IntelligentSystems,ControlandAutomation: ScienceandEngineering
Volume84
Serieseditor
ProfessorS.G.Tzafestas,NationalTechnicalUniversityofAthens,Greece
EditorialAdvisoryBoard
ProfessorP.Antsaklis,UniversityofNotreDame,IN,USA ProfessorP.Borne,EcoleCentraledeLille,France ProfessorR.Carelli,UniversidadNacionaldeSanJuan,Argentina ProfessorT.Fukuda,NagoyaUniversity,Japan
ProfessorN.R.Gans,TheUniversityofTexasatDallas,Richardson,TX,USA
ProfessorF.Harashima,UniversityofTokyo,Japan ProfessorP.Martinet,EcoleCentraledeNantes,France
ProfessorS.Monaco,UniversityLaSapienza,Rome,Italy
ProfessorR.R.Negenborn,DelftUniversityofTechnology,TheNetherlands ProfessorA.M.Pascoal,InstituteforSystemsandRobotics,Lisbon,Portugal ProfessorG.Schmidt,TechnicalUniversityofMunich,Germany ProfessorT.M.Sobh,UniversityofBridgeport,CT,USA
ProfessorC.Tzafestas,NationalTechnicalUniversityofAthens,Greece ProfessorK.Valavanis,UniversityofDenver,Colorado,USA
Moreinformationaboutthisseriesathttp://www.springer.com/series/6259
MariaIsabelAldinhasFerreira
JoaoSilvaSequeira • MohammadOsmanTokhi
EndreE.Kadar • GurvinderSinghVirk
Editors
AWorldwithRobots
InternationalConferenceonRobotEthics: ICRE2015
Editors
MariaIsabelAldinhasFerreira
UniversityofLisbonCenterofPhilosophy
Lisbon Portugal
JoaoSilvaSequeira
InstitutoSuperiorTécnico
TechnicalUniversityofLisbon Lisbon Portugal
MohammadOsmanTokhi
LondonSouthBankUniversity London UK
EndreE.Kadar DepartmentofPsychology UniversityofPortsmouth Portsmouth UK
GurvinderSinghVirk InnotecUKLtd Cambridge UK
ISSN2213-8986ISSN2213-8994(electronic) IntelligentSystems,ControlandAutomation:ScienceandEngineering ISBN978-3-319-46665-1ISBN978-3-319-46667-5(eBook) DOI10.1007/978-3-319-46667-5
LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2016953858
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Preface
Theincreasingdeploymentofrobotictechnologyinmanydomainsofhumanlife willhaveasubstantialimpactontheeconomic,socialandculturaltissuesofour societies.Thoughonecanalreadyanticipatesomeofitshugebenefits,italsourges ustotrytoreflectonitsimpactonfundamentalinstancesofeverydaylifeandalso envisagetowhatextentessentialsocietalvaluesonwhichwehavebasedour culturesandlegalsystemsmaybeeventuallyaffected.
Onthevergeofthistechnologicalrevolution,expertsfromacademia,industry, militaryandciviliansectorsgatheredintheInternationalConferenceonRobot Ethics(ICRE2015)1 inordertoreflectanddiscussthemainethicalproblems resultingfromthewidespreadadoptionofrobotics.Thepresentbookcomprehends notonlytheshareddoubtsandconcernsbutaboveallthecommonefforttoopenup newpathwaystoafuturewithrobotsthatcontributestoabetterworld.
Thebookisdividedintotwoparts:PartIpresentsselectedcontributionsofthe mainspeakersandalsothoseofinvitedguests.Theseareorganizedaccordingto relevantdomainstheyareaddressingcomprisinggeneralnormativeandethical issues,theethicsofsomeroboticapplications,socialandservicerobotics,robotsin defenceandwarscenarioand, finally,legalissues.
PartIIcontainsthereflectionsandaccountsofthetwoothereventsorganized duringICRE2015:acinemacycle TheRobotStepsin;andtheexhibitionNóse osRobots/OsRobotseNós 2
PartIstartswithChap. 1.Here,Malle,ScheutzandAusterweilpointoutthatthe mostethicallychallengingroletobeplayedbyrobotsisthatofcollaboratorand socialpartner.Proposingthatsuchrobotsmusthavethecapacitytolearn,represent, activate,andapplysocialandmoralnorms,theauthorsofferatheoreticalanalysis oftwoparallelquestionsthatare:(i)Whatconstitutesthiscapacityfornormsin humans?(ii)Howmightweimplementtheminrobots?
1Lisbon,23and24October2015.
2WeandtheRobots/TheRobotsandUs,intheEnglishtranslation.
InChap. 2,MaaikeHarbers,MariekePeeters,andMarkNeerincxanalysehowa robotsystem’scharacteristicsaffectpeople’sperceptionofitsautonomy.Basedon asurveyaimedatidentifyingtherateofautonomyassignedby firefi ghterstoa numberofsearchandrescuerobotswithdifferentshapesandindistinctsituations, theauthorswereabletoidentifysevendistinctaspectsofperceivedautonomy.
InChap. 3,SeanWelsharguesthatthecriticalworkindeonticreasoningis betterdoneintheknowledgerepresentationratherthanreasoningofanormative system.Inthischapter,theauthordescribesawaytoformalizecomplexnormative decisionsusingpredicatelogicandgraphdatabases.
InChap. 4 bySelmerBringsjordproposesanethicalhierarchy(EH)thatcanbe appliedtobothrobotsandhumans.Thishierarchyiscatalysedbythequestion:Can robotsbemoremoralthanhumans?AccordingtoBringsjord,thelightshedbyEH revealswhyanemphasisonlegalobligationforrobotsisinadequate,andwhy atleastthevastmajorityoftoday’sstate-of-the-artdeonticlogicsaremorally inexpressive,whethertheyareintendedtoformalizetheethicalbehaviourofrobots orhumans.
Chapter 5 byWilhelmE.J.KleinonRobotsandFreeSoftwareexamines whethertheargumentsputforwardbyfreesoftwareadvocatedinthecontextof computersalsoapplyforrobots.SummarizingtheirkeyargumentsKleinexplores whetherornottheyappeartransferabletorobotusecasescenarios.Issuesrelatedto robotethicsforchildren–robotstudiesreportedincontemporarypeer-reviewed papersarealsopresented.
InChap. 6,JaeeunShimandRonaldC.Arkinaddresstheparticularbenefits broughtbyrobotictechnologytothedomainofhealthcare,namelytopatientswith Parkinson’sdisease.Theauthorspointoutthatsincethesepatientscannotreadily communicatetheirinternalandexternalstatesduetotheirlimitedmotorcontrol abilities,theymayexperiencethelossofdignityduringtherapywiththeircaregivers.ShimandArkinpostulatethatacompanionrobotcanremedythischallenge andreducethecommunicationgapbetweenthepatientandthecaregiversmoothing andincreasingtheeffectivenessoftheinteractions.Toachievethisgoal,theyhave developedarobotarchitecturethatcanhelppreventthelossofdignityinpatient–caregiverrelationships.Theprimarygoalofthisrobotmediatoristoensure patients’ andcaregivers’ dignityduringtheirinteractions.
