabolismandelimination
ADMETAbsorption,distribution,metabolism,eliminationand toxicity
ADRAdversedrugreaction
AhRArylhydrocarbonreceptor
AMPAdenosinemonophosphate
APIActivepharmaceuticalingredient
ARNTArylhydrocarbonnucleartranslocator
ASBTApicalsodiumdependentbileacidtransporter
ATPAdenosinetriphosphate
AUCAreaundercurve
AUMCAreaunderthefirstordermomentcurve
BABioavailability
BBBBlood–brainbarrier
BCRPBreastcancerresistanceprotein(gene ABCG2)
BCSBiopharmaceuticsclassificationsystem
BCSFBBlood–cerebrospinalfluidbarrier
BDDCSBiopharmaceuticsdrugdispositionclassificationsystem
RSCDrugDiscoverySeriesNo.55
DrugTransporters:Volume2:RecentAdvancesandEmergingTechnologies
EditedbyGlynisNichollsandKureshYoudim
r TheRoyalSocietyofChemistry2016
PublishedbytheRoyalSocietyofChemistry,www.rsc.org
Abbreviations xi
BEIBiliaryexcretionindex
BLECBrainlikeendothelialcell
BRBBloodRetinalBarrier
BSEPBilesaltexportpump(gene ABCB11)
Caco-2humancolonadenocarcinomacellline
CARConstitutiveandrostanereceptor(NR1I3)
CCK8Cholecystokinin-8
CDF5-(and-6)-carboxy-2 0 ,7 0 -dichloro-fluorescein
CFTRCysticfibrosistransmembraneconductanceregulator
CHMPCommitteeforMedicinalProductsforHumanUse
CHOChinesehamsterovary(cellline)
ciPTECConditionallyimmortalizedproximaltubuleepithelialcells
CIS-RRClash-detectionguidediterativesearchwithrotamer relaxation
CLorClClearance
CLae Apicaleffluxclearance
CLbile Biliaryclearance
CLd Diffusionalclearance
CLefflux Activebasolateraleffluxclearance
CLi/CLo Diffusionalclearancein(i)orout(o)ofthemembrane
CLint Intrinsicclearance
CLpassive Passiveclearance
CLren Renalclearance
CLuptake Activeuptakeclearance
Cmax Maximumobservedbloodconcentrationofdrug
Cmedia Substratemediaconcentration
CNSCentralnervoussystem
CNTConcentrativenucleosidetransporters(SLC28A subfamily)
CNVCopynumbervariation
Co-medConcurrentmedication
CMVsCanalicularmembranevesicles
CoMFAComparativemolecularanalysis
CoMSIAComparativemolecularsimilarityindicesanalysis
COPDChronicobstructivepulmonarydisease
CPChoroidPlexus
CRISPRClusterregularlyinterspacedshortpalindromicrepeats
CSCandidateselection
CsACyclosporineA
CSFCerebrospinalfluid
CTComputedtomography
CTAClinicaltrialapplication
CTDCommontechnicaldocument
CYP(450)CytochromeP450
CYP3A4CytochromeP4503A4
DCE-MRIDynamiccontrast-enhancedmagneticresonanceimaging
DDIDrug–druginteraction
xii Abbreviations
DIAdataindependentacquisition
DILIDruginducedliverinjury
DMEDrugmetabolizingenzyme
DMPKDrugmetabolismandpharmacokinetics
DNADeoxyribonucleicacid
DRMDrugrelatedmaterial
ECMExtracellularmatrix
EMAEuropeanMedicinesAgency
ENTEquilibrativenucleosidetransporter(subfamily SLC29A)
E17bGEstradiol-17b-glucuronide
EREndoplasmicreticulum
ESCEmbryonicstemcell
E1SEstrone-1-sulfate
EGTAethyleneglycoltetraaceticacid
ENTEquilibrativenucleosidetransporter(SLC29A subfamily)
F Bioavailability
Fa Fractionofthedosethatisabsorbedfromtheintestinal lumentotheintestinalenterocytes
Fg Fractionofthedosethatescapespre-systemicintestinal firstpasselimination
FAHFumarylacetoacetatehydrolase
FBSFoetalbovineserum
FaSSIFFastedstatesimulatedintestinalfluid
FeSSIFFedstatesimulatedintestinalfluid (US)FDA(UnitedStates)FoodandDrugsAdministration
fa Fractionofdoseabsorbed
fm Fractionmetabolized
ft Fractiontransported
FTIHFirsttimeinhuman
fu Fractionunbound
fub Fractionunboundinblood
FXRFarnesoidXreceptor(NR1H4)
GFJGrapefruitjuice
GFRGlomerularfiltrationrate
GItract/GITGastro-intestinaltract
GLUTGlucosetransporter
GMOGeneticallymodifiedorganism
GRglucocorticoidreceptor(NR3C1)
GSHGlutathione(reducedstate)
GSTGlutathione S-transferaseenzyme
HEK293Humanembryonickidneycells
HIVHumanimmunodeficiencyvirus