Chapter 7 byHarbers,deGreeff,Kruijff-Korbayova,Neerincx,andHindriks addressesaparticular fi eldthat,accordingtotheauthors,isunder-examinedwhen comparedtootherroboticapplicationareas.Thechapterdescribestheoutcomesof severalvalueassessmentworkshopsthatwereconductedwithrescueworkers,in thecontextofaEuropeanresearchprojectonrobot-assistedsearchandrescue (SAR).Theseoutcomesareanalysed,keyethicalconcernsanddilemmasare identi fiedandrecommendationsforfutureethical-relatedresearchwasidenti fied leadingtoresponsibledevelopmentanddeploymentofSARrobots.
M.Kyriakidou,K.PaddaandL.Parry’sstudyonChap. 8 explorehowrobot ethicsinchildren–robotinteractionstudiesaredescribedincontemporary peer-reviewedpapers.Theoutcomesofasurveyconductedon27articlesindicate problematicapplicationsofreportingrobotethicsinpeer-reviewedjournalsand
highlightthenecessityforjournalstoconsiderstricteractiononthisaspectof publication.
InChap. 9,SjurDyrkolbotnconsidersnon-contractualliabilityforharmcaused byartificiallyintelligentsystemsandprovidesatypologyofdifferentpossibleways toapproachtheliabilityissue.Thepaperarguesthatthetraditionalrobot-as-tool perspectiveshouldbemaintainedbutwarnsthatnewtechniquesneedtobe developed,attheintersectionbetweencomputerscienceandlaw,tosupportreasoningabouttheliabilityimplicationswhenautonomoustechnologiesinteractwith theirenvironmentandcauseharm.
Chapter 10 providesfundamentalinsightsintothedifficultiesofautonomousand mixedvehiclecontrolEndreE.Kadar,AnnaKöszeghyandGurvinderSinghVirk addressthisproblembasedontheevidenceprovidedbythreecasestudies.
Chapter 11 byL.Beton,P.Hughes,S.Barker,M.Pilling,L.FuenteandN.T. Crookrefersthatduelargelytotheintroductionofnewtechnologiessuchasforce sensing,itisnowpossibletohavehumanspresentwithintheworkspaceofarobot inanindustrialsetting.However,theauthorsemphasizethatphysicalsafetyisnot theonlyconsiderationwhenattemptingtodeveloprobotsthataretrulyableto collaboratewithhumans.Theestablishmentoftrustliesattheheartofanysuch collaboration.Theauthorsarguethattrustinarobotdepends,atleastinpart,on perceivedsafetyandperceivedintelligence,andthatthese,inturn,dependonthe collaborativestrategiesthattherobotadopts.Asignificantnumberofstudieshave beenperformedonhuman–robotcollaborationstrategies.Oneofthekeyareasof interestisintheadoptionofleader/followerrolesinthecollaboration.
Alsoaddressingindustrialrobotics,S.R.FletcherandP.Webb,inChap. 12, claimthattechnologicaladvanceswillcauseachangeinthewayindustrialrobots areviewedandtraditionallyoperated.Thismeanstheywillleavetheirusually highlysecludedenvironmentsbeingdeployedtoworkmorecloselyandcollaborativelywithpeopleinmonitoredmanufacturingsystemswiththewidespread introductionofsmall-scalerobotsandassistiveroboticdevices.Accordingtothe authors,thiswillnotonlytransformthewaypeopleareexpectedtoworkand interactwithautomation,butwillalsoinvolvemuchmoredataprovisionand captureforperformancemonitoring.Thechapterdiscussesthebackgroundofthese developmentsandtheanticipatedethicalissuesthatarelikelytobefaced.
InChap. 13,SeanWelshclaimsthatlethaldecision-makingiscomplexand requiresdetailedanalysistodefinewhatistobebannedorregulated.Thechapter proposesanextensionofthecurrent “single-loop” analysistotwoloops:apolicy loopanda fi ringloop.Theaimistoclarifywhatexactlyismeantbymeaningful humancontrolofalawandtofacilitatewordingsuchasmightoccurina ProtocolVItobeaddedtotheConventiononCertainConventionalWeapons (CCW).
Chapter 14 byDoresDel fim,AnaBaltazar,TeresaCabral,IsabelMachadoand PaulaGonçalvesprovidesanoverviewofthesafetyissuesofthePortuguese MilitaryRemotelyPilotedAircraftSystems(RPAS),namelythehumanerror,
integrationintoregulatedcommonnationalairspace(consideringtherulesofair) andtheairworthinesscertificationaspects.Thechapteralsobringsoutthesafety assessmentmethodologybyaddressingitsapplicationtoAntex-X02RPAS,a platformunderdevelopmentbythePortugueseAirForceAcademy.
Chapter 15,byinvitedguest,Major-GeneralJoãoVieiraBorgesregardsthe themeofroboticsinthemilitarydomainfromastrategicperspective.Considering thetrilogythatstrategycomprehends goals,meansandthreats threefundamentaltopicsareapproached:(i)theneedtoworkatpolitical,strategical,operationalandtacticallevels(ii)theroleofrobotsinthenewsecurityanddefence environmentand(iii)theimportanceofincorporatingrobotsinmilitaryeducation.
Chapter 16,akeynotebyR.Gélin,highlightstheimportanceforthe social/serviceroboticsdesignerofbeingawareofthepotentialethicalandsafety issuesthatmayarisefromthedevelopmentofhumanoidrobotsfunctioningas companions.Afterashortdescriptionofapossibleusecase,dedicatedtothe assistanceofanelderlyperson,theauthoridentifiesthemainconcernsfromsafety andethicalpointsofviewandproposeswaysonhowtopreventrisks.
InChap. 17,IsabelFerreiraandJoãoSequeirahighlightthatdemographictrends revealasignificantworld-changingagedistributionresultingfromincreased averagelongevityandthedeepdeclineinfertilityrates.Inthisframework,theuse ofrobotictechnologytoguaranteeprolongedautonomyofseniorcitizensandtheir activeageingisanimperative.Theauthorspointout,however,thattheuseof robotictechnologycanneverreplacefundamentalbonds,asthosethatlinkparents totheirchildren.
Twopapersconstitutethesecondpartofthisbook:Chap. 18,andChap. 19.
InChap. 18,RodrigoVenturaandIsabelFerreirareporttheirefforttobring robotictechnologyclosertothelaypersonsinthegeneralpublic aneducational effortthat,intheiropinion,shouldprecedethemassivedeploymentofallinformationandcommunicationtechnologiesandthatbecomesparticularlyneededat thevergeofawidespreaduseofrobotictechnology.Thischaptergivesabrief accountofthecontentandorganizationoftheexhibitionandofhowthepublic reactedtoit.
InhispaperChap. 19,José ManuelMartinsaddressestheroleof fiction,namely theroleofthecinemaintheconstructionofprototypicalmentalrepresentationsand changingmentalities.
LisbonMariaIsabelAldinhasFerreira July2016JoaoSilvaSequeira MohammadOsmanTokhi EndreE.Kadar
GurvinderSinghVirk
Acknowledgments
TheEditorswouldliketothanktothefollowingpeopleandinstitutions.Without themthisprojectwouldnothavebeenpossible.
• LisbonUniversity,Portugal,namelytheCenterofPhilosophyandInstituto SuperiorTécnico,wastheacademicsponsorinstitution.
• TheCLAWARAssociation,UK,encouragedtherealizationoftheeventand providedsupportatmultiplelevels.
• CiênciaViva,Portugal,atPavilhãodoConhecimentoinLisbon,providedthe fantasticvenueandgavefulllogisticssupport.
• Theindustrypartners,Aldebaran,France,namelythroughRodopheGelinand PetraKoudelkova-Delimoges,andhiBotRobotics,Japan,throughNahoKitano. Bothcomplementednicelytheacademicviewpointsdiscussedattheevent.
• TheIADECreativeUniversity,Portugal,throughBrunoNobreandEmília Duarte,handledtheeventimagecommunication.
• LisbonCityHall,andLisbonTourism,Portugal,sponsoredthesocialprogrammeoftheevent.
PartISelectedContributions
1NetworksofSocialandMoralNormsinHumanandRobot Agents 3 B.F.Malle,M.ScheutzandJ.L.Austerweil
2PerceivedAutonomyofRobots:EffectsofAppearanceand Context ................................................. 19 MaaikeHarbers,MariekeM.M.PeetersandMarkA.Neerincx
3FormalizingComplexNormativeDecisionswithPredicate LogicandGraphDatabases ................................ 35 SeanWelsh
4A21st-CenturyEthicalHierarchyforRobotsandPersons: EH 47 SelmerBringsjord
5RobotsandFreeSoftware 63 WilhelmE.J.Klein
6AnInterveningEthicalGovernorforaRobotMediator inPatient-CaregiverRelationships 77 JaeeunShimandRonaldC.Arkin
7ExploringtheEthicalLandscapeofRobot-AssistedSearch andRescue .............................................. 93 MaaikeHarbers,JoachimdeGreeff,IvanaKruijff-Korbayová, MarkA.NeerincxandKoenV.Hindriks
8ReportingRobotEthicsforChildren-RobotStudies inContemporaryPeerReviewedPapers ...................... 109 M.Kyriakidou,K.PaddaandL.Parry
9ATypologyofLiabilityRulesforRobotHarms 119 SjurDyrkolbotn
10SafetyandEthicalConcernsinMixedHuman-RobotControl ofVehicles ............................................. 135 EndreE.Kadar,AnnaKöszeghyandGurvinderSinghVirk
11Leader-FollowerStrategiesforRobot-HumanCollaboration 145 L.Beton,P.Hughes,S.Barker,M.Pilling,L.FuenteandN.T.Crook
12IndustrialRobotEthics:TheChallengesofCloserHuman CollaborationinFutureManufacturingSystems 159 S.R.FletcherandP.Webb
13ClarifyingtheLanguageofLethalAutonomyinMilitaryRobots 171 SeanWelsh
14SafetyIssuesofthePortugueseMilitaryRemotelyPiloted AircraftSystems ......................................... 185 DelfimDores,AnaBaltazar,TeresaCabral,IsabelMachado andPaulaGonçalves
15RobotsandtheMilitary:AStrategicView .................... 199 JoãoVieiraBorges
16TheDomesticRobot:EthicalandTechnicalConcerns ........... 207 RodolpheGelin
17RobotsinAgeingSocieties 217 MariaIsabelAldinhasFerreiraandJoãoSilvaSequeira
PartIIAssociatedEvents
18NóseOsRobots/OsRobotseNós:InsightsfromanExhibition 227 RodrigoVenturaandMariaIsabelAldinhasFerreira
19TheRobotStepsIn:FromNormativetoProspectiveEthics
Jos
Contributors
RonaldC.Arkin SchoolofInteractiveComputing,GeorgiaInstituteof Technology,Atlanta,Georgia
J.L.Austerweil DepartmentofPsychology,UniversityofWisconsin,Madison, WI,USA
AnaBaltazar InstitutoUniversitárioMilitar,CISDIResearcher,Lisbon,Portugal
S.Barker OxfordBrookesUniversity,Oxford,UK
L.Beton OxfordBrookesUniversity,Oxford,UK
JoãoVieiraBorges PortugueseMilitaryAcademy,Lisboa,Portugal
SelmerBringsjord RensselaerAIandReasoning(RAIR)Lab,Departmentof ComputerScience,DepartmentofCognitiveScience,RensselaerPolytechnic Institute(RPI),Troy,NY,USA
TeresaCabral AcademiadaForçaAéreaPortuguesa,CIAFAResearcher,Lisbon, Portugal
N.T.Crook OxfordBrookesUniversity,Oxford,UK
DelfimDores InstitutoUniversitárioMilitar,CISDIResearcher,Lisbon,Portugal
SjurDyrkolbotn DepartmentofPhilosophyandReligiousStudies,Utrecht University,Utrecht,TheNetherlands
MariaIsabelAldinhasFerreira CentreofPhilosophyoftheUniversityof Lisbon,FaculdadedeLetras,UniversityofLisbon,Lisbon,Portugal
S.R.Fletcher CentreforStructures,AssemblyandIntelligentAutomation, Cranfi eldUniversity,Cranfield,UK
L.Fuente OxfordBrookesUniversity,Oxford,UK
RodolpheGelin SoftBankRobotics,Paris,France
JoachimdeGreeff DelftUniversityofTechnology,Delft,TheNetherlands
PaulaGonçalves InstitutoUniversitárioMilitar,CISDIResearcher,Lisbon, Portugal
MaaikeHarbers DelftUniversityofTechnology,Delft,TheNetherlands
KoenV.Hindriks DelftUniversityofTechnology,Delft,TheNetherlands
P.Hughes OxfordBrookesUniversity,Oxford,UK
EndreE.Kadar DepartmentofPsychology,KeimyungUniversity,Daegu, Korea;DepartmentofPsychology,UniversityofPortsmouth,Portsmouth,UK
WilhelmE.J.Klein SchoolofCreativeMedia,CityUniversityofHongKong, HongKong,China
AnnaKöszeghy DepartmentofPsychology,UniversityofPortsmouth, Portsmouth,UK
IvanaKruijff-Korbayová LanguageTechnologyLab,DFKI,Saarbruecken, Germany
M.Kyriakidou DepartmentofPsychologyandBehaviouralScience,Coventry University,Coventry,UK
IsabelMachado InstitutoUniversitárioMilitar,CISDIResearcher,Lisbon, Portugal
B.F.Malle DepartmentofCognitive,Linguistic,andPsychologicalSciences, BrownUniversity,Providence,USA
José ManuelMartins DepartmentofPhilosophy,Universityof ÉvoraCenterof PhilosophyoftheUniversityofLisbon,Lisbon,Portugal
MarkA.Neerincx TNOHumanFactors,DelftUniversityofTechnology,Delft, TheNetherlands
K.Padda DepartmentofPsychologyandBehaviouralScience,Coventry University,Coventry,UK
L.Parry DepartmentofPsychologyandBehaviouralScience,Coventry University,Coventry,UK
MariekeM.M.Peeters DelftUniversityofTechnology,Delft,TheNetherlands
M.Pilling OxfordBrookesUniversity,Oxford,UK
M.Scheutz DepartmentofComputerScience,TuftsUniversity,Medford,USA
JoãoSilvaSequeira InstitutoSuperiorTécnico/InstituteforSystemsand Robotics,UniversidadedeLisboa,Lisbon,Portugal
Contributors
JaeeunShim SchoolofElectricalandComputerEngineering,GeorgiaInstituteof Technology,Atlanta,Georgia
RodrigoVentura InstituteforSystemsandRobotics,InstitutoSuperiorTécnico, UniversidadedeLisboa,Lisbon,Portugal
GurvinderSinghVirk InnotecUKLtd,Cambridge,UK
P.Webb CentreforStructures,AssemblyandIntelligentAutomation,Cranfield University,Cranfi eld,UK
SeanWelsh DepartmentofPhilosophy,UniversityofCanterbury,Christchurch, NewZealand
Rightnowthemajorchallengeforeventhinkingabouthowrobotsmightbeableto understandmoralnormsisthatwedon’tunderstandonthehumansidehowhumans representandreasonifpossiblewithmoralnorms.