HGNCHumanGenomeOrganisationGeneNomenclature Committee
HMG-CoA3-Hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl-CoenzymeAreductase
HNF4a Hepaticnuclearfactor4alpha(NR2A1)
Abbreviations xiii
HUGOHumanGenomeOrganisation
I Inhibitorconcentration
IC50 Theconcentrationofinhibitorrequiredtoinhibittransport by50%
IDinjecteddose
IHCImmunohistochemistry
Iin.max Maximuminhibitorconcentrationattheinlettotheliver
INDInvestigationalnewdrug
iPSCInducedpluripotentstemcell
IRImmediaterelease
ISFbraininterstitialfluid
ITCInternationalTransporterConsortium
IVIVC Invitro–invivo correlation
IVIVE Invitro–invivo extrapolation
Jmax MaximumnumberofAPIstranslocatedacrossareapertime byagiventransporter
ka Absorptionrateconstantoftheinhibitor
Kd dissociationconstant
Ki Inhibitoryconstant
Km(app) MichaelisconstantinMichaelis–Mentenkinetics (apparent)
Kp Partitioncoefficient
LAT L-typeaminoacidtransporter
LC-MS/MSLiquidchromatographytandemmassspectrometry
LDLethaldose
LLC-PK1LillyLaboratoriesCulture-PigKidneyType1(cellline) logPlogarithmofthepartitioncoefficient,ameasureof lipophilicity
LOIDLeadoptimizationandidentification
LTC4LeukotrieneC4
LXRLiverXreceptor(NR1H3)
m/z Masstochargeratio
MAMarketingauthorization
MALDIMatrixassistedlaserdesorptionionization
MATEMultidrugandtoxinextrusionprotein
MATE1Multidrugandtoxinextrusionprotein(gene SLC47A1)
MATE2Multidrugandtoxinextrusionprotein(gene SLC47A2)
MCTMonocarboxylicacidtransporter
MDCKMadinDarbycaninekidney(cellline)
MDCKIIMadinDarbycaninekidney,typeII(cellline)
MDRMultidrugresistanceprotein
MDR1Multidrugresistanceprotein1(alsoknownasP-gp,gene ABCB1)
MHLWMinistryofHealth,LabourandWelfare
MMPMatrixmetalloproteinases
MPP þ 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium
xiv Abbreviations
MQAPsModelqualityassessmentprogrammes
mRNAMessengerriboxynucleicacid
MRIMagneticresonanceimaging
MRPMultidrugresistanceassociatedprotein
MRP2Multidrugresistanceassociatedprotein2(gene ABCC2)
MRP4Multidrugresistanceassociatedprotein4(gene ABCC4)
MWMolecularweight
NaDC3Sodiumdependentdicarboxylatetransporter3(SLC13A3)
NAT N-acetyltransferase
NBDNucleotidebindingdomain
NCENewchemicalentity
NDANewdrugapplication
NIRNearinfraredimaging
NMENewmolecularentity
NMRNuclearmagneticresonance
NPT4Sodiumphosphatetransporter4
NRNuclearreceptor
NSAIDNon-steroidalanti-inflammatorydrug
NSFNephrogenicsystemicfibrosis
NTNutrienttransporter
NTBC2-(2-nitro-4-fluoro-methylbenzoyl)-1,3-cyclohexanedione
NTCPNa-taurocholate co-transportingpolypeptide
NumHBANumberofhydrogenbondacceptors
NumHBDNumberofhydrogenbonddonors
OATOrganicaniontransporter
OAT1Organicaniontransporter1(gene SLC22A6)
OAT3Organicaniontransporter3(gene SLC22A8)
OATPOrganicaniontransportingpolypeptide
OATP1A2Organicaniontransportingpolypeptide1A2 (gene SLCO1A2)
OATP1B1Organicaniontransportingpolypeptide1B1(gene SLCO1B1)
OATP1B3Organicaniontransportingpolypeptide1B3(gene SLCO1B3)
OATP2B1Organicaniontransportingpolypeptide2B1(gene SLCO2B1)
OCTOrganiccationtransporter
OCT1Organiccationtransporter(gene SLC22A1)
OCT2Organiccationtransporter(gene SLC22A2)
OCTNOrganiccation/carnitinetransporter
OCTN1Organiccation/carnitinetransporter1(gene SLC22A4)
OCTN2Organiccation/carnitinetransporter2(gene SLC22A5)
OSTa/b
Papp
Organicsolutetransporter a/b (gene SLC51A/B)
Apparentpermeabilitystudied invitro
PAMPAParallelartificialmembranepermeabilityassay
PBECPorcinebrainendothelialcell
PBPKPhysiologicallybasedpharmacokinetic
Pcar saturablecarrier-mediatedpermeability
PCRPolymerasechainreaction
Abbreviations xv
PDPharmacodynamics
PDBProteinDataBank
Pdiffpassivediffusion
PDUFAPrescriptionDrugUserFeeAct
PDMSPolydimethylsiloxane
PEff,man Effectivepermeabilityinhumansstudied invivo