MathiasScheutz,“HowtoBuildaMoralRobot”,Spectrum,May31,2016
Chapter1 NetworksofSocialandMoralNorms inHumanandRobotAgents
B.F.Malle,M.ScheutzandJ.L.Austerweil
Abstract Themostintriguingandethicallychallengingrolesofrobotsinsocietyare thoseofcollaboratorandsocialpartner.Weproposethatsuchrobotsmusthavethe capacitytolearn,represent,activate,andapplysocialandmoralnorms—theymust havea normcapacity.Weofferatheoreticalanalysisoftwoparallelquestions:what constitutesthisnormcapacityinhumansandhowmightweimplementitinrobots? Weproposethatthehumannormsystemhasfourproperties:flexiblelearningdespite agenerallogicalformat,structuredrepresentations,context-sensitiveactivation,and continuousupdating.Weexploretwopossiblemodelsthatdescribehownormsare cognitivelyrepresentedandactivatedincontext-specificwaysanddrawimplications forroboticarchitecturesthatwouldimplementeithermodel.
Keywords Moralnorms · Socialnorms · Normprocessing · Cognitivearchitecture · Human-robotinteraction · Robotethics
1.1Introduction
Thedesignandconstructionofintelligentrobotshasseensteadygrowthinthepast20 years,andtheintegrationofrobotsintosocietyis,tomany,imminent(Nourbakhsh 2013;Sabanovi´c 2010).Ethicalquestionsaboutsuchintegrationhaverecentlygained
B.F.Malle(B)
DepartmentofCognitive,Linguistic,andPsychologicalSciences, BrownUniversity,Providence,USA e-mail:bfmalle@brown.edu
M.Scheutz
DepartmentofComputerScience,TuftsUniversity,Medford,USA
J.L.Austerweil
DepartmentofPsychology,UniversityofWisconsin,Madison,WI,USA
©SpringerInternationalPublishingAG2017
M.I.AldinhasFerreiraetal.(eds.), AWorldwithRobots, IntelligentSystems,ControlandAutomation:ScienceandEngineering84, DOI10.1007/978-3-319-46667-5_1
prominence.Forexample,academicpublicationsonthetopicofrobotethicsdoubled between2005and2009anddoubledagainsincethen,countingalmost200asofthe timeofthisconference(Malle 2015).
Onesetofethicalquestionspertinenttoroboticsexamineshowhumansshould design,deploy,andtreatrobots(Veruggioetal. 2011);anothersetofquestions examineswhatmoralcapacitiesrobotsthemselvescouldhave(andshouldhave)so astobecomeviableparticipantsinhumansociety.Thelattersetofquestionsisoften labeled“machinemorality”(Sullins 2011)or“machineethics”(Moor 2006),and ourcontributionistothistheme.
Considerationsofmachinemoralityareespeciallyimportantwhenweassess robotsincollaborativerelationshipswithhumans.Acollaborationcanbedefinedas asetofactionscoordinatedamongtwoormoreagentsinpursuitofjointgoals.An agent’spursuitof joint goals(ratherthanmerelyindividualones)requiresseveral uniquecapacities,suchassocialcognitionandcommunication.Evenmorefundamental,however,collaborationsrelyona normsystem thatthepartnersshare—a systemthatenables,facilitates,andrefinesthecollaborativeinteraction(UllmannMargalit 1977).
Asasocialspecies,humanshavebecomehighlyadeptatpoolingmentaland physicalresourcestoachievegoalstogetherthattheywouldneverbeabletoachieve ontheirown.Frombig-gamehuntingtomassmigration,fromfellingatalltree toplayingasymphony—humansworkcooperativelytocreatecommongoods.But cooperativeworkcomeswithrisks,becauseonepartnermightinvestallthework andtheotherpartnermightreapallthebenefits.Economicscholarshavepuzzled foralongtimewhysuchfree-ridingisnotmorecommon—whypeoplecooperate muchmoreoftenthanthey“defect,”asgametheoristscallit,whendefectingwould providetheagentwithlargerutility.
Theanswercannotbethathumansare“innately”cooperative,becausetheyare perfectlycapableofdefecting.Theanswerinvolvestoasignificantextentthepower of norms.Aworkingdefinitionofanormisthefollowing:
Aninstructionto(not)performaspecificorgeneralclassofaction,wherebyasufficient numberofindividualsinacommunity(a)indeedfollowthisinstructionand(b)demandof othersinthecommunitytofollowtheinstruction.
Whyarenormssopowerful?First,theyincreasethepredictabilityofotherpeople’sbehavior.Inanorm-guidedsociety,anymembercanassumethatotherpeoplewillabidebynorms,whichgreatlyreducestheuncertaintyoverwhatactions theymightperform.Second,normsguideaperson’sownactionselection(especiallywhentheoptimalactionisnoteasilydetermined)becausenormsdirectlytag possibleactionsasdesirableorundesirableinthegivencommunity.Third,norms improvecoordinationamongcollaborators.Thatisbecauseacollaborationinvolves manyrequests,agreements,andcommitmentsthatbindtheindividualtoacourse ofaction.Publicpromises,forexample,areprototypicalcommitmentstoanorm: Thedeclaration“Ipromise X”imposesanormononeselftostrivetoward X,which involvesothers’expectationsforthepersontostrivetoward X,theperson’sdesireto
meetthoseexpectations,andthepossiblesanctionsotherpeoplemayimposeifthe personfailstoachieve X.
Normsappeartobeindispensableforhumansociallife(HechterandOpp 2001; Ullmann-Margalit 1977).Asaresult,normsarelikelytobeindispensableforrobots inhumansocietiesaswell,ifweexpectpeopletoperceiverobotsassuitablepartners ineffective,safe,andtrustingcollaborations.Butwhatwoulditmeanforarobot tohave“norms”—whethermoralnorms(e.g.,“donoharm”)orsocialnorms(e.g., “shakehandswhenmeetingsomeone”)?
Anyrobotinvolvedinphysicaltaskswillhavetoknowanumberofinstrumental rules: ifanobjectoftypeFappearsinarea1 , movearmandgrabF.Forhumans,too, physicaltasksrequirerules—actionsthathavehighutilitywhencertainpreconditions hold.Bycontrast,socialandmoralnormsarerulesthatarenotdirectlydictatedby apersonalutilitycalculation(Andrighettoetal. 2010),andoftentheyarenotas action-specificasinstrumentalrules(e.g.,“Benice!”).Moreover,socialandmoral normshaveotherpropertiesthatmakethemauniquechallengeforcognitiveand computationalexamination:thereseemstobeanenormousnumberofthembutthey areactivatedextremelyquickly;theyareactivatedinhighlycontext-specificways butalsocomeinbundles;theycanbeinconflictwithoneanotherbutalsocanbe adjusted;andtheyarelearnedfastthroughavarietyofmodalities(e.g.,observation, inference,instruction).
Ifourgoalistobuildtrustworthyandmorallycompetentrobotcollaborators(MalleandScheutz 2014),robotsmusthaveacomputationallyimplemented normsystem.Thisisbecausehumanswilldemandthatarobotcollaboratorgrasps thenormsofitscommunity,andhumanswillwithdrawtheirtrustandcooperation iftheyrealizethattherobotdoesnotabidebythesamenormsastheydo.
However,wecurrentlydonotknowhowtoincorporatesophisticatednorm processingintoroboticarchitectures.Wethereforetakeinitialstepstowarda cognitive-computationalmodelofnormsbydelineatingcorepropertiesofthehuman normsystem,contrastingtwomodelsofacomputationalnormsystem,andderiving implicationsforhowroboticarchitectureswouldimplementsuchanormsystem. Ultimately,wewillneedtoexamine(1)howacognitivesystemcanrepresentand storenorms,(2)howandwhenitactivatesandretrievesthem,(3)howitresolves conflictsamongthem;(4)howitcanusethemindecision-makingandactionexecution,and(5)howitcanacquirethem.Herewewillbegintoaddressthefirsttwo points.
1.2DefiningNorms
Tobegin,weintroduceageneralformulationofnormsasconsistingofthreeelements:a contextprecondition,a deonticoperator (“obligatory”,“forbidden”,or “permitted”),andanargumentthatcanbeeitheran action ora state Specifically,let C beacontextexpressioninagivenformallanguage L,andlet O, F,and P denotethemodaloperators,respectively,for“obligatory”,“forbidden”,
and“permissable”(e.g., Oφ means“itisobligatorythat φ ”).Thenwecanprovidea generalschemaforcapturingsimplenormsasfollows:
Thedeonticoperatorscanbeanalyzedcognitivelyasfollows.Torepresentanaction orstateas obligatory [forbidden],atleastthreeconditionsmustbemet(Bicchieri 2006;Brennanetal. 2013)1 :
(i)Theagentrepresentsaninstructionto[not]performaspecificactionorgeneral classofaction.
(ii)Theagentbelievesthatasufficient2 numberofindividualsinthereference communityinfactfollowtheinstruction.
(iii)Theagentbelievesthatasufficientnumberofindividualsinthereferencecommunitydemandsofothersinthecommunitytofollowtheinstruction.
Conditions(ii)and(iii)areimportant.Duringthelearningofanewnormand duringcontinuedapplicationofafamiliarnorm,theagentmustbeabletoupdate beliefsaboutwhatcommunitymembersdoandwhattheydemandofoneanother. Iftheagentnoticesthatfewcommunitymembersfollowtheinstructioninquestion (e.g.,stayingwithinhighwayspeedlimits),thentheinstructionisweakenedandthe agentmaynolongertreatitasbinding.Andiftheagentnoticesthatfewcommunity membersdemandofotherstofollowtheinstruction(eventhoughmanyofthemstill do),theinstructionbecomesoptionalandalsolosesitsforceasanorm.
Thesefeaturesdistinguish norms from goals and habits,becausethelattercan holdevenwhenindividualscompletelydisregardothercommunitymembers’actions ordemands.Considertheactionofparkingone’scarnose-in(inparkinglotswith spotsmarkedlikethis:////).Ifamajorityofpeopleperformthisactionbutnobody actually expects otherstodoit,theactionisawidelyprevalenthabit,notgoverned byanorm.Andifaparticularagentperformstheactionbutisunawarethatothers expecthimto(andtheyinfactdo),thenthisagentactstoachieveagoalbutdoes notabidebyasocialnorm.
1.3PropertiesoftheHumanNormSystem
Weproposethathumannormsystemshavefourmajorproperties(Fig. 1.1).Wefirst introduceeachofthesepropertiesandthensignificantlyexpandonthepropertiesof representationandactivation.
1 Thisisacognitivedefinitionofanorm,anditallowsforanagenttoendorseanillusorynorm— whenallthreeconditionsaremetbutcommunitymembersdonotinfactfollowtheinstruction anddonotinfactexpectotherstofollowtheinstruction.Ifwewanttomodelandpredictthe agent’sbehavior,however,wecanstillconsiderthepersontofollowaperceivednorm(Aartsand Dijksterhuis 2003).
2 Thethresholdofsufficiencywilltypicallybeamajoritybutmayvarybynormtypeandcommunity.
Fig.1.1 Fourcognitive propertiesofthehuman normsystem
Property1:FlexibleLearning
Thefirstpropertyisthatnormsystemsarelearnedthroughavarietyofmeans(e.g., conditioning,imitation,observation,inference,andverbalinstruction)butarestored inageneralizedformatsketchedabove(Eq. 1.1):asarepresentationofactionsor states(post-conditions),givencontextualpreconditions.Amoredetailedtreatmentof howlearningcouldbeimplementedcomputationallyrequiresabetterunderstanding ofhownormsarerepresentedinthefirstplace,andthisiswhatwewillattemptto provideshortly.
Property2:StructuredRepresentations
Thesecondpropertyisthatnormsystemsareencodedusingstructuredrepresentations,systematicallyorganizedinatleastthreeways: vertically (ashierarchical layersofabstraction,rangingfromactionrulestogeneralvalues), horizontally (as bundlesofcovaryingnormstiedtogetherbythecontextsinwhichtheyapply),and temporally (as“scripts”(SchankandAbelson 1977)thatprescribenormativeaction sequencesinaparticularcontext,suchasvisitingarestaurant,greetingafriend,or boardinganairplane).
Theseorganizingprinciplesreflectactualfeaturesoftheworld.Becausepreconditionscovaryinreal-worldcontexts(otherwisedistinctcontextscouldnoteven berecognized),activatednormswillalsocovaryasbundleswithincontexts(horizontalorganization).Likewise,becausethehumanactionplanningandexecution systemisorganizedhierarchicallyandtemporally,normsthatguidesuchactionwill incorporatethisorganizationaswell.