PEPTPeptidetransporter
PEPT1Peptidetransporter1(gene SLC15A1)
PEPT2Peptidetransporter2(gene SLC15A2)
PETPositronemissiontomography
P-gpP-glycoprotein(alsoknownasMDR1,gene ABCB1)
PKPharmacokinetics
PK/PDPharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics
PMDAPharmaceuticalsandMedicalDevicesAgency(Japan)
POCorPoCProofofconcept
Ppas Passivediffusionaldrivenpermeability
PPARPeroxisomeproliferatoractivatedreceptor
PSbile Intrinsicbiliaryclearance
PSeff Intrinsicsinusoidaleffluxclearance
PSinf Intrinsicuptakeclearance
PXRPregnaneXreceptor(NR1I2)
QH Hepaticbloodflow
QSARQuantitativestructure–activityrelationship
QWBAQuantitativeWholeBodyAutoradiography
R&DResearchanddevelopment
RAFrelativeactivityfactor
ragRecombinantactivatinggene
RBERatbrainendothelial
rBSEPRatbilesaltexportpump(gene ABCB11)
RCSBResearchCollaboratoryforStructuralBioinformatics
REFRelativeexpressionfactor
ROCReceiveroperatingcharacteristics
RPTECRenalproximaltubuleepithelialcells
RT-PCRReversetranscriptasepolymerasechainreaction
RXRRetinoidXreceptor
SCHSandwich-culturedhepatocytes
SCHHSandwich-culturedhumanhepatocytes
SCIDSeverecombinedimmunodeficiency
SERTSerotonintransporter
SFScalingfactor
SGLTSodiumglucoselinkedtransporter
SLCSolutecarriergenesuperfamily
SLCO Solutecarrierorganicaniontransportergenesubfamily
SLC22 Solutecarriersubfamily22
SLC47 GeneencodingMATE
SLCO1A2 GeneencodingOATP1A2
SLCO1B1 GeneencodingOATP1B1
SLCO1B3 GeneencodingOATP1B3
SLCO2B1 GeneencodingOATP2B1
SLC10A1 GeneencodingNTCP
SLC15A1 GeneencodingPEPT1
SLC15A2 GeneencodingPEPT2
SLC22A1 GeneencodingOCT1
SLC22A2 GeneencodingOCT2
SLC22A4 GeneencodingOCTN1
SLC22A5 GeneencodingOCTN2
SLC22A6 GeneencodingOAT1
SLC22A8 GeneencodingOAT3
SLC28A GeneencodingCNT
SLC29A GeneencodingENT
SLC51A/B GeneencodingOSTa/b
SlogPestimateoflogPbysummingthecontributionof atom-weightedsolventaccessiblesurfaceareas(SASA)and correctionfactors
SMRMolarrefractivity(includingimplicithydrogens).This propertyisanatomiccontributionmodelthatassumesthe correctprotonationstate(washedstructures).
SNP(s)Singlenucleotidepolymorphism(s)
SPECTSinglephotonemissioncomputedtomography
SRMSelectedreactionmonitoring
SULTSulfotransferaseenzyme
TALENTranscriptionactivator-likeeffectornuclease
TCDBTransporterclassificationdatabase
TCDD2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin
TEATetraethylammonium
TEERTransepithelialelectricalresistance
TKToxicokinetics
Tmax Timeatwhichthe Cmax isobserved
TMDTrans-membranedomain
TPSATopologicalpolarsurfacearea
UDPUridine5 0 -diphosphate
UGTUridine5 0 -diphospho-glucuronosyltransferaseor UDP-glucuronosyltransferase
URATUratetransporter
VD or Vd Volumeofdistribution
Vmax Maximalvelocity
ZFNZinc-fingernucleases
Contents
Volume1:RoleandImportanceinADMEandDrugDevelopment
SectionI:TheRoleofTransportersinADME
Chapter1MembraneTransporters:Fundamentals,Functionand TheirRoleinADME3 JohnKeogh,BrunoHagenbuch,CarolineRynn,BrunoStieger andGlynisNicholls
1.1Introduction3
1.2TheHistoryofTransporterScience4
1.2.1TheDiscoveryofTransportProcesses4
1.2.2TheDevelopmentofTransporterScience inIndustry6
1.3TransporterFormandFunction10
1.3.1TransporterFamiliesandNomenclature10
1.3.2DrivingForcesforABCsandSLCs12
1.3.3Uptake,EffluxandBi-directionality14
1.3.4SubstrateSpecificitiesandBindingSites14
1.3.5TransporterLocalisationandInterplay16
1.3.6TransporterExpressioninAnimalSpecies18
1.3.7OtherFactorsAffectingTransporterForm andFunction19
1.4TheTransporterToolkit23
1.4.1 InSitu and InVitro Models:BasicConcepts, LimitationsandTranslation23
1.4.2 InVitro TransporterInhibitionStudies25
1.4.3 InVitro TransporterSubstrateStudies26
RSCDrugDiscoverySeriesNo.55