Thestructuredorganizationofnormsislikelytohavefarsuperiorprocessing characteristicsthanthesimplestalternative—(long)listsofsingletnorms.Thatis becausenormscanbethoughtofasnodesinamemorynetwork,andweknow thatstructuredorganizationofmemoryrepresentationshassignificantadvantagesin memoryaccuracy,efficiency,andspeedofretrieval(Bower 1970).
Property3:Context-Sensitive,BundledActivation
Athirdproperty,wesuggest,isthatspecificcontextsrapidlyactivatenormsasconnectedbundles.Thereisevidencethatnormsareindeedactivatedinhighlycontextspecificways(HarveyandEnzle 1981;AartsandDijksterhuis 2003;Cialdinietal. 1991)andthatnormviolationsaredetectedveryquickly(VanBerkumetal. 2009).
Thesecharacteristicsareresponsestoaworldinwhichalargenumberofnorms existbutonlyasmallsubsetisrelevantinanygivencontext.Thenormsystemthereforemustbebothcomprehensiveinitsrepresentationalcapacityandselectiveinits activationpatterns.Thesedemandsposenumerouschallengesforthecomputational implementationofanormnetwork,sowewilldedicatemuchofoursubsequent analysistothesechallenges.
Property4:ContinuousUpdating
Thefourthpropertyofthehumannormssystemisthatthecontext-sensitivenorm networksarecontinuouslyupdated—forexample,whenanewnormislearnedor anewcontextisaddedasapreconditiontoapreviouslylearnednorm.Thismakes thenormsystemhighlyflexiblewhenpeopleencounter“mixed”contexts,mixed roles,orenterunfamiliarcommunities.Italsoallowsforrapidsocietalchange— whetherduetonaturalevents(e.g.,climatechange),technologicalinnovation(e.g., theinternet),orcollectivepreferences(e.g.,gaymarriage).
Cognitivelyspeaking,whenacontextisaddedasanadditionalpreconditionfor agivennorm,thelikelihoodsofco-activation(bundling)amongnormswillchange becausetheselikelihoodsareadirectfunctionofthenumberofpreconditionsshared betweennorms.Howquicklythelikelihoodschangewilldependongeneralprinciplesofthenormnetwork.Forexample,updatingwillbefrequentifco-activation oftwonormsinstantlyformsadirectconnectionbetweenthem.Likewise,updating willbefrequentifequivalencebetweencontextsisloose(i.e.,featuresthatdefine contextsarecorrelatedbothwithinandbetweencontexts,ratherthanfiguringas necessaryandsufficientconditions).
Wenowturntothecentralportionofourchapter:ananalysisofhownorms, definedascontext-specificinstructions,canbeactivatedinbundlestailoredtotheir particularcontexts.
1.4ChallengesofContext-Sensitive,Bundled NormActivation
Wehavearguedthatnormsareactivatedin specificcontexts andas connectedbundles. Howcanweaccountforthesecharacteristics?Wefirstoutlinethelogicalformatof thesebundlesandthenconsiderpotentialcomputationalmodelsofhowtheyare representedandactivated.
1.4.1LogicalFormat
ExpressedinthelogicalformatofEq. 1.1,eachnormhasasetofpreconditions C thatcorrespondtocontextsinwhichthenormapplies(e.g., C → Fφ )orinwhich thenormisspecificallysuspended(C →¬ Fφ ).Whenagivensituation meetsthe
contextualpreconditions C ofagivennorm,thenormwillbequicklyactivated.The criticalopenquestionhereiswhat“meetingthecontextualpreconditions”means.
Let f bethesetoffeaturespresentinagivensituation andlet f C bethe featuresthatconstitutethepreconditions C foragivennorm.Wehypothesizethat thedegreeofactivationofthenorminagivensituation willbeafunctionofthe numberoffeaturessharedbetweenthesituationandthepreconditionsofthenorm (e.g., | f ∩ f C |,where |·| isthecardinalityofaset,possiblyweightedandscaled byfactorsdependingonthecontextualfeaturesandthenorm).Ifthishypothesisis correct,then all normsthathaveany f ∈ intheirsetofpreconditions( f ∈ C ) willbeactivatedto somedegree.Wewillcalltheseco-activatednormsinagiven situation “normbundles.”
Notethatfortwonorms N1 and N2 inanormbundleitcouldbetheverysame contextualproperty f i ∈ thatisinbothoftheirnormpreconditions( f i ∈ C 1 and f i ∈ C 2 ).Alternatively,differentfeaturesinthesituation( f 1 , f 2 ∈ )could activatedifferentnorms( f 1 ∈ C 1 and f 2 ∈ C 2 ,but f 2 / ∈ C 1 and f 1 / ∈ C 2 ).Hence, Context Ci
(Context Ci )
feature1 feature1
Fig.1.2 Twomodelsofhowcontextscanactivate“bundles”ofnorms.Underthefirst,butnotthe second,model, Norm k wouldbeactivated
normbundlesdonotnecessarilyhavetoshareanyparticularsituationalfeatures, evenwhentheirconstituentnormsareco-activated,aslongastherearereliable co-variationsofsituationalfeatures.Fromacomputationalperspectivethequestion thenarisesexactlyhowtheseco-variationsarerepresented;thatis,whethernorms innormbundlesarerepresentedinthehumancognitivearchitectureasconnected directly withoneanotherorconnectedonly indirectly,viathesharedpreconditions betweenthenormsandthesituationalfeaturesthattriggerthem.Hence,thereareat leasttwodifferentmodelsofhowsuchcovariationamongnormsinanormbundle cancomeabout—modelsthatspecifyinwhatwaynormsarepartofa“bundle”(see Fig. 1.2).
1.4.2TwoModelsofNormCovariation
Ina directly-connected network(Model DC inFig. 1.2),normsandtheirco-activation arerepresentedasnodesandedgesinamathematicalnetwork,whereeachedgeis givenaweightindicatingthestrengthofassociationbetweenthenodes(Harveyand Enzle 1981),possiblybuiltupthroughlearningandrepeatedco-activation.Agiven context(constitutedbyafuzzysetoffeatures)activatesaparticularnormnetwork inpartbecausethecontextactivatessomenormsandthesenormsactivateother, connectednorms.
Alternatively,inan indirectly-connected network(Model IC inFig. 1.2),specific features(e.g.,objectsinascene)independentlyactivatespecificnorms,andsetsof normscovaryasbundlessolelybecausethefeaturesthatactivatethemtypicallycovarywithincontexts,notbecauseofdirectconnectionsamongthenormsthemselves. Inthismoreminimalistnetwork,noadditionalconceptofa“context”(aboveand beyondanextensionalclassoffeatures)needstobepostulated.The“affordances” ofobjectsandpropertiesinscenessufficetoactivatetherightkindsofnorms.
Forexample,holdingtheforkacertainwayandholdingtheknifeacertainway whileeatingatthetablemaybeaconnectedpairofnormsthatisactivatedasabundle bythesightofasettable;alternatively,theforkmayactivate its normofuseand theknifemayactivate its normofuse,andthetwonormsareco-activatedmerely because,intherealworld,knivesandforksaretypicallyco-present.