DrugTransporters:Volume2:RecentAdvancesandEmergingTechnologies
EditedbyGlynisNichollsandKureshYoudim r TheRoyalSocietyofChemistry2016 PublishedbytheRoyalSocietyofChemistry,www.rsc.org
Contents
1.4.4 InVitro TransporterInductionStudies26
1.4.5 InVivo StudiesinPreclinicalSpeciesand Humans27
1.4.6Metabolite–TransporterInteractions27
1.5DrugTransportersandPK28
1.5.1Permeability28
1.5.2OralAbsorptionandBioavailability29
1.5.3DrugClearance31
1.6EvaluatingandInterpretingDrugTransporter InteractionsinDrugDiscoveryandDevelopment33
1.6.1DrugDiscoveryApproaches34
1.6.2DrugDevelopmentApproaches37
1.7ToxicityandTransporters40
1.8ConclusionsandFutureDirections41 References42
Chapter2DrugTransportersintheLiver:TheirInvolvementinthe UptakeandExportofEndo-andXeno-biotics57 BrunoStiegerandBrunoHagenbuch
2.1Introduction57
2.2SoluteCarrierSuperfamilyMembersExpressedin Hepatocytes60
2.2.1The SLCO FamilyofOATPs60
2.2.2The SLC22 FamilyofOCTsandOATs64
2.2.3 SLC10:theSodiumBileSaltCotransporter Family66
2.2.4MultidrugandToxinExtrusion(MATE) Family(SLC47)66
2.2.5TheHeterodimericOSTa/OSTb inthe SLC51 Family66
2.3ABCTransportersinHepatocytes67
2.3.1MRP3(ABCC3)68
2.3.2MRP4(ABCC4)68
2.3.3MRP6(ABCC6)69
2.3.4MDR1(ABCB1)69
2.3.5ABCG2(BCRP, ABCG2)70
2.3.6MRP2(ABCC2)70
2.3.7BSEP(ABCC11)70
2.4ImplicationsforDrugDevelopment71 2.5SummaryandConclusions73 References73
Chapter3DrugTransportersintheIntestine81 BenteSteffansen
3.1TheIntestinalTractandDrugAbsorption81
3.2TheEnterocyteMonolayer85
3.3DrugTransportersinAbsorption89
3.4Conclusions92 References103
Chapter4DrugTransportersintheKidney109 GitWengChung,SarahFayeBillington,SarahElizabeth JenkinsonandColinDouglasBrown
4.1Introduction109
4.2TheAnatomyoftheKidney110
4.3RenalClearanceofXenobioticCompounds112
4.4DrugTransporterExpressionintheProximal Tubule114
4.4.1OATs115
4.4.2OATPs121
4.4.3OrganicAnionTransportersURAT1,GLUT9 andNPT4122
4.4.4OCTs123
4.4.5MATEs124
4.4.6MDR1125
4.4.7BCRP126
4.4.8MRPs128
4.4.9PeptideTransporters(PEPT1andPEPT2)129
4.4.10PhosphateTransporters130
4.4.11Receptor-mediatedEndocytosis (MegalinandCubilin)130
4.5 Invitro RenalModels131
4.5.1 XenopusLaevis OocyteExpressionSystem132
4.5.2TransfectedandImmortalizedRenalCell Lines132
4.5.3CorticalRenalSlices133
4.5.4PrimaryProximalTubularCells133
4.6SpeciesDifferencesinRenalHandling134
4.7DevelopmentofPredictive Invitro ModelsofDrug Transport135
4.8Conclusion137 References137
Chapter5DrugTransportersattheBlood–BrainBarrier151 DavidDickens,SteffenRadischandMunirPirmohamed
5.1TheBlood–BrainBarrier151
5.1.1Overview151
5.1.2BBBinNumbers152
5.1.3NeurovascularUnit152
5.1.4PhysicalBarrier154
5.1.5TransportattheBBB156
5.2ModellingoftheBBB157
5.2.1CellularModelsoftheBBB157
5.2.2 Invivo Models158
5.3EffluxTransportersExpressedattheBBB160
5.3.1P-gp160
5.3.2BCRP163
5.3.3MRP4164
5.3.4PutativelyExpressedBBBEffluxTransporters165
5.3.5InterplayBetweenEffluxTransporters165
5.4InfluxTransportersExpressedattheBBB167
5.4.1LAT1167
5.4.2OrganicAnionTransportingPolypeptide Transporters168
5.4.3MonocarboxylateTransporters169
5.4.4OrganicCationTransporters169
5.4.5OrganicAnionTransporters170
5.4.6NutrientTransporters171
5.5TransportersExpressedattheCP171
5.6Challenge172
5.7Opportunity173
5.8Summary174 References174
Chapter6DrugTransportersintheLung:ExpressionandPotential ImpactonPulmonaryDrugDisposition184 LenaGustavsson,CynthiaBosquillon,MarkGumbleton, ToveHegelund-Myrback,TakeoNakanishi,DanPrice, IkumiTamaiandXiao-HongZhou
6.1Introduction184
6.2TheLung:Anatomy,MorphologyandPhysiology185
6.2.1Overview185
6.2.2TheHealthyLung186
6.2.3TheDiseasedLung188
6.3InhalationTherapyandPulmonaryDrug Disposition189
6.4DrugTransporterFamiliesintheHumanLung192
6.5 Invitro and Invivo ModelstoStudyPulmonary DrugDisposition198
6.5.1CellCultureModels198
6.5.2IsolatedPerfusedLung Exvivo 202
6.5.3 Invivo Models204
6.6DrugTransportersandTheirPotentialImpacton InhaledDrugDisposition,EfficacyandToxicity205
6.6.1OCTsofthe SLC22A Family205
6.6.2PeptideTransportersofthe SLC15A Family208
6.6.3OtherTransportersofthe SLC and SLCO Families209
6.6.4MDRs:P-gp211
6.6.5MRPs:MRP1213
6.6.6BCRP214
6.7DistributionofDrugsfromtheSystemic Circulation215
6.8TransporterRegulationintheLung216
6.9SummaryandConcludingRemarks217
6.10ContributionsbytheAuthors218 References218
SectionII:PreclinicalModelsinCurrentUsewithinthe PharmaceuticalIndustry
Chapter7TheCharacteristics,ValidationandApplicationsof Insilico and Invitro ModelsofDrugTransporters231 PradeepSharma,MohammedI.Atari,RobertElsby, SimonThomas,SimoneStahl,ConstanzeHilgendorfand KatherineFenner
7.1Introduction231
7.2 Insilico ModelsofDrugTransporters234
7.2.1Why Insilico Modelling?234
7.2.2Transporter-basedMethods241
7.2.3Compound-basedMethods244
7.3 Invitro ModelsofTransporters247
7.3.1Membrane-basedModels:TransportAssays UtilisingVesiclesandtheATPaseAssay247
7.3.2Cell-basedModels:GeneticallyModifiedCells251
7.3.3Cell-basedModels:ImmortalisedCellLines254
7.3.4CulturesofPrimaryCells255
7.3.5SpecialisedCultureFormats260
7.3.6Precision-cutTissueSlices263
7.3.7IsolatedPerfusedOrganSystemsand TissueChambers265
7.4Validation,VariabilityandRecommendationsfor ExperimentalDesignof Invitro Assays267
7.4.1RecommendationsforExperimentalDesign268
7.4.2GeneralConsiderationsforValidating TransporterSubstrateAssays268
7.4.3GeneralConsiderationsforValidating TransporterInhibitionAssays273
7.5 Invitro ParametersandCalculationsforKinetics andPredictions278
7.5.1KineticParametersDerivedfrom Invitro Models278
7.5.2 Invitro ParametersinDDIPredictions280 7.6Summary286 ConflictofInterest286 References286
Chapter8KnockoutandHumanisedAnimalModelstoStudy MembraneTransportersinDrugDevelopment298 NicoScheer,XiaoyanChu,LaurentSalphatiand MaciejJ.Zamek-Gliszczynski
8.1Introduction298
8.2MethodsforGeneratingTransporterKnockoutand HumanisedAnimalModelsforUseinDrug Development304
8.2.1TransporterKnockoutAnimals304
8.2.2GeneticallyHumanisedTransporterModels306
8.2.3LiverHumanisedAnimalModels308
8.3KnockoutandHumanisedAnimalModelsinthe StudyofTransporter-mediatedDrugDisposition309
8.3.1UseofTransporterKnockoutAnimalsto StudyEffluxTransporter-limitedAbsorption310
8.3.2FractionTransportedDeterminationusing TransporterKnockoutAnimals:Insightinto Transporter-mediatedDDIPotential312
8.3.3UseofTransporterKnockoutAnimalsto StudyBrainDistribution313
8.3.4UseofTransporterKnockoutAnimalsto StudyHepaticUptake314
8.3.5UseofTransporterKnockoutAnimalsto StudyExcretoryClearance316
8.3.6UtilityofGeneticallyHumanisedMouse Models318
8.3.7UtilityofLiverHumanisedMouseModels320 8.4StudyDesignandDataInterpretation321
8.5ConclusionsandPerspectives324 DeclarationofInterest325 References325
Chapter9MechanisticModellingtoPredictTransporter-mediated DrugDispositionandDrug–DrugInteractions333 RuiLi,KrishnaK.Machavaram,SimonThomasand ManthenaV.Varma
9.1Introduction333
9.2Useof Invitro MethodstoEstimateTransport KineticsofDrugs336
9.2.1Basic(Static)ApproachestoEstimateActive andPassiveTransport337
9.2.2Mechanistic(Dynamic)Approachesto DelineateHepaticUptake,Effluxand Metabolism338
9.2.3PermeabilityModelsforAssessingCellular EffluxandTransport339
9.3PharmacokineticModelsforHepaticTransporter Substrates341
9.3.1StaticModel341
9.3.2EmpiricalCompartmentModelandReduced PBPKModel342
9.3.3WholeBodyPBPKModel342