1.4.3DifferentEmpiricalPredictions
Althoughbothmodelsaccountfor“normbundling,”thetwomodelsmakedifferent predictionsaboutnormactivationpatternsinunusualsituations.Considerasituation (e.g.,eatingatafine-diningrestaurant)thatisnormallyconstitutedbya sufficientsubsetfromthesetoffeatures f 1 – f 6 and,ifrecognizedasaparticular context C ,reliablyactivatesthebundleofnorms N1 –N4 ,whichallhave C astheir precondition.Nowsupposethattheperceptualinputisimpoverished(e.g.,badlight-
ingorintensenoise),makingonlyfeatures f 1 – f 3 availableinthisparticularcase. Accordingtothe directly-connected model,suchanimpoverishedscenewouldstill belikelytoactivatethewholebundleofnorms,becauseevenafewdirectlyactivated normswouldthemselvesactivateothernormswithwhichtheynormallycovary.By contrast,accordingtothe indirectly-connected model,normsareactivatedonlyby specificfeatures(e.g.,objects)inascene,andthereforetheimpoverishedsituation wouldelicit“incomplete”normbundles—onlythosethatareindividuallyactivated byfeatures f 1 – f 3
Likewise,themodelsmakedifferentpredictionswhenaforeignobjectisembeddedintoascene(e.g.,abaseballinafine-diningrestaurant).Accordingtothe DC model,aforeignobjectwouldhavelittleeffectontheactivatednorms,becauseonce anoverallcontexttriggersitsbundleofnorms,anyeffectofspecific(additional) featureswouldbedrownedout(oratleastmitigated).Notsoforthe IC model,accordingtowhichnormsareactivatedindividuallybyspecificfeatures(e.g.,objects)in thescene.Thebaseballintherestaurantwouldhaveamarkedeffectonthesetof activatednorms,becausepeoplecannothelpbutbringtomindwhateveronemay (ormaynot)dowithabaseball,eveninafine-diningrestaurant.
1.4.4ImplicationsforCognitiveRoboticArchitectures
Implementationsofthe DC modelincognitiveroboticarchitecturescouldbeanalogoustonetworksofspreadingactivation(e.g.,inthespiritofthedeclarativememory inACT-R)whereagivencontext(constitutedbyasufficientsubsetoffeatures)will spreadactivationtothenormsthathavethiscontextasaprecondition.Asmentioned,thenormsinagivenbundleneednothaveasinglepreconditionthatisshared amongallofthem—aslongassomeofthenormssharesomepreconditionswith othernormsandsomesubsetofthesepartiallysharedpreconditionsarepresent, thebundlewillbeactivatedthroughspreadingactivation.Themainadvantageof directly-connectednormbundlesisthatpartialmatchesorinaccurateperceptions maystillbesufficienttoactivateallnormsinabundle.Thisisbecausethedirect connectionsamongnormswithinabundlewillspreadactivationtoeachother,so aslongassomeofthenormsareimmediatelyactivated(e.g.,throughperceptions, inferences,etc.),theotheroneswilleventuallybecomeactivatedaswell.Themain disadvantageofdirectly-connectednormbundlesisthatsomenormsmightbecome inappropriatelyactivated(i.e.,withouttherebeingacontextualfeaturetowhichthe normapplies),simplybecausedirectlinkagescandragonenormalongwithanother.
Implementationsofthe IC model,ontheotherhand,donotrequirerepresentationalmechanismssuchasspreadingactivation,asallnormsinabundlewillbe solelyactivatedbythesituationalfeaturesthatmatchtheircontextpreconditions. Hence,themainadvantageofindirectlyconnectednormbundlesisthatthenorms areactivatedinclosecorrespondencetosituationsandtheirrecognizableorinferable features.Suchanetworkneednotengageininferencesabout“contexts”asseparate constructs,becausecontextsaremerelyextensionalclassesoffeatures.Ofcourse,if
12B.F.Malleetal.
featuresarehighlycorrelated,suchextensionalclassescouldbelearnedashigherlevelcategories,buttheydonothavetobeseparatelyrepresentedeachtimeanorm isactivated.Themaindisadvantageofindirectly-connectednormbundlesisthat acuteandfastperceptualprocessesarerequiredthatrecognizeallrelevantobjects andpropertiesintheenvironmentsoastoactivatetheircorrespondingnorms(e.g., permissiblewaysofhandlingafork,aknife,aspoon,anapkin,...).
Critically,however,bothmodelsrequirewaystoarbitrateamongactivatednorms thathavemutuallycontradictoryimplications.Forexample,norm N1 mightimpose anobligationtodo A while N2 mightimposeanobligationtodo B ,yeteitherdoing A and B isnotpossibleatthesametime,ordoingoneofthemwillundoprerequisites oftheotherinawaythattheotheractioncannolongerbeperformed.
Decidingbetweenthetwomodelswillalsoinfluencethegenerallogicalformof norms.Iftherearedirectconnectionsbetween,say N1 and N2 (aboveandbeyond sharedpreconditions,i.e.,contextfeatures),howaretheseconnectionsrepresented? Aretheycontinuousand/orprobabilistic?Andwhatimplicationsdoessucharepresentationhaveforlogicalreasoningondeonticoperators?If,ontheotherhand,there arenoconnectionsamongnormsthemselves,canwecompletelycharacterizenorm networksasarraysofcontextfeaturesthatdoordonotactivatespecificnorms?We nextexplorethesepossibilitiesinmoredetail.
1.4.5WhatWouldConstituteNormConnections?
Figures 1.3 and 1.4 illustratehowquantitativepredictionsfornormco-activation strengthcanbederivedfromeachmodel.Figure 1.3 showsahypotheticalnorm systemrepresentedinatablewhererowsindexfeatures f 1 – f 6 thatconstitutecontexts C 1 –C 4 andcolumnsindexnormsthatcanbeactivatedbythesefeatures.Acellis1if thecorrespondingnormisactivatedinthepresenceofthefeature(and0otherwise, butleftemptyinthetableforbetterreadability).
Accordingtothe indirectly-connectedmodel,thestrengthofco-activationofnorm Ni with N j ,theformula r f (Ni , N j ),canbewrittenas:
where I (·) istheidentityfunctionthatreturns1whenitsargumentistrueand 0otherwise.AccordingtoEq. 1.2,thestrengthofco-activationof Ni with N j is thenumberoffeatures(repeatingfeaturesovercontexts)theyhaveincommon, normalizedbythenumberoffeaturesthatarepreconditionsfor Ni (againrepeating featuresovercontexts).Forexample,focusingoncontext C 2 ,feature f 3 co-activates norms N1 , N3 ,and N4 ;feature f 4 co-activates N3 and N4 ;andfeature f 5 co-activates N1 and N4 .Featurescanreappearacrosscontexts,andthisisillustratedabovebythe factthat f 3 and f 5 alsohelpconstitutecontext C 4 .Alltheseco-activationpatterns
ofnorms,triggeredbyfeatures,leadtothefeature-levelco-activationmatrixonthe toptableofFig. 1.4.