9.3.4CharacteristicsandApplicationsofDifferent PharmacokineticModelsforTransporter Substrates343
9.3.5PharmacokineticPredictionandIVIVEof TransporterActivity344
9.3.6DeterminingValuesofOtherKeyParameters inPBPKModels346
9.4Transporter-mediatedDDIs348
9.4.1StaticApproaches349
9.4.2DynamicApproaches351
9.4.3LimitationsofCurrentApproachesforDDI Predictions353 9.5Summary354 References354
SectionIII:ImportanceandClinicalImpactof Transporter-mediatedDrug–DrugInteractions
Chapter10TransporterDrug–DrugInteractions:APharmaceutical IndustryPerspective363 SilkeSimon,MohammedUllah,RobertvanWaterschoot, DietmarSchwab,SusanGrange,CarolineA.Leeand ChristophFunk
10.1IntroductionandOverviewofClinicalDrug–Drug Interactions363
10.1.1DDIsintheIntestine365
10.1.2DDIsintheLiver378
10.1.3DDIsattheBlood–BrainBarrier379
10.1.4DDIsintheKidney381
10.1.5DDIsinOtherTissues383
10.2TransporterAssessmentStrategies384
10.2.1WhichTransporterstoFocusonforDDI Assessment:ITCRecommendationsand RegulatoryRequirements384
10.2.2WhentoInvestigateRiskforDDIs: ApproachesinTransporterAssessment Strategies386
10.3ClinicalInteractionStudies390
10.3.1Introduction390
10.3.2Absorption395
10.3.3TissueDistribution397
10.3.4HepaticClearance397 10.3.5RenalElimination398 10.4CaseStudies400
10.4.1DigoxinDDIs400
10.4.2RoleofOATP1B1inStatinDDIs402 10.5ConclusionandOutlook404
10.5.1Tailored,Step-wiseDrugTransporter TestingStrategiesinDrugDevelopment404
10.5.2GapsWithin Invitro DrugTransporter Tools405
10.5.3TheChallengeofTranslating Invitro Drug TransporterDatatotheClinicalSituation406 Acknowledgements407 References407
Chapter11TransporterDrug–DrugInteractions:Regulatory RequirementsandDrugLabelling418 SusanM.Cole,GustavAhlin,NaomiNagai,DaisukeIwata, MasanobuSatoandKentaYoshida
11.1Introduction418 11.2NewDrugApplications420
11.2.1NewDrugApplicationstotheEMA420
11.2.2NewDrugApplicationstotheFDA421
11.2.3NewDrugApplicationstothe MHLW/PMDA421
11.2.4TransporterSectionsinNewDrug Applications423
11.2.5ScientificAdviceonNewDrugApplications423 11.3RegulatoryGuidelines426
11.3.1HistoryofTransportersinRegulatory Guidelines426
11.3.2European(EMA)Guidance427
11.3.3DraftFDAGuidance439
11.3.4DraftMHLWGuideline442 11.4Conclusion446 Disclaimer446 Acknowledgements446 References447 SubjectIndex450 Volume2:RecentAdvancesandEmergingTechnologies
Chapter1EmergingTransporterScienceandChallengesfortheFuture1 GlynisNichollsandKureshYoudim
1.1Introduction1 1.2MembraneTransportersofEmergingImportance2 1.3MembraneTransportersinLess-studiedOrgansand Tissues3
1.3.1Placenta3
1.3.2Retina4
1.3.3Heart5
1.3.4Skin6
1.4Organotypic Invitro Technologies6
1.4.1Microfluidics7
1.4.23DMicroplatforms9
1.4.33DBioprinting9
1.5Summary10 References11
Chapter2EnablingDynamicResponsetoChemicalChallenge: NuclearReceptor-mediatedControlofTransporter Expression19 NickPlant
2.1GeneralIntroduction19
2.2NuclearReceptorOverview20
2.2.1GeneralIntroduction20
2.2.2StructureofNuclearReceptors21 2.3LocalisationandFunctionofNuclearReceptors24
2.3.1 Trans-activation25
2.3.2 Trans-repression26
2.4NuclearReceptorsasChemicalSensors27
2.5NuclearReceptorsandDrugTransporters29
2.6TheABCSuperfamily29
2.6.1 ABCA Subfamily30
2.6.2 ABCB Subfamily30
2.6.3 ABCC Subfamily31
2.6.4 ABCD Subfamily32
2.6.5 ABCE and ABCF Subfamilies32
2.6.6 ABCG Subfamily32
2.7SLCSuperfamily33
2.7.1OligopeptideTransporters(SLC15A)33
2.7.2FolateTransporters(SLC19A)33
2.7.3ConcentrativeNucleosideTransporters (SLC28A)34
2.7.4EquilibrativeNucleosideTransporters (SLC29A)34
2.7.5OrganicAnionTransporters(SLCO/SLC21)35
2.7.6OrganicCationTransporters(SLC22)35
2.7.7MultidrugandToxinExtrusionProteins (SLC47)36
2.8Conclusion36 References37
Chapter3TargetedProteomicstoSupportTransporterIVIVEandPBPK44 AkiT.Heikkinen,NeilParrott,TomDunkleyandPaulCutler
3.1Introduction44
3.1.1 Invitro to Invivo Extrapolation(IVIVE)of TransporterActivity46
3.2MethodsforQuantitativeProteomics48
3.2.1MassSpectrometry-basedProteomics48
3.3UtilityofTransporterProteomicDatainthe TranslationofTransporterActivityinHumanTissues56
3.3.1IVIVEofActivelyTransportedSubstrateDrugs56
3.3.2IVIVEandPBPKofHepatobiliaryTransport57
3.3.3IVIVEandPBPKofIntestinalTransport60
3.3.4IVIVEandPBPKofTransportThroughthe Blood–BrainBarrier61
3.3.5IVIVEandPBPKofRenalTransport62
3.4CurrentStatusandFutureChallenges63 References65
Chapter4InterplayBetweenEnzymesandTransporters:Impacton thePredictionofPharmacokineticsandDrug–Drug Interactions73 KarelleMe´nochetandHuguesChanteux
4.1Introduction73
4.2EvidenceoftheClinicalImpactoftheInterplay BetweenEnzymesandTransporters76
4.2.1ImpactoftheInterplayBetweenEnzymes andTransportersonAbsorption76
4.2.2ImpactoftheInterplayBetweenEnzymes andTransportersonDistribution80
4.2.3ImpactoftheInterplayBetweenEnzymes andTransportersonElimination82
4.2.4InterplayDuetoRegulationofEnzymesand Transporters85
4.3PredictionoftheImpactoftheInterplayBetween EnzymesandTransportersonPharmacokinetics87
4.3.1PreclinicalInvestigationofthe Enzyme–TransporterInterplay87
4.3.2ApplicationsandLimitationsofTraditional PhysiologicalModelsfor Invitro–Invivo ExtrapolationintheCaseofInterplay BetweenEnzymesandTransporters92
Contents
4.3.3ApplicationofPBPKModellingtoPredictthe ImpactoftheEnzyme–TransporterInterplay94
4.4PredictionofComplexDDIsInvolvingCYP450and Transporters97
4.5Conclusions99 Acknowledgements100 References100
Chapter5PharmacogenomicsofDrugTransporters:Clinical Implications114
IchiroIeiri
5.1Introduction114
5.2PharmacogenomicsandTransporters115
5.3PharmacogenomicsofCurrentClinically-relevant Transporters117
5.3.1OATP1B1(SLCO1B1)117
5.3.2OATP1B3(SLCO1B3)120
5.3.3OATP2B1(SLCO2B1)120
5.3.4MATE1(SLC47A1)123
5.3.5MATE2-K(SLC47A2)125
5.3.6BCRP(ABCG2)125
5.3.7MDR1(P-glycoprotein, ABCB1)127
5.3.8OATs(SLC22A)127
5.3.9OCTs(SLC22A)133
5.4PharmacogenomicsofOtherTransportersof Interest136
5.4.1MRP2(ABCC2)136
5.4.2BSEP(ABCB11)136 5.5Conclusion136 References137
Chapter6TheRoleof Invivo ImagingintheStudyofTransporter InteractionsinAnimalsandHumans143 GlynisNicholls,HeatherFlynnandNeilWoodhouse
6.1Introduction143
6.2 Invivo ImagingwithinDrugDevelopment145
6.3PharmacokineticandPharmacodynamicImaging Techniques147
6.3.1MagneticResonanceImaging(MRI)147
6.3.2RadionuclideImaging152
6.3.3MultimodalityImaging157
6.4TheApplicationofImaginginEvaluating TransporterDrug–DrugInteractions158
6.4.1Blood–BrainBarrier(BBB)159
6.4.2Liver162
6.4.3Kidney167
6.4.4Gastrointestinal(GI)Tract169
6.4.5ImaginginOtherADMEOrgans170
6.5TheUseofImagingtoAssessTransporterFunction andExpression Invivo 170
6.6PersonalisedHealthcare:PotentialApplications172
6.7FuturePerspectives173 References174
Chapter7MethodsandResourcesforTransportProteinsin BioinformaticsandCheminformatics195 DavidMarcusandLoraMak
7.1Introduction195 7.2BioinformaticsMethods196
7.2.1TransporterClassification197
7.2.2DataIntegration198
7.3CheminformaticsMethods199
7.3.1Ligand-basedMethods199
7.3.2Structure-basedMethods204
7.4Resources205
7.4.1ResourceomefortheTransportome205
7.4.2TransporterDataSourcesinDrugDiscovery213 7.5Conclusions215 References216 SubjectIndex227
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Mogen sommigen zich bij die verklaring hebben neergelegd, het spreekt van zelf, dat het boekje vele lezers heeft gevonden. Er bestaan talrijke drukken van, waaronder met groote wijzigingen. Deze zijn wel buiten weten van den schrijver aangebracht.