Accordingtothe directly-connectedmodel,whatcountsarenotfeature-levelcoactivationsbutcontext-levelco-activations.Contexts,latentfactorsinferredfrom slightlyvaryingsetsoffeatures,activatetheirnorms asaset,withsomenorms activatedbyalreadyactivatedothernorms,notbyfeatures.Thus,accordingtothe directly-connectedmodel,thestrengthofco-activationbetweennorm Ni and N j , theformula r c (Ni , N j ),is:
AccordingtoEq. 1.3,strengthofco-activationistheratioofthenumberofcontexts whereboth Ni and N j areapplicabletothenumberofcontextswhere Ni isapplicable. Forexample, f 3 and f 4 wouldbetakenassufficientevidenceforthepresenceof C 2 , and C 2 wouldactivate,asaset, N1 , N3 ,and N4 .Nomatterwhichfeaturesinascene allowagivencontexttobeinferred,allofitsnorms(thenormsthathavethatcontext asaprecondition)areactivated,andco-activationamongthesenormsleads,over time,tonorminterconnections.Thosearerepresentedascontext-levelconnection strengths(againnormedagainstnumberofnormoccurrences)inthebottomtableof Fig. 1.4
Weseethatthetwomatricesarequitedifferent,sotheyshouldinprinciplebe empiricallydistinguishable.Merefeature-causedco-activationpredictsfarsmaller co-occurrencefrequenciesthancontext-causedco-activationwithsubsequentconnectionformation.Ifwecanmeasuresuchnormco-activations(andwearecurrently developingaparadigmtodoso),wehaveyetanotherwayofarbitratingbetweenthe twomodels,whichwouldteachusabouttheunderlyingprinciplesofhumannorm
Fig.1.3 Contexts(C 1 –C 4 )andtheirfeatures( f 1 – f 6 )thatactivatespecificnorms N1 –N4 .Cells withuniquecolorsindicateco-activationoftwoormorenormsbyaparticularfeature
Fig.1.4 Computationofnormco-activationattheleveloffeatures(top table)andatthelevelof contexts(bottom table) networksandprovidebenchmarksforcorrespondingnormnetworksinroboticarchitectures.
Weshouldaddthatthetwomodels DC and IC alsomakedifferentpredictions abouttheprocessofnormupdating(Property4mentionedearlier).Whenacontext isaddedasanadditionalpreconditionforagivennorm,the DC wouldpredictthat thisnormsoonpicksupnewconnectionswithothernorms,becausetheco-activation (bundling)likelihoodsamongnormsareadirectfunctionofthenumberofshared preconditionsbetweennorms.Accordingtothe IC model,bycontrast,thenorm co-activationpatternchangesmoreslowly,andonlytotheextentthatthepatternof featureco-occurrenceschanges.
Clearly,anumberofhybridmodelscouldbeconstructedaswell.Forexample, onemodelcouldallownorm-to-norminterconnectionswithoutpostulatingcontexts aslatentfactorsinferredfromfeatures.Inthiscase,featuresdirectlycausenorm co-activation andthereby causeformationofrealnorminterconnections,sonorms couldalsobeactivatingeachother(e.g., f 4 → N4 → N3 ).Theproblemthatarises foranetworkwiththesecharacteristicsisthatnormscouldactivateothernormsthat are not appropriateforagivencontext.Consider C 1 intheexamplenormsystem ofFig. 1.3.If f 1 → N3 and,becauseofthestronginterconnection r f (N3 , N4 ),also f 1 → N4 ,thenthenorm N4 isactivatedin C 1 eventhough,byassumptionforthis examplenetwork,itshouldn’tbeactiveinthiscontext.Thus,themodelmayhave toincorporateinhibitoryconnectionsinadditiontoexcitatoryconnections—which wouldthenleadtointerestingnewpredictions.
Thishighlightsthegeneralquestionofhowthehumannormnetworkcognitively instantiatesanintuitiverequirement:thatcontextsreliablyactivatethe“right”bundleofnorms,notjustsomebundleofpreviouslyco-occurringnorms.Achievingthis reliabilityismadedifficultbythefactthatcontextsarelikelytoshowfluctuationin thespecificsetoffeaturesthatinstantiateacontextinanyparticularcase.A DC net-
workreliesoninferredcontextcategoriesbuiltrightintothecognitivesystem,which createsrobustinvarianceacrossfeaturefluctuations(becausethelearnednorm-tonorminterconnectionsmaintaintheidentityofcontextcategories).An IC network wouldbefarmoresensitivetofeaturefluctuations.Everytimeanewfeaturecombinationemerges,ittriggersaslightlydifferentsetofnorms.Soequivalenceclasses forwhatisthe“samecontext”wouldbedifficulttoform.Butbecausethe IC model doesnotrelyonabstractcontextrepresentationsandinsteadrespondstonatural, complexfeatureintercorrelations(thatmay,inreality,constitutetruecontexts),the reliabilityandinvarianceofthenormnetworkisadirectfunctionofthereliability andinvarianceoftheworlditself—themoretheworldfluctuates,themorean IC networkoffersfinelyadjustedsetsofactivatednorms.
1.4.6 InDictu NormActivation
Sofarwehaveanalyzednormactivationinsitu—thatis,inreal-worldsituationsthat offeraricharrayoffeatures,whichcanconstitutecontexts.Butnormactivation(and indeed,normlearning)oftenoccursindictu,whenonepersontellsanotherperson to(not)actinacertainway“inchurch”or“whenadultsarearound”or“when somebodyjustexperiencedaloss”.Whatwouldthe indirectly-connectedmodel say aboutsuchsituations?Wherearethespecificfeaturesthatwouldtriggerthespecific norms?Isthisnotacaseinwhichcontextsarelikelatentfactorsthatdirectlytrigger abundleofnormsthathavebecomeinterconnected?
Thissituationdoesnotactuallycauseaproblemforthe ICmodel.Aminimalist modelaboutnorminterconnectionsdoesnothavetobeminimalistaboutconceptfeatureandfeature-featureinterconnections.Itwouldbestrangetodeny,inlightof thesemanticnetworkandcategoryliterature,thatconceptssuchas“inchurch”could notactivatealargenumberoffeaturesthatthendirectlyactivatenorms.Theidea thatcontextcategoriesdirectlyactivatenormsisinfactlessplausiblebecausethe fuzzinessofcategoriessuchas“inchurch”(inthephysicalbuilding?inacathedral? duringmass?)doesn’teasilyselectforspecificbundlesofnorms.Theaddressee wouldhavetodisambiguatethevaguecategory(eitherintheirownmindorby askingquestions)andthereby“fix”therelevantfeatures,whichinturnwouldactivate relevantnorms.
1.4.7ContextandStructuredOrganization
Wehaveillustratedhowcontextinteractswiththehorizontalstructuralorganization ofnorms—theirdirectconnectionsorindirectco-activationpatterns.Contextcan alsoexertapowerfulinfluenceonnormactivationbymeansofvertical(hierarchical)structuresinthenormsystem.Whenplanningtogotoabusinessmeeting,for example,abstractnormssuchas“berespectful”mightbeactivatedmerelybythink-
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