Behalve met zijn historisch-apologetisch werk begon hij zich met anderen arbeid bezig te houden. Men neemt aan dat dit in ’58-59 geschiedde.
In elk opzicht teleurgesteld teruggekomen uit dien maalstroom van intriges, dien oceaan van zelfzucht, eigenbelang, huichelarij en trouweloosheid, waarin hij jaren lang geleefd had, had zich bij hem een gemoedsgesteldheid ontwikkeld, waarvan wij in zijn zelfportret duidelijke aanwijzingen hebben. Hij erkent zijn zwaarmoedigheid en beweert, dat men hem in drie of vier jaren nauwelijks drie of vier maal heeft zien lachen. Hij houdt bij voorkeur van ernstige gesprekken en verkiest bovenal zedekundige onderwerpen. Naast zijn neiging tot het opstellen van verdedigingen van zijn gedrag ontwikkelde zich een peinzen over en zoeken naar de oorzaken en beweegredenen van alles, wat hij had zien doen. Het is ten eenenmale begrijpelijk, dat zijn levensinzicht niet optimistisch zou zijn.
Men heeft gevraagd hoe hij aan zijn stof was gekomen en of hij niet bij andere moralisten zou hebben geput. Hier op wordt reeds geantwoord in een handschrift uit de 2de helft der XVIIde eeuw (Bibl. Nat. Nouv. Acq. fr. 4333). „Bijna alles” zou hij hebben overgenomen uit een boekje, getiteld: „La Sonde de la Conscience”, te Genève in 1634 verschenen. Schrijver was Jean Verneuil, die het uit het Engelsch had vertaald. De oorspronkelijke titel was: „The Mystery of Selfdeceiving, by Daniel Dyke, London, 1615”. In het handschrift merkt men op: „Hij voegt er alleen het mooie Fransch aan toe”.
Niet gaarne zou ik iets te kort doen aan de verdienste dezer volkomen vergeten schrijvers, zeker brave, vrome protestanten, maar de geschiedenis heeft reeds haar oordeel gesproken: hun werk is volkomen vergeten, terwijl de bundel van la Rochefoucauld zijn waarde zal blijven behouden zoo lang men Fransch zal lezen. Niet als stijloefening, maar om genot te smaken van de geestige wijze, waarop hier kernachtige gedachten zijn uitgedrukt.
Nog meer vertelt het handschrift: „Mevrouw de Sablé heeft de Maximes herzien; de mooiste komen van haar. Hij doet er niets aan zonder het haar te toonen.... Die markiezin is het orakel, dat door het geheele Hof wordt geraadpleegd. Zij vleit in hooge mate de eigenliefde, wanneer zij menschen aanspreekt”.
Wie zulke overdreven berichten voor waar mocht willen aannemen, moge een brief lezen, door den schrijver gericht aan Mademoiselle de Scudéry, de bekende romanschrijfster. Daarin zegt hij: „Gij hebt eenige mijner laatste maximes dusdanig verfraaid, dat zij veeleer aan u dan aan mij toebehooren. Ik wensch hartstochtelijk, dat u dezelfde genade aan de andere zoudt willen bewijzen”.
Men ziet: hij was niet bang hem verleende hulp te erkennen, maar hij zal vermoedelijk veel zulke briefjes hebben geschreven, want het was nu eenmaal zijn gewoonte de vrienden en vriendinnen te raadplegen. Indien nu Mevrouw de Sablé zoo buitengewoon knap was geweest, is het wel bevreemdend, dat de door haar nagelaten maximes niets om het lijf hebben.
Er zijn schilders en beeldhouwers, die van hun werk geen afscheid kunnen nemen, die altijd nog iets te wijzigen vinden. Bijkans met geweld moet men ten slotte hun schilderij of beeld uit het atelier laten weghalen om een einde aan het getob te maken. Een dergelijk kunstenaar was la Rochefoucauld. Segrais verhaalt dat de Hertog hem cahiers met spreuken toezond, met verzoek die vijf of zes weken onder zich te houden, ten einde zoowel vorm als inhoud rustig te beoordeelen, en dat er spreuken zijn, die meer dan dertig maal heen en weer zijn gezonden.
Van die voortdurende veranderingen kan men zeer merkwaardige staaltjes vinden door het vergelijken der handschriften en verschillende drukken. Vaak komt het voor dat hij zijn oordeel verzacht, ten minste minder algemeen toepasselijk maakt, een verzachting toegeschreven aan den invloed van Mevrouw de Lafayette, zijn intieme vriendin, van wie nog aanstonds sprake zal zijn.
B.v. Nr. . Hierin stond oorspronkelijk „altijd”, hetgeen later werd „bijna altijd”